Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

LIVE: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)
Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Fluids and Barriers of the CNS
Published in: Fluids and Barriers of the CNS 1/2016

Open Access 01-12-2015 | Review

Nonsurgical therapy for hydrocephalus: a comprehensive and critical review

Authors: Marc R. Del Bigio, Domenico L. Di Curzio

Published in: Fluids and Barriers of the CNS | Issue 1/2016

Login to get access

Abstract

Pharmacological interventions have been tested experimentally and clinically to prevent hydrocephalus and avoid the need for shunting beginning in the 1950s. Clinical trials of varied quality have not demonstrated lasting and convincing protective effects through manipulation of cerebrospinal fluid production, diuresis, blood clot fibrinolysis, or manipulation of fibrosis in the subarachnoid compartment, although there remains some promise in the latter areas. Acetazolamide bolus seems to be useful for predicting shunt response in adults with hydrocephalus. Neuroprotection in the situation of established hydrocephalus has been tested experimentally beginning more recently. Therapies designed to modify blood flow or pulsation, reduce inflammation, reduce oxidative damage, or protect neurons are so far of limited success; more experimental work is needed in these areas. As has been recommended for preclinical studies in stroke and brain trauma, stringent conditions should be met for preclinical studies in hydrocephalus.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Rekate HL. A contemporary definition and classification of hydrocephalus. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2009;16:9–15.PubMedCrossRef
2.
Rekate HL. A consensus on the classification of hydrocephalus: its utility in the assessment of abnormalities of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics. Childs Nerv Syst. 2011;27:1535–41.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
3.
Aschoff A, Kremer P, Hashemi B, Kunze S. The scientific history of hydrocephalus and its treatment. Neurosurg Rev. 1999;22:67–93.PubMedCrossRef
4.
Wu Y, Green NL, Wrensch MR, Zhao S, Gupta N. Ventriculoperitoneal shunt complications in California: 1990–2000. Neurosurgery. 2007;61:557–562, discussion 562–3.PubMedCrossRef
5.
Riva-Cambrin J, Kestle JR, Holubkov R, Butler J, Kulkarni AV, Drake J, Whitehead WE, Wellons JC 3rd, Shannon CN, Tamber MS, Limbrick DD, Jr., Rozzelle C, Browd SR, Simon TD: Risk factors for shunt malfunction in pediatric hydrocephalus: a multicenter prospective cohort study. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;1–9.
6.
Limbrick DD Jr, Baird LC, Klimo P Jr, Riva-Cambrin J, Flannery AM, Pediatric Hydrocephalus Systematic R, Evidence-Based Guidelines Task F. Pediatric hydrocephalus: systematic literature review and evidence-based guidelines. Part 4: Cerebrospinal fluid shunt or endoscopic third ventriculostomy for the treatment of hydrocephalus in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;14(Suppl 1):30–4.PubMedCrossRef
7.
Rasul FT, Marcus HJ, Toma AK, Thorne L, Watkins LD. Is endoscopic third ventriculostomy superior to shunts in patients with non-communicating hydrocephalus? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the evidence. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2013;155:883–9.CrossRef
8.
Tudor KI, Tudor M, McCleery J, Car J. Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;7:CD010033.PubMed
9.
Kazui H, Miyajima M, Mori E, Ishikawa M, Investigators S. Lumboperitoneal shunt surgery for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (SINPHONI-2): an open-label randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2015;14:585–94.PubMedCrossRef
10.
Del Bigio MR, Kanfer JN, Zhang YW. Myelination delay in the cerebral white matter of immature rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus is reversible. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1997;56:1053–66.PubMedCrossRef
11.
Fisher M, Feuerstein G, Howells DW, Hurn PD, Kent TA, Savitz SI, Lo EH. Update of the stroke therapy academic industry roundtable preclinical recommendations. Stroke. 2009;40:2244–50.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
12.
(STAIR) STAIR. Recommendations for standards regarding preclinical neuroprotective and restorative drug development. Stroke. 1999;30:2752–8.CrossRef
13.
Diaz-Arrastia R, Kochanek PM, Bergold P, Kenney K, Marx CE, Grimes CJ, Loh LT, Adam LT, Oskvig D, Curley KC, Salzer W. Pharmacotherapy of traumatic brain injury: state of the science and the road forward: report of the Department of Defense Neurotrauma Pharmacology Workgroup. J Neurotrauma. 2014;31:135–58.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
14.
Poca MA, Sahuquillo J. Short-term medical management of hydrocephalus. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2005;6:1525–38.PubMedCrossRef
15.
Spector R, Keep RF, Snodgrass SR, Smith QR, Johanson CE. A balanced view of choroid plexus structure and function: focus on adult humans. Exp Neurol. 2015;267:78–86.PubMedCrossRef
16.
17.
Damkier HH, Brown PD, Praetorius J. Cerebrospinal fluid secretion by the choroid plexus. Physiol Rev. 2013;93:1847–92.PubMedCrossRef
18.
19.
Bulat M, Klarica M. Recent insights into a new hydrodynamics of the cerebrospinal fluid. Brain Res Rev. 2011;65:99–112.PubMedCrossRef
20.
Jessen NA, Munk AS, Lundgaard I, Nedergaard M. The glymphatic system: a beginner’s guide. Neurochem Res. 2015;40:2583.PubMedCrossRef
21.
22.
23.
Carare RO, Hawkes CA, Weller RO. Afferent and efferent immunological pathways of the brain. Anatomy, function and failure. Brain Behav Immun. 2014;36:9–14.PubMedCrossRef
24.
Marriott WM. The use of theobromin sodio salicylate (diuretin) in the treatment of hydrocephalus. Am J Dis Child. 1924;28:479–83.
25.
Wise BL, Mathis JL, Wright JH. Experimental use of isosorbide: an oral osmotic agent to lower cerebrospinal pressure and reduce brain bulk. J Neurosurg. 1966;25:183–8.PubMedCrossRef
26.
Hayden PW, Foltz EL, Shurtleff DB. Effect of on oral osmotic agent on ventricular fluid pressure of hydrocephalic children. Pediatrics. 1968;41:955–67.PubMed
27.
Shurtleff DB, Hayden PW. The treatment of hydrocephalus with isosorbide, and oral hyperosmotic agent. J Clin Pharmacol New Drugs. 1972;12:108–14.PubMedCrossRef
28.
Shurtleff DB, Hayden PW, Weeks R, Laurence KM. Temporary treatment of hydrocephalus and myelodysplasia with isosorbide: preliminary report. J Pediatr. 1973;83:651–7.PubMedCrossRef
29.
Hayden PW, Shurtleff DB. The medical management of hydrocephalus. Dev Med Child Neurol Suppl. 1972;27:52–8.PubMed
30.
Lorber J. The use of isosorbide in the treatment of hydrocephalus. Dev Med Child Neurol Suppl. 1972;27:87–93.PubMed
31.
Lorber J. Isosorbide in the medical treatment of infantile hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 1973;39:702–11.PubMedCrossRef
32.
33.
Lorber J, Salfield S, Lonton T. Isosorbide in the management of infantile hydrocephalus. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1983;25:502–11.PubMedCrossRef
34.
Liptak GS, Gellerstedt ME, Klionsky N. Isosorbide in the medical management of hydrocephalus in children with myelodysplasia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1992;34:150–4.PubMedCrossRef
35.
Johnson V, Carlson AJ, Johnson A. Studies on the physiological action of glycerol on the animal organism. Am J Physiol. 1933;103:517–34.
36.
Cantore G, Guidetti B, Virno M. Oral glycerol for the reduction of intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg. 1964;21:278–83.PubMedCrossRef
37.
Hill A, Volpe JJ. Normal pressure hydrocephalus in the newborn. Pediatrics. 1981;68:623–9.PubMed
38.
Yamanaka R, Koga H, Yamamoto Y, Yamada S, Sano T, Fukushige T. Characteristics of patients with brain metastases from lung cancer in a palliative care center. Support Care Cancer. 2011;19:467–73.PubMedCrossRef
39.
Shimoda M, Oda S, Shibata M, Masuko A, Sato O. Change in regional cerebral blood flow following glycerol administration predicts. Clinical result from shunting in normal pressure hydrocephalus. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;129:171–6.CrossRef
40.
Mase M, Ueda Y, Nagai H. Effect of NIK-242 inj. (20 % erythritol) on intracranial pressure in dogs with acute obstructive hydrocephalus. No To Shinkei. 1990;42:79–85.PubMed
41.
Diringer MN, Edwards DF, Zazulia AR. Hydrocephalus: a previously unrecognized predictor of poor outcome from supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 1998;29:1352–7.PubMedCrossRef
42.
Tschirgi RD, Frost RW, Taylor JL. Inhibition of cerebrospinal fluid formation by a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, 2-acetylamino-1,3,4-thiadiazole-5-sulfonamide (diamox). Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1954;87:373–6.PubMedCrossRef
43.
Maren TH, Robinson B. The pharmacology of acetazolamide as related to cerebrospinal fluid and the treatment of hydrocephalus. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1960;106:1–24.PubMed
44.
Domer FR. Effects of diuretics on cerebrospinal fluid formation and potassium movement. Exp Neurol. 1969;24:54–64.PubMedCrossRef
45.
Swenson ER: Pharmacology of acute mountain sickness: old drugs and newer thinking. J Appl Physiol 2016;120:204–15.PubMedCrossRef
46.
Gao F, Liu F, Chen Z, Hua Y, Keep RF, Xi G. Hydrocephalus after intraventricular hemorrhage: the role of thrombin. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2014;34:489–94.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
47.
Gao F, Zheng M, Hua Y, Keep RF, Xi G. Acetazolamide attenuates thrombin-induced hydrocephalus. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2016;121:373–7.PubMed
48.
Kolecka M, Ondreka N, Moritz A, Kramer M, Schmidt MJ. Effect of acetazolamide and subsequent ventriculo-peritoneal shunting on clinical signs and ventricular volumes in dogs with internal hydrocephalus. Acta Vet Scand. 2015;57:49.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
49.
Elvidge AR, Branch CL, Thompson GB. Observations in a case of hydrocephalus treated with Diamox. J Neurosurg. 1957;14:628–38.PubMedCrossRef
50.
Ricci G, Copaitich T. Trial acetazolamide therapy of hydrocephalus in tuberculous meningitis. Clin Ter. 1959;16:20–32.PubMed
51.
Huttenlocher PR. Treatment of hydrocephalus with acetazolamide: results in 15 cases. J Pediatr. 1965;66:1023–30.PubMedCrossRef
52.
Birzis L, Carter CH, Maren TH. Effects of acetazolamide on CSF pressure and electrolytes in hydrocephalus. Neurology. 1958;8:522–8.PubMedCrossRef
53.
Mercuri E, Faundez JC, Cowan F, Dubowitz L. Acetazolamide without frusemide in the treatment of post-haemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Acta Paediatr. 1994;83:1319–21.PubMedCrossRef
54.
Miner ME. Acetazolamide treatment of progressive hydrocephalus secondary to intraventricular hemorrhage in a preterm infant. Childs Nerv Syst. 1986;2:105–6.PubMedCrossRef
55.
Nalin A, Gatti G: Effects of treatment with acetazolamide (Diamox) in cases of non tumourous hydrocephalus early diagnosed and controlled by encephalography. Acta Univ Carol Med Monogr. 1976:170–3.
56.
Cutler RW, Page L, Galicich J, Watters GV. Formation and absorption of cerebrospinal fluid in man. Brain. 1968;91:707–20.PubMedCrossRef
57.
Schain RJ. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors in chronic infantile hydrocephalus. Am J Dis Child. 1969;117:621–5.PubMed
58.
Mealey J Jr, Barker DT. Failure of oral acetazolamide to avert hydrocephalus in infants with myelomeningocele. J Pediatr. 1968;72:257–9.PubMedCrossRef
59.
Aimard G, Vighetto A, Gabet JY, Bret P, Henry E. Acetazolamide: an alternative to shunting in normal pressure hydrocephalus? Preliminary results. Rev Neurol (Paris). 1990;146:437–9.
60.
Miyake H, Ohta T, Kajimoto Y, Deguchi J. Diamox challenge test to decide indications for cerebrospinal fluid shunting in normal pressure hydrocephalus. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1999;141:1187–93.CrossRef
61.
Chang CC, Kuwana N, Ito S, Ikegami T. Impairment of cerebrovascular reactivity to acetazolamide in patients with normal pressure hydrocephalus. Nuclear Med Commun. 2000;21:139–41.CrossRef
62.
Chang CC, Asada H, Mimura T, Suzuki S. A prospective study of cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity to acetazolamide in 162 patients with idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 2009;111:610–7.PubMedCrossRef
63.
Yamada SM, Masahira N, Kawanishi Y, Fujimoto Y, Shimizu K. Preoperative acetazolamide SPECT is useful for predicting outcome of shunt operation in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus patients. Clin Nucl Med. 2013;38:671–6.PubMedCrossRef
64.
Alperin N, Oliu CJ, Bagci AM, Lee SH, Kovanlikaya I, Adams D, Katzen H, Ivkovic M, Heier L, Relkin N. Low-dose acetazolamide reverses periventricular white matter hyperintensities in iNPH. Neurology. 2014;82:1347–51.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
65.
Ivkovic M, Reiss-Zimmermann M, Katzen H, Preuss M, Kovanlikaya I, Heier L, Alperin N, Hoffmann KT, Relkin N. MRI assessment of the effects of acetazolamide and external lumbar drainage in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2015;12:9.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
66.
Supuran CT. Acetazolamide for the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Expert Rev Neurother. 2015;15:851–6.PubMed
67.
Piper RJ, Kalyvas AV, Young AM, Hughes MA, Jamjoom AA, Fouyas IP. Interventions for idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;8:CD003434.PubMed
68.
Miller TB, Wilkinson HA, Rosenfeld SA, Furuta T. Intracranial hypertension and cerebrospinal fluid production in dogs: effects of furosemide. Exp Neurol. 1986;94:66–80.PubMedCrossRef
69.
McCarthy KD, Reed DJ. The effect of acetazolamide and furosemide on cerebrospinal fluid production and choroid plexus carbonic anhydrase activity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1974;189:194–201.PubMed
70.
Lorenzo AV, Hornig G, Zavala LM, Boss V, Welch K. Furosemide lowers intracranial pressure by inhibiting CSF production. Z Kinderchir. 1986;41(Suppl 1):10–2.PubMed
71.
Vinas F, De Cabrera C, De Vinas MS. Tratamiento de la hidrocefalia con un derivado del acido sulfamoilantranilico. Comunicacion previa. Prensa Med Argent. 1967;54:496–9.PubMed
72.
Chaplin ER, Goldstein GW, Myerberg DZ, Hunt JV, Tooley WH. Posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in the preterm infant. Pediatrics. 1980;65:901–9.PubMed
73.
Shinnar S, Gammon K, Bergman EW Jr, Epstein M, Freeman JM. Management of hydrocephalus in infancy: use of acetazolamide and furosemide to avoid cerebrospinal fluid shunts. J Pediatr. 1985;107:31–7.PubMedCrossRef
74.
Libenson MH, Kaye EM, Rosman NP, Gilmore HE. Acetazolamide and furosemide for posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus of the newborn. Pediatr Neurol. 1999;20:185–91.PubMedCrossRef
75.
Pouplard F, Pineau P. Use of acetazolamide in external hydrocephalus in infants. Ann Pediatr (Paris). 1990;37:310–2.
76.
Kennedy CR, Ayers S, Campbell MJ, Elbourne D, Hope P, Johnson A. Randomized, controlled trial of acetazolamide and furosemide in posthemorrhagic ventricular dilation in infancy: follow-up at 1 year. Pediatrics. 2001;108:597–607.PubMedCrossRef
77.
International PHVD Drug Trial Group. International randomised controlled trial of acetazolamide and furosemide in posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilatation in infancy. Lancet. 1998;352:433–40.CrossRef
78.
Whitelaw A, Kennedy CR, Brion LP: Diuretic therapy for newborn infants with posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001:CD002270.
79.
Hack M, Cohen AR. Acetazolamide plus furosemide for periventricular dilatation: lessons for drug therapy in children. Lancet. 1998;352:418–9.PubMedCrossRef
80.
Neblett CR, Waltz TA Jr, McNeel DP, Harrison GM. Effect of cardiac glycosides on human cerebrospinal-fluid production. Lancet. 1972;2:1008–9.PubMedCrossRef
81.
Allonen H, Anderson KE, Iisalo E, Kanto J, Stromblad LG, Wettrell G. Passage of digoxin into cerebrospinal fluid in man. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh). 1977;41:193–202.CrossRef
82.
Bass NH, Fallstrom SP, Lundborg P. Digoxin-induced arrest of the cerebrospinal fluid circulation in the infant rat: implications for medical treatment of hydrocephalus during early postnatal life. Pediatr Res. 1979;13:26–30.PubMedCrossRef
83.
Penisson-Besnier I, Cesbron JG, L’Heveder G, Laine-Cessac P, Dubas F. Efficacy of triamterene in hydrocephalus in adults. Presse Med. 1993;22:224–5.PubMed
84.
Narita K, Sasamoto S, Koizumi S, Okazaki S, Nakamura H, Inoue T, Takeda S. TRPV4 regulates the integrity of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier and modulates transepithelial protein transport. FASEB J. 2015;29:2247–59.PubMedCrossRef
85.
Gattone V, Blazer-Yost B: Use of TRPV4 antagonists to ameliorate hydrocephalus and related materials and methods. WO 2014089013 A1. USA: Indiana University Research And Technology Corporation; 2014.
86.
Lindvall-Axelsson M, Hedner P, Owman C. Corticosteroid action on choroid plexus: reduction in Na+ –K+ –ATPase activity, choline transport capacity, and rate of CSF formation. Exp Brain Res. 1989;77:605–10.PubMedCrossRef
87.
Weiss MH, Nulsen FE. The effect of glucocorticoids on CSF flow in dogs. J Neurosurg. 1970;32:452–8.PubMedCrossRef
88.
Sato O. The effect of dexamethasone on cerebrospinal fluid production rate in the dog. No To Shinkei. 1967;19:485–92.PubMed
89.
Gomez-Sanchez CE, de Rodriguez AF, Romero DG, Estess J, Warden MP, Gomez-Sanchez MT, Gomez-Sanchez EP. Development of a panel of monoclonal antibodies against the mineralocorticoid receptor. Endocrinology. 2006;147:1343–8.PubMedCrossRef
90.
Fattal-Valevski A, Beni-Adani L, Constantini S. Short-term dexamethasone treatment for symptomatic slit ventricle syndrome. Childs Nerv Syst. 2005;21:981–4.PubMedCrossRef
91.
92.
Warf BC. Comparison of endoscopic third ventriculostomy alone and combined with choroid plexus cauterization in infants younger than 1 year of age: a prospective study in 550 African children. J Neurosurg. 2005;103:475–81.PubMed
93.
Weiss MH, Roessmann U. Radioactive tissue changes induced to control experimental hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 1972;36:266–9.PubMedCrossRef
94.
Weiss MH, Nulsen FE, Kaufman B. Selective radionecrosis of the choroid plexus for control of experimental hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 1972;36:270–5.PubMedCrossRef
95.
Rish BL, Meacham WF. Experimental study of the intraventricular instillation of radioactive gold. J Neurosurg. 1967;27:15–20.PubMedCrossRef
96.
Bardfeld PA, Shulman K. Rhenium-188 therapy of experimental hydrocephalus. Exp Neurol. 1976;50:777–85.PubMedCrossRef
97.
Bernstein GA, Fingerhut AG, Becker D. Pertechnetate in the treatment of hydrocephalus. J Nuc Med. 1969;10:322.
98.
Christensen J. Gonzalez Toledo EC: Radioisotope treatment of hydrocephalus. Preliminary report. Arch Fund Roux Ocefa. 1971;5:87–8.PubMed
99.
Surash S, Nemeth P, Chakrabarty A, Chumas P. The conjugation of an AQP1-directed immunotoxin in the study of site-directed therapy within the CNS. Childs Nerv Syst. 2011;27:811–8.PubMedCrossRef
100.
Timothy J, Chumas P, Chakrabarty A, Drake JM, Morrison E. Destruction of choroid plexus cells in vitro: a new concept for the treatment of hydrocephalus? Neurosurgery. 2004;54:727–32.PubMedCrossRef
101.
Halperin JJ, Kurlan R, Schwalb JM, Cusimano MD, Gronseth G, Gloss D. Practice guideline: idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: response to shunting and predictors of response: report of the guideline development, dissemination, and implementation subcommittee of the American academy of neurology. Neurology. 2015;85:2063–71.PubMedCrossRef
102.
Strahle J, Garton HJ, Maher CO, Muraszko KM, Keep RF, Xi G. Mechanisms of hydrocephalus after neonatal and adult intraventricular hemorrhage. Transl Stroke Res. 2012;3:25–38.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
103.
Berman PH, Banker BQ. Neonatal meningitis. A clinical and pathological study of 29 cases. Pediatrics. 1966;38:6–24.PubMed
104.
Cherian S, Whitelaw A, Thoresen M, Love S. The pathogenesis of neonatal post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Brain Pathol. 2004;14:305–11.PubMedCrossRef
105.
Massicotte EM, Del Bigio MR. Human arachnoid villi response to subarachnoid hemorrhage: possible relationship to chronic hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 1999;91:80–4.PubMedCrossRef
106.
Sajant J, Heikkinen E, Majamaa K. Rapid induction of meningeal collagen synthesis in the cerebral cisternal and ventricular compartments after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2001;143:821–6.CrossRef
107.
Pepper MS. Role of the matrix metalloproteinase and plasminogen activator-plasmin systems in angiogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:1104–17.PubMedCrossRef
108.
Keramati M, Mianroodi RA, Memarnejadian A, Mirzaie A, Sazvari S, Aslani MM, Roohvand F. Towards a superior streptokinase for fibrinolytic therapy of vascular thrombosis. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem. 2013;11:218–29.PubMedCrossRef
109.
Gurman P, Miranda OR, Nathan A, Washington C, Rosen Y, Elman NM. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activators (rtPA): a review. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2015;97:274–85.PubMedCrossRef
110.
Lemarchant S, Docagne F, Emery E, Vivien D, Ali C, Rubio M. tPA in the injured central nervous system: different scenarios starring the same actor? Neuropharmacology. 2012;62:749–56.PubMedCrossRef
111.
Julow J. Prevention of subarachnoid fibrosis after subarachnoid haemorrhage with urokinase. Scanning electron microscopic study in the dog. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1979;51:51–63.
112.
Julow J, Ishii M, Iwabuchi T. Scanning electron microscopy of the subarachnoid macrophages after subarachnoid haemorrhage, and their possible role in the formation of subarachnoid fibrosis. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1979;50:273–80.CrossRef
113.
Pang D, Sclabassi RJ, Horton JA. Lysis of intraventricular blood clot with urokinase in a canine model: Part 3. Effects of intraventricular urokinase on clot lysis and posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 1986;19:553–72.PubMedCrossRef
114.
Brinker T, Seifert V, Dietz H. Subacute hydrocephalus after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage: its prevention by intrathecal fibrinolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. Neurosurgery. 1992;31:306–11.PubMedCrossRef
115.
Mayfrank L, Kissler J, Raoofi R, Delsing P, Weis J, Kuker W, Gilsbach JM. Ventricular dilatation in experimental intraventricular hemorrhage in pigs. Characterization of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics and the effects of fibrinolytic treatment. Stroke. 1997;28:141–8.PubMedCrossRef
116.
Mayfrank L, Kim Y, Kissler J, Delsing P, Gilsbach JM, Schroder JM, Weis J. Morphological changes following experimental intraventricular haemorrhage and intraventricular fibrinolytic treatment with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. Acta Neuropathol. 2000;100:561–7.PubMedCrossRef
117.
Gaberel T, Montagne A, Lesept F, Gauberti M, Lemarchand E, Orset C, Goulay R, Bertrand T, Emery E, Vivien D. Urokinase versus Alteplase for intraventricular hemorrhage fibrinolysis. Neuropharmacology. 2014;85:158–65.PubMedCrossRef
118.
Hudgins RJ, Boydston WR, Hudgins PA, Adler SR. Treatment of intraventricular hemorrhage in the premature infant with urokinase. A preliminary report. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1994;20:190–7.PubMedCrossRef
119.
Hudgins RJ, Boydston WR, Hudgins PA, Morris R, Adler SM, Gilreath CL. Intrathecal urokinase as a treatment for intraventricular hemorrhage in the preterm infant. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1997;26:281–7.PubMedCrossRef
120.
Hansen AR, Volpe JJ, Goumnerova LC, Madsen JR. Intraventricular urokinase for the treatment of posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Pediatr Neurol. 1997;17:213–7.PubMedCrossRef
121.
Whitelaw A, Mowinckel MC, Abildgaard U. Low levels of plasminogen in cerebrospinal fluid after intraventricular haemorrhage: a limiting factor for clot lysis? Acta Paediatr. 1995;84:933–6.PubMedCrossRef
122.
Whitelaw A, Saliba E, Fellman V, Mowinckel MC, Acolet D, Marlow N. Phase I study of intraventricular recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for treatment of posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1996;75:F20–6.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
123.
Whitelaw A, Pople I, Cherian S, Evans D, Thoresen M. Phase 1 trial of prevention of hydrocephalus after intraventricular hemorrhage in newborn infants by drainage, irrigation, and fibrinolytic therapy. Pediatrics. 2003;111:759–65.PubMedCrossRef
124.
Whitelaw A, Evans D, Carter M, Thoresen M, Wroblewska J, Mandera M, Swietlinski J, Simpson J, Hajivassiliou C, Hunt LP, Pople I. Randomized clinical trial of prevention of hydrocephalus after intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants: brain-washing versus tapping fluid. Pediatrics. 2007;119:e1071.PubMedCrossRef
125.
Whitelaw A, Jary S, Kmita G, Wroblewska J, Musialik-Swietlinska E, Mandera M, Hunt L, Carter M, Pople I. Randomized trial of drainage, irrigation and fibrinolytic therapy for premature infants with posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation: developmental outcome at 2 years. Pediatrics. 2010;125:e852–8.PubMedCrossRef
126.
Jary S, De Carli A, Ramenghi LA, Whitelaw A. Impaired brain growth and neurodevelopment in preterm infants with posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilatation. Acta Paediatr. 2012;101:743–8.PubMedCrossRef
127.
Whitelaw A, Rivers RP, Creighton L, Gaffney P. Low dose intraventricular fibrinolytic treatment to prevent posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Arch Dis Child. 1992;67:12–4.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
128.
Luciano R, Velardi F, Romagnoli C, Papacci P, De Stefano V, Tortorolo G. Failure of fibrinolytic endoventricular treatment to prevent neonatal post-haemorrhagic hydrocephalus. A case-control trial. Childs Nerv Syst. 1997;13:73–6.PubMedCrossRef
129.
Yapicioglu H, Narli N, Satar M, Soyupak S, Altunbasak S. Intraventricular streptokinase for the treatment of posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus of preterm. J Clin Neurosci. 2003;10:297–9.PubMedCrossRef
130.
Haines SJ, Lapointe M. Fibrinolytic agents in the management of posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in preterm infants: the evidence. Childs Nerv Syst. 1999;15:226–34.PubMedCrossRef
131.
Whitelaw A, Odd D. Intraventricular streptokinase after intraventricular hemorrhage in newborn infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;4:CD000498.PubMed
132.
Todo T, Usui M, Takakura K. Treatment of severe intraventricular hemorrhage by intraventricular infusion of urokinase. J Neurosurg. 1991;74:81–6.PubMedCrossRef
133.
Tung MYY, Ong PL, Seow WT, Tan KK. A study on the efficacy of intraventricular urokinase in the treatment of intraventricular haemorrhage. Br J Neurosurg. 1998;12:234–9.PubMedCrossRef
134.
Torres A, Plans G, Martino J, Godino O, Garcia I, Gracia B, Acebes JJ. Fibrinolytic therapy in spontaneous intraventricular haemorrhage: efficacy and safety of the treatment. Br J Neurosurg. 2008;22:269–74.PubMedCrossRef
135.
Wang B, Huang Q, Liu H, Yang H: Intrathecal injection of urokinase: a promising therapeutic method for acute hydrocephalus? Med Hypotheses. 2009;74:955.PubMedCrossRef
136.
Mayfrank L, Lippitz B, Groth M, Bertalanffy H, Gilsbach JM. Effect of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator on clot lysis and ventricular dilatation in the treatment of severe intraventricular haemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1993;122:32–8.CrossRef
137.
Staykov D, Huttner HB, Struffert T, Ganslandt O, Doerfler A, Schwab S, Bardutzky J. Intraventricular fibrinolysis and lumbar drainage for ventricular hemorrhage. Stroke. 2009;40:3275–80.PubMedCrossRef
138.
Staykov D, Huttner HB, Lunkenheimer J, Volbers B, Struffert T, Doerfler A, Ganslandt O, Juettler E, Schwab S, Bardutzky J. Single versus bilateral external ventricular drainage for intraventricular fibrinolysis in severe ventricular haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010;81:105–8.PubMedCrossRef
139.
Staykov D, Wagner I, Volbers B, Huttner HB, Doerfler A, Schwab S, Bardutzky J. Dose effect of intraventricular fibrinolysis in ventricular hemorrhage. Stroke. 2011;42:2061–4.PubMedCrossRef
140.
Ramakrishna R, Sekhar LN, Ramanathan D, Temkin N, Hallam D, Ghodke BV, Kim LJ. Intraventricular tissue plasminogen activator for the prevention of vasospasm and hydrocephalus after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery. 2010;67:110–7.PubMedCrossRef
141.
Ziai WC, Tuhrim S, Lane K, McBee N, Lees K, Dawson J, Butcher K, Vespa P, Wright DW, Keyl PM, Mendelow AD, Kase C, Wijman C, Lapointe M, John S, Thompson R, Thompson C, Mayo S, Reilly P, Janis S, Awad I, Hanley DF, Investigators CI. A multicenter, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled phase III study of Clot Lysis Evaluation of Accelerated Resolution of Intraventricular Hemorrhage (Clear III). Int J Stroke. 2014;9:536–42.PubMedCrossRef
142.
Dey M, Stadnik A, Riad F, Zhang L, McBee N, Kase C, Carhuapoma JR, Ram M, Lane K, Ostapkovich N, Aldrich F, Aldrich C, Jallo J, Butcher K, Snider R, Hanley D, Ziai W, Awad IA, Investigators CIT. Bleeding and infection with external ventricular drainage: a systematic review in comparison with adjudicated adverse events in the ongoing Clot Lysis Evaluating Accelerated Resolution of Intraventricular Hemorrhage Phase III (CLEAR-III IHV) trial. Neurosurgery. 2015;76:291–300 (discussion 301).PubMedCrossRef
143.
Whitelaw A, Aquilina K. Management of posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilatation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2012;97:F229–3.PubMedCrossRef
144.
Shooman D, Portess H, Sparrow O. A review of the current treatment methods for posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus of infants. Cerebrospinal Fluid Res. 2009;6:1.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
145.
Mazzola CA, Choudhri AF, Auguste KI, Limbrick DD Jr, Rogido M, Mitchell L, Flannery AM. Pediatric hydrocephalus: systematic literature review and evidence-based guidelines Part 2 Management of posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in premature infants. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;14(Suppl 1):8–23.PubMedCrossRef
146.
Shi L, Xu L, Shi L, Brandon D, Chen S, Zhang J: Intraventricular recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in treatment of aneurysmal intraventricular hemorrhage: a meta-analysis. Curr Drug Targets 2015 [Epub ahead of print].
147.
Gerner ST, Kuramatsu JB, Abel H, Kloska SP, Lucking H, Eyupoglu IY, Doerfler A, Schwab S, Huttner HB. Intraventricular fibrinolysis has no effects on shunt dependency and functional outcome in endovascular-treated aneurysmal SAH. Neurocrit Care. 2014;21:435–43.PubMedCrossRef
148.
Kramer AH, Jenne CN, Zygun DA, Roberts DJ, Hill MD, Holodinsky JK, Todd S, Kubes P, Wong JH. Intraventricular fibrinolysis with tissue plasminogen activator is associated with transient cerebrospinal fluid inflammation: a randomized controlled trial. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2015;35:1241–8.PubMedCrossRef
149.
Scheld WM, Dacey RG, Winn HR, Welsh JE, Jane JA, Sande MA. Cerebrospinal fluid outflow resistance in rabbits with experimental meningitis. Alterations with penicillin and methylprednisolone. J Clin Invest. 1980;66:243–53.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
150.
Wilkinson HA, Wilson RB, Patel PP, Esmaili M. Corticosteroid therapy of experimental hydrocephalus after intraventricular-subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1974;37:224–9.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
151.
Julow J. The influence of dexamethasone on subarachnoid fibrosis after subarachnoid haemorrhage Scanning electron microscopic study in the dog. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1979;51:43–51.CrossRef
152.
Brouwer MC, McIntyre P, Prasad K, van de Beek D. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;9:CD004405.PubMed
153.
Sporrborn JL, Knudsen GB, Solling M, Seieroe K, Farre A, Lindhardt BO, Benfield T, Brandt CT. Brain ventricular dimensions and relationship to outcome in adult patients with bacterial meningitis. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:367.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
154.
Critchley JA, Young F, Orton L, Garner P. Corticosteroids for prevention of mortality in people with tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:223–37.PubMedCrossRef
155.
Prasad K, Singh MB: Corticosteroids for managing tuberculous meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008:CD002244.
156.
Schoeman JF, Van Zyl LE, Laubscher JA, Donald PR. Effect of corticosteroids on intracranial pressure, computed tomographic findings, and clinical outcome in young children with tuberculous meningitis. Pediatrics. 1997;99:226–31.PubMedCrossRef
157.
Shah I, Meshram L. High dose versus low dose steroids in children with tuberculous meningitis. J Clin Neurosci. 2014;21:761–4.PubMedCrossRef
158.
Rigante D, Ansuini V, Caldarelli M, Bertoni B, La Torraca I, Stabile A. Hydrocephalus in CINCA syndrome treated with anakinra. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:334.PubMedCrossRef
159.
Kitazawa K, Tada T. Elevation of transforming growth factor-beta 1 level in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with communicating hydrocephalus after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke. 1994;25:1400–4.PubMedCrossRef
160.
Douglas MR, Daniel M, Lagord C, Akinwunmi J, Jackowski A, Cooper C, Berry M, Logan A. High CSF transforming growth factor beta levels after subarachnoid haemorrhage: association with chronic communicating hydrocephalus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009;80:545–50.PubMedCrossRef
161.
Whitelaw A, Christie S, Pople I. Transforming growth factor-beta1: a possible signal molecule for posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus? Pediatr Res. 1999;46:576–80.PubMedCrossRef
162.
Heep A, Stoffel-Wagner B, Bartmann P, Benseler S, Schaller C, Groneck P, Obladen M, Felderhoff-Mueser U. Vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor-beta1 are highly expressed in the cerebrospinal fluid of premature infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Pediatr Res. 2004;56:768–74.PubMedCrossRef
163.
Kaestner S, Dimitriou I. TGF beta1 and TGF beta2 and their role in posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus following SAH and IVH. J Neurol Surg A Cent Eur Neurosurg. 2013;74:279–84.PubMedCrossRef
164.
Cherian S, Thoresen M, Silver IA, Whitelaw A, Love S. Transforming growth factor-betas in a rat model of neonatal posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2004;30:585–600.PubMedCrossRef
165.
Kanaji M, Tada T, Kobayashi S. A murine model of communicating hydrocephalus: role of TGF-beta1. J Clin Neurosci. 1997;4:51–6.PubMedCrossRef
166.
Tada T, Kanaji M, Kobayashi S. Induction of communicating hydrocephalus in mice by intrathecal injection of human recombinant transforming growth factor-beta 1. J Neuroimmunol. 1994;50:153–8.PubMedCrossRef
167.
Nitta J, Tada T. Ultramicroscopic structures of the leptomeninx of mice with communicating hydrocephalus induced by human recombinant transforming growth factor-beta 1. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1998;38:819–24.CrossRef
168.
Tada T, Zhan H, Tanaka Y, Hongo K, Matsumoto K, Nakamura T. Intraventricular administration of hepatocyte growth factor treats mouse communicating hydrocephalus induced by transforming growth factor beta1. Neurobiol Dis. 2006;21:576–86.PubMedCrossRef
169.
Galbreath E, Kim SJ, Park K, Brenner M, Messing A. Overexpression of TGF-beta 1 in the central nervous system of transgenic mice results in hydrocephalus. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1995;54:339–49.PubMedCrossRef
170.
Wyss-Coray T, Feng L, Masliah E, Ruppe MD, Lee HS, Toggas SM, Rockenstein EM, Mucke L. Increased central nervous system production of extracellular matrix components and development of hydrocephalus in transgenic mice overexpressing transforming growth factor-beta 1. Am J Pathol. 1995;147:53–67.PubMedCentralPubMed
171.
Moinuddin SM, Tada T. Study of cerebrospinal fluid flow dynamics in TGF-beta 1 induced chronic hydrocephalic mice. Neurol Res. 2000;22:215–22.PubMed
172.
Hayashi N, Leifer DW, Cohen AR. Chronologic changes of cerebral ventricular size in a transgenic model of hydrocephalus. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2000;33:182–7.PubMedCrossRef
173.
Cohen AR, Leifer DW, Zechel M, Flaningan DP, Lewin JS, Lust WD. Characterization of a model of hydrocephalus in transgenic mice. J Neurosurg. 1999;91:978–88.PubMedCrossRef
174.
Aquilina K, Hobbs C, Tucker A, Whitelaw A, Thoresen M. Do drugs that block transforming growth factor beta reduce posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilatation in a neonatal rat model? Acta Paediatr 2008;97:1181–6.PubMedCrossRef
175.
Li T, Zhang P, Yuan B, Zhao D, Chen Y, Zhang X. Thrombin-induced TGF-beta1 pathway: a cause of communicating hydrocephalus post subarachnoid hemorrhage. Int J Mol Med. 2013;31:660–6.PubMed
176.
Botfield H, Gonzalez AM, Abdullah O, Skjolding AD, Berry M, McAllister JP 2nd, Logan A. Decorin prevents the development of juvenile communicating hydrocephalus. Brain. 2013;136:2842–58.PubMedCrossRef
177.
Yan H, Chen Y, Li L, Jiang J, Wu G, Zuo Y, Zhang JH, Feng H, Yan X, Liu F. Decorin alleviated chronic hydrocephalus via inhibiting TGF-beta1/Smad/CTGF pathway after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. Brain Res. 2016;1630:241–53.PubMedCrossRef
178.
Piersma B, Bank RA, Boersema M. Signaling in fibrosis: tGF-beta, WNT, and YAP/TAZ converge. Front Med. 2015;2:59.CrossRef
179.
Xu H, Xu B, Wang Z, Tan G, Shen S. Inhibition of Wnt/beta-catenin signal is alleviated reactive gliosis in rats with hydrocephalus. Childs Nerv Syst. 2015;31:227.PubMedCrossRef
180.
Hatta J, Hatta T, Moritake K, Otani H. Heavy water inhibiting the expression of transforming growth factor-beta1 and the development of kaolin-induced hydrocephalus in mice. J Neurosurg. 2006;104:251–8.PubMed
181.
Manaenko A, Lekic T, Barnhart M, Hartman R, Zhang JH. Inhibition of transforming growth factor-beta attenuates brain injury and neurological deficits in a rat model of germinal matrix hemorrhage. Stroke. 2014;45:828–34.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
182.
Darwish SF, El-Bakly WM, El-Naga RN, Awad AS, El-Demerdash E. Antifibrotic mechanism of deferoxamine in concanavalin A induced-liver fibrosis: impact on interferon therapy. Biochem Pharmacol. 2015;98:231–42.PubMedCrossRef
183.
Belur PK, Chang JJ, He S, Emanuel BA, Mack WJ. Emerging experimental therapies for intracerebral hemorrhage: targeting mechanisms of secondary brain injury. Neurosurg Focus. 2013;34:E9.PubMedCrossRef
184.
Zhao J, Chen Z, Xi G, Keep RF, Hua Y. Deferoxamine attenuates acute hydrocephalus after traumatic brain injury in rats. Transl Stroke Res. 2014;5:586–94.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
185.
Meng H, Li F, Hu R, Yuan Y, Gong G, Hu S, Feng H. Deferoxamine alleviates chronic hydrocephalus after intraventricular hemorrhage through iron chelation and Wnt1/Wnt3a inhibition. Brain Res. 2015;1602:44–52.PubMedCrossRef
186.
Chen Q, Tang J, Tan L, Guo J, Tao Y, Li L, Chen Y, Liu X, Zhang JH, Chen Z, Feng H. Intracerebral hematoma contributes to hydrocephalus after intraventricular hemorrhage via aggravating iron accumulation. Stroke. 2015;46:2902.PubMedCrossRef
187.
Aya KL, Stern R. Hyaluronan in wound healing: rediscovering a major player. Wound Repair Regen. 2014;22:579–93.PubMedCrossRef
188.
Sonnemann KJ, Bement WM. Wound repair: toward understanding and integration of single-cell and multicellular wound responses. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2011;27:237–63.PubMedCrossRef
189.
Vinukonda G, Zia MT, Bhimavarapu BB, Hu F, Feinberg M, Bokhari A, Ungvari Z, Fried VA, Ballabh P. Intraventricular hemorrhage induces deposition of proteoglycans in premature rabbits, but their in vivo degradation with chondroitinase does not restore myelination, ventricle size and neurological recovery. Exp Neurol. 2013;247:630–44.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
190.
Gourie-Devi M, Satish P. Hyaluronidase as an adjuvant in the treatment of cranial arachnoiditis (hydrocephalus and optochiasmatic arachnoiditis) complicating tuberculous meningitis. Acta Neurol Scand. 1980;62:368–81.PubMedCrossRef
191.
Bhagwati SN, George K. Use of intrathecal hyaluronidase in the management of tuberculous meningitis with hydrocephalus. Childs Nerv Syst. 1986;2:20–5.PubMedCrossRef
192.
Gegalian L. Use of hyaluronidase in the central nervous system. Surg Neurol. 1979;12:3–5.PubMed
193.
Schoeman J, Donald P, van Zyl L, Keet M, Wait J. Tuberculous hydrocephalus: comparison of different treatments with regard to ICP, ventricular size and clinical outcome. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33:396–405.PubMedCrossRef
194.
Garg RK, Paliwal V, Malhotra HS. Tuberculous optochiasmatic arachnoiditis: a devastating form of tuberculous meningitis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2011;9:719–29.PubMedCrossRef
195.
Zhang S, Chen D, Huang C, Bao J, Wang Z. Expression of HGF, MMP-9 and TGF-beta1 in the CSF and cerebral tissue of adult rats with hydrocephalus. Int J Neurosci. 2013;123:392–9.PubMedCrossRef
196.
Zechel J, Gohil H, Lust WD, Cohen A. Alterations in matrix metalloproteinase-9 levels and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1 expression in a transforming growth factor-beta transgenic model of hydrocephalus. J Neurosci Res. 2002;69:662–8.PubMedCrossRef
197.
Okamoto T, Takahashi S, Nakamura E, Nagaya K, Hayashi T, Shirai M, Fujieda K. Increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and hepatocyte growth factor in the cerebrospinal fluid of infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Early Hum Dev. 2010;86:251–4.PubMedCrossRef
198.
Okamoto T, Takahashi S, Nakamura E, Nagaya K, Hayashi T, Shirai M, Fujieda K. Matrix metalloproteinases in infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Early Hum Dev. 2008;84:137–9.PubMedCrossRef
199.
Yeom KW, Lober RM, Alexander A, Cheshier SH, Edwards MS. Hydrocephalus decreases arterial spin-labeled cerebral perfusion. Am J Neuroradiol. 2014;35:1433–9.PubMedCrossRef
200.
Owler BK, Pickard JD. Normal pressure hydrocephalus and cerebral blood flow: a review. Acta Neurol Scand. 2001;104:325–42.PubMedCrossRef
201.
Del Bigio MR. Neuropathology and structural changes in hydrocephalus. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2010;16:16–22.PubMedCrossRef
202.
Del Bigio MR. Morphology of astroglial swelling in culture and in the edematous brain: an adaptive response to a disturbed microenvironment. In: Fedoroff S, Juurlink BHJ, Doucette R, editors. Biology and pathology of astrocyte-neuron interactions. New York: Plenum Press; 1993. p. 347–58.CrossRef
203.
Krauss JK, Regel JP, Vach W, Droste DW, Borremans JJ, Mergner T. Vascular risk factors and arteriosclerotic disease in idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus of the elderly. Stroke. 1996;27:24–9.PubMedCrossRef
204.
Boon AJ, Tans JT, Delwel EJ, Egeler-Peerdeman SM, Hanlo PW, Wurzer HA, Hermans J. Dutch Normal-Pressure Hydrocephalus Study: the role of cerebrovascular disease. J Neurosurg. 1999;90:221–6.PubMedCrossRef
205.
Wagshul ME, Eide PK, Madsen JR. The pulsating brain: a review of experimental and clinical studies of intracranial pulsatility. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2011;8:5.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
206.
Park EH, Dombrowski S, Luciano M, Zurakowski D, Madsen JR. Alterations of pulsation absorber characteristics in experimental hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;6:159–70.PubMedCrossRef
207.
Fuller CK. Some observations on chronic hydrocephalus with report of a case apparently arrested. Can Med Assoc J. 1927;17:675–7.PubMedCentralPubMed
208.
Del Bigio MR. Calcium-mediated proteolytic damage in white matter of hydrocephalic rats? J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2000;59:946–54.PubMedCrossRef
209.
Del Bigio MR, Massicotte EM. Protective effect of nimodipine on behavior and white matter of rats with hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 2001;94:788–94.PubMedCrossRef
210.
Khan OH, Enno T, Del Bigio MR. Magnesium sulfate therapy is of mild benefit to young rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Pediatr Res. 2003;53:970–6.PubMedCrossRef
211.
Khan OH, McPhee LC, Moddemann LN, Del Bigio MR. Calcium antagonism in neonatal rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. J Child Neurol. 2007;22:1161–6.PubMedCrossRef
212.
Di Curzio DL, Buist RJ, Del Bigio MR. Reduced subventricular zone proliferation and white matter damage in juvenile ferrets with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Exp Neurol. 2013;248:112–28.PubMedCrossRef
213.
Nieto Barrera M, Candau Fernandez Mensaque R, Rufo Campos M, Rodriguez Criado G, Barrionuevo Gallo B. El tratamiento de la hidrocefalia infantil con dinitrato de isosorbide [Treatment of infantile hydrocephalus with isosorbide dinitrate]. An Esp Pediatr. 1977;10:843–56.PubMed
214.
Schmidt JF, Albeck M, Gjerris F. The effect of nimodipine on ICP and CBF in patients with normal-pressure hydrocephalus. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1990;102:11–3.CrossRef
215.
Olsen KS, Albeck M, Agerlin N, Schmidt JF. The effect of ketanserin on ICP and CBF in patients with normal-pressure hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 1996;8:216–9.PubMedCrossRef
216.
Greitz D, Greitz T, Hindmarsh T. A new view on the CSF-circulation with the potential for pharmacological treatment of childhood hydrocephalus. Acta Paediatr. 1997;86:125–32.PubMedCrossRef
217.
Nilsson F, Nilsson T, Edvinsson L, Bjorkman S, Nordstrom CH. Effects of dihydroergotamine and sumatriptan on isolated human cerebral and peripheral arteries and veins. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;41:1257–62.PubMedCrossRef
218.
Andersen AR, Tfelt-Hansen P, Lassen NA. The effect of ergotamine and dihydroergotamine on cerebral blood flow in man. Stroke. 1987;18:120–3.PubMedCrossRef
219.
Asgeirsson B, Grande PO, Nordstrom CH, Messeter K, Sjoholm H. Cerebral haemodynamic effects of dihydroergotamine in patients with severe traumatic brain lesions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39:922–30.PubMedCrossRef
220.
Bundgaard H, von Oettingen G, Jorgensen HA, Jensen K, Cold GE. Effects of dihydroergotamine on intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow, and cerebral metabolism in patients undergoing craniotomy for brain tumors. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2001;13:195–201.PubMedCrossRef
221.
Licht T, Keshet E. Delineating multiple functions of VEGF-A in the adult brain. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2013;70:1727–37.PubMedCrossRef
222.
Wittko-Schneider IM, Schneider FT, Plate KH. Brain homeostasis: VEGF receptor 1 and 2-two unequal brothers in mind. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2013;70:1705–25.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
223.
Yang J, Dombrowski SM, Deshpande A, Krajcir N, Luciano MG. VEGF/VEGFR-2 changes in frontal cortex, choroid plexus, and CSF after chronic obstructive hydrocephalus. J Neurol Sci. 2010;296:39–46.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
224.
Deshpande A, Dombrowski SM, Leichliter A, Krajcir N, Zingales N, Inoue M, Schenk S, Fukamachi K, Luciano MG. Dissociation between vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 and blood vessel density in the caudate nucleus after chronic hydrocephalus. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2009;29:1806–15.PubMedCrossRef
225.
Del Bigio MR, Wilson MJ, Enno T. Chronic hydrocephalus in rats and humans: white matter loss and behavior changes. Ann Neurol. 2003;53:337–46.PubMedCrossRef
226.
Dombrowski SM, Deshpande A, Dingwall C, Leichliter A, Leibson Z, Luciano MG. Chronic hydrocephalus-induced hypoxia: increased expression of VEGFR-2+ and blood vessel density in hippocampus. Neuroscience. 2008;152:346–59.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
227.
Yang J, Shanahan KJ, Shriver LP, Luciano MG: Exercise-induced changes of cerebrospinal fluid vascular endothelial growth factor in adult chronic hydrocephalus patients. J Clin Neurosci. 2015, in press.
228.
Shim JW, Sandlund J, Han CH, Hameed MQ, Connors S, Klagsbrun M, Madsen JR, Irwin N. VEGF, which is elevated in the CSF of patients with hydrocephalus, causes ventriculomegaly and ependymal changes in rats. Exp Neurol. 2013;247:703–9.PubMedCrossRef
229.
Shim JW, Sandlund J, Madsen JR. VEGF: a potential target for hydrocephalus. Cell Tissue Res. 2014;358:667–83.PubMedCrossRef
230.
Del Bigio MR. Neuropathological changes caused by hydrocephalus. Acta Neuropathol (Berl). 1993;85:573–85.CrossRef
231.
Wu Q, Chen W, Sinha B, Tu Y, Manning S, Thomas N, Zhou S, Jiang H, Ma H, Kroessler DA, Yao J, Li Z, Inder TE, Wang X. Neuroprotective agents for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Drug Discov Today. 2015;20:1372.PubMedCrossRef
232.
Deren KE, Packer M, Forsyth J, Milash B, Abdullah OM, Hsu EW, McAllister JP 2nd. Reactive astrocytosis, microgliosis and inflammation in rats with neonatal hydrocephalus. Exp Neurol. 2010;226:110–9.PubMedCrossRef
233.
Ulfig N, Bohl J, Neudorfer F, Rezaie P. Brain macrophages and microglia in human fetal hydrocephalus. Brain Dev. 2004;26:307–15.PubMedCrossRef
234.
Marin-Teva JL, Cuadros MA, Martin-Oliva D, Navascues J. Microglia and neuronal cell death. Neuron Glia Biol. 2011;7:25–40.PubMedCrossRef
235.
236.
Fernandes A, Miller-Fleming L, Pais TF. Microglia and inflammation: conspiracy, controversy or control? Cell Mol Life Sci. 2014;71:3969–85.PubMedCrossRef
237.
Li C, Yuan K, Schluesener H. Impact of minocycline on neurodegenerative diseases in rodents: a meta-analysis. Rev Neurosci. 2013;24:553–62.PubMedCrossRef
238.
Kohler E, Prentice DA, Bates TR, Hankey GJ, Claxton A, van Heerden J, Blacker D. Intravenous minocycline in acute stroke: a randomized, controlled pilot study and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2013;44:2493–9.PubMedCrossRef
239.
McAllister JP 2nd, Miller JM. Minocycline inhibits glial proliferation in the H-Tx rat model of congenital hydrocephalus. Cerebrospinal Fluid Res. 2010;7:7.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
240.
Xu H, Tan G, Zhang S, Zhu H, Liu F, Huang C, Zhang F, Wang Z. Minocycline reduces reactive gliosis in the rat model of hydrocephalus. BMC Neurosci. 2012;13:148.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
241.
Guo J, Chen Q, Tang J, Zhang J, Tao Y, Li L, Zhu G, Feng H, Chen Z. Minocycline-induced attenuation of iron overload and brain injury after experimental germinal matrix hemorrhage. Brain Res. 2015;1594:115–24.PubMedCrossRef
242.
Sanchez AR, Rogers RS 3rd, Sheridan PJ. Tetracycline and other tetracycline-derivative staining of the teeth and oral cavity. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43:709–15.PubMedCrossRef
243.
Lacombe P, Mathews PM, Schmidt SD, Breidert T, Heneka MT, Landreth GE, Feinstein DL, Galea E. Effect of anti-inflammatory agents on transforming growth factor beta over-expressing mouse brains: a model revised. J Neuroinflammation. 2004;1:11.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
244.
Kurt G, Cemil B, Borcek AO, Borcek P, Akyurek N, Sepici A, Ceviker N. Infliximab administration reduces neuronal apoptosis on the optic pathways in a rabbit hydrocephalus model: a preliminary report. Br J Neurosurg. 2010;24:275–9.PubMedCrossRef
245.
Del Bigio MR, Khan OH, da Silva Lopes L, Juliet PA. Cerebral white matter oxidation and nitrosylation in young rodents with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2012;71:274–88.PubMedCrossRef
246.
247.
Etus V, Gazioglu N, Belce A. N-acetylcystein reduces cerebral lipid peroxidation in a rat model of infantile hydrocephalus. J Neurol Sci (Turk). 2001;18:2.
248.
Etus V, Altug T, Belce A, Ceylan S. Green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate prevents oxidative damage on periventricular white matter of infantile rats with hydrocephalus. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2003;200:203–9.PubMedCrossRef
249.
Turgut M, Erdogan S, Ergin K, Serter M. Melatonin ameliorates blood-brain barrier permeability, glutathione, and nitric oxide levels in the choroid plexus of the infantile rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Brain Res. 2007;1175:117–25.PubMedCrossRef
250.
Di Curzio DL, Turner-Brannen E, Del Bigio MR. Oral antioxidant therapy for juvenile rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2014;11:23.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
251.
Catalao CH, Correa DA, Saito ST, Lopes LD. Camellia sinensis neuroprotective role in experimentally induced hydrocephalus in Wistar rats. Childs Nerv Syst. 2013;30:591.PubMedCrossRef
252.
Feng S, Yang Q, Liu M, Li W, Yuan W, Zhang S, Wu B, Li J: Edaravone for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011:CD007230.
253.
Chen Z, Zhang J, Chen Q, Guo J, Zhu G, Feng H. Neuroprotective effects of edaravone after intraventricular hemorrhage in rats. NeuroReport. 2014;25:635–40.PubMedCrossRef
254.
Wenk GL, Parsons CG, Danysz W. Potential role of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors as executors of neurodegeneration resulting from diverse insults: focus on memantine. Behav Pharmacol. 2006;17:411–24.PubMedCrossRef
255.
Cabuk B, Etus V, Bozkurt SU, Sav A, Ceylan S. Neuroprotective effect of memantine on hippocampal neurons in infantile rat hydrocephalus. Turk Neurosurg. 2011;21:352–8.PubMed
256.
Taveira KV, Carraro KT, Catalao CH, Lda Lopes S. Morphological and morphometric analysis of the hippocampus in Wistar rats with experimental hydrocephalus. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2012;48:163–7.PubMedCrossRef
257.
Shim I, Ha Y, Chung JY, Lee HJ, Yang KH, Chang JW. Association of learning and memory impairments with changes in the septohippocampal cholinergic system in rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 2003;53:416–25.PubMedCrossRef
258.
Ding Y, McAllister JP II, Yao B, Yan N, Canady AI. Neuron tolerance during hydrocephalus. Neuroscience. 2001;106:659–67.PubMedCrossRef
259.
Kokturk S, Ceylan S, Etus V, Yasa N, Ceylan S. Morinda citrifolia L. (noni) and memantine attenuate periventricular tissue injury of the fourth ventricle in hydrocephalic rabbits. Neural Regen Res. 2013;8:773–82.PubMedCentralPubMed
260.
Khan OH, Enno T, Del Bigio MR. Tacrolimus and cyclosporine A are of no benefit to young rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2003;39:309–13.PubMedCrossRef
261.
Del Bigio MR, Wang X, Wilson MJ. Sodium channel-blocking agents are not of benefit to rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:460–7.PubMed
262.
Malm J, Kristensen B, Ekstedt J, Wester P. CSF concentration gradients of monoamine metabolites in patients with hydrocephalus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr. 1994;57:1026–33.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
263.
Miyake H, Eghwrudjakpor P, Sakamoto T, Kurisaka M, Mori K. Neurotransmitter changes in hydrocephalus: effects of cerebral metabolic activator on kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. In: Matsumoto S, Tamaki N, editors. Hydrocephalus: pathogenesis and treatment. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag; 1991. p. 68–74.CrossRef
264.
Keenan S, Mavaddat N, Iddon J, Pickard JD, Sahakian BJ. Effects of methylphenidate on cognition and apathy in normal pressure hydrocephalus: a case study and review. Br J Neurosurg. 2005;19:46–50.PubMedCrossRef
265.
Wheeler GA, Young SA. Use of methylphenidate in a case of mild, inoperative, idiopathic, normal pressure hydrocephalus. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1994;16:361–3.PubMedCrossRef
266.
Anderson B. Relief of akinetic mutism from obstructive hydrocephalus using bromocriptine and ephedrine. Case report. J Neurosurg. 1992;76:152–5.PubMedCrossRef
267.
Mateo-Sierra O, Gutierrez FA, Fernandez-Carballal C, Pinilla D, Mosqueira B, Iza B, Carrillo R. Akinetic mutism related to hydrocephalus and cerebellar surgery treated with bromocriptine and ephedrine. A pathophysiological review. Neurocirugia (Astur). 2005;16:134–141; discussion 141.CrossRef
268.
Mashiko H, Yokoyama H, Matsumoto H, Niwa S. Trazodone for aggression in an adolescent with hydrocephalus. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1996;50:133–6.PubMedCrossRef
269.
Owen-Lynch PJ, Draper CE, Mashayekhi F, Bannister CM, Miyan JA. Defective cell cycle control underlies abnormal cortical development in the hydrocephalic Texas rat. Brain. 2003;126:623–31.PubMedCrossRef
270.
Yung YC, Mutoh T, Lin ME, Noguchi K, Rivera RR, Choi JW, Kingsbury MA, Chun J. Lysophosphatidic Acid signaling may initiate fetal hydrocephalus. Sci Transl Med. 2011;3:99ra87.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
271.
Lategan B, Chodirker BN, Del Bigio MR. Fetal hydrocephalus caused by cryptic intraventricular hemorrhage. Brain Pathol. 2010;20:391–8.PubMedCrossRef
272.
Del Bigio MR. Cell proliferation in human ganglionic eminence and suppression after prematurity-associated haemorrhage. Brain. 2011;134:1344–61.PubMedCrossRef
273.
Stoddard NC, Chun J. Promising pharmacological directions in the world of lysophosphatidic acid signaling. Biomol Ther (Seoul). 2015;23:1–11.CrossRef
274.
Jones HC, Bucknall RM. Inherited prenatal hydrocephalus in the H-Tx rat: a morphological study. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 1988;14:263–74.PubMedCrossRef
275.
Jones HC, Depelteau JS, Carter BJ, Lopman BA, Morel L. Genome-wide linkage analysis of inherited hydrocephalus in the H-Tx rat. Mamm Genome. 2001;12:22–6.PubMedCrossRef
276.
Cains S, Shepherd A, Nabiuni M, Owen-Lynch PJ, Miyan J. Addressing a folate imbalance in fetal cerebrospinal fluid can decrease the incidence of congenital hydrocephalus. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2009;68:404–16.PubMedCrossRef
277.
Tsubokawa T, Katayama Y, Miyazaki S, Ogawa H, Kawamata T, Iwasaki M, Sako Y. Raphe-cell transplantation into the hippocampus of the hydrocephalic rat brain. Brain Inj. 1988;2:67–74.PubMedCrossRef
278.
Ahn SY, Chang YS, Sung DK, Sung SI, Yoo HS, Lee JH, Oh WI, Park WS. Mesenchymal stem cells prevent hydrocephalus after severe intraventricular hemorrhage. Stroke. 2013;44:497.PubMedCrossRef
279.
Ahn SY, Chang YS, Sung DK, Sung SI, Yoo HS, Im GH, Choi SJ, Park WS. Optimal route for mesenchymal stem cells transplantation after severe intraventricular hemorrhage in newborn rats. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0132919.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
280.
Del Bigio MR. Future directions for therapy of childhood hydrocephalus: a view from the laboratory. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2001;34:172–81.PubMedCrossRef
281.
Brouwer AJ, Brouwer MJ, Groenendaal F, Benders MJ, Whitelaw A, de Vries LS. European perspective on the diagnosis and treatment of posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilatation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2012;97:F50–5.PubMedCrossRef
282.
Brouwer AJ, Groenendaal F, Benders MJ, de Vries LS. Early and late complications of germinal matrix-intraventricular haemorrhage in the preterm infant: what is new? Neonatology. 2014;106:296–303.PubMedCrossRef
283.
284.
285.
Neubauer AP, Voss W, Wachtendorf M, Jungmann T. Erythropoietin improves neurodevelopmental outcome of extremely preterm infants. Ann Neurol. 2010;67:657–66.PubMed
286.
Ye R, Zhao G, Liu X. Ginsenoside Rd for acute ischemic stroke: translating from bench to bedside. Expert Rev Neurother. 2013;13:603–13.PubMedCrossRef
287.
Del Zoppo GJ. Why do all drugs work in animals but none in stroke patients? 1. Drugs promoting cerebral blood flow. J Intern Med. 1995;237:79–88.PubMedCrossRef
288.
Grotta J. Why do all drugs work in animals but none in stroke patients? 2. Neuroprotective therapy. J Intern Med. 1995;237:89–94.PubMedCrossRef
289.
Dirnagl U. Bench to bedside: the quest for quality in experimental stroke research. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2006;26:1465–78.PubMedCrossRef
290.
O’Collins VE, Macleod MR, Donnan GA, Horky LL, van der Worp BH, Howells DW. 1,026 experimental treatments in acute stroke. Ann Neurol. 2006;59:467–77.PubMedCrossRef
291.
Tosetti P, Hicks RR, Theriault E, Phillips A, Koroshetz W, Draghia-Akli R, Workshop P. Toward an international initiative for traumatic brain injury research. J Neurotrauma. 2013;30:1211–22.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
292.
Del Bigio MR, Slobodian I, Schellenberg AE, Buist RJ, Kemp-Buors TL. Magnetic resonance imaging indicators of blood-brain barrier and brain water changes in young rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2011;8:22.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Nonsurgical therapy for hydrocephalus: a comprehensive and critical review
Authors
Marc R. Del Bigio
Domenico L. Di Curzio
Publication date
01-12-2015
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Fluids and Barriers of the CNS / Issue 1/2016
Electronic ISSN: 2045-8118
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12987-016-0025-2

Other articles of this Issue 1/2016

Fluids and Barriers of the CNS 1/2016 Go to the issue

Research

Directional cerebrospinal fluid movement between brain ventricles in larval zebrafish

Research

Modeling immune functions of the mouse blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier in vitro: primary rather than immortalized mouse choroid plexus epithelial cells are suited to study immune cell migration across this brain barrier

Research paper

MicroRNA-155 contributes to shear-resistant leukocyte adhesion to human brain endothelium in vitro

Research

Growth-factor reduced Matrigel source influences stem cell derived brain microvascular endothelial cell barrier properties

Research

A comparison between the pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis and normal pressure hydrocephalus: is pulse wave encephalopathy a component of MS?

Editorial

Advances in brain barriers and brain fluid research and news from Fluids and Barriers of the CNS