Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Journal of Neural Transmission 5/2018

Open Access 01-05-2018 | Translational Neurosciences - Review Article

Innate immunity in Alzheimer’s disease: the relevance of animal models?

Authors: Diana K. Franco Bocanegra, James A. R. Nicoll, Delphine Boche

Published in: Journal of Neural Transmission | Issue 5/2018

Login to get access

Abstract

The mouse is one of the organisms most widely used as an animal model in biomedical research, due to the particular ease with which it can be handled and reproduced in laboratory. As a member of the mammalian class, mice share with humans many features regarding metabolic pathways, cell morphology and anatomy. However, important biological differences between mice and humans exist and must be taken into consideration when interpreting research results, to properly translate evidence from experimental studies into information that can be useful for human disease prevention and/or treatment. With respect to Alzheimer’s disease (AD), much of the experimental information currently known about this disease has been gathered from studies using mainly mice as models. Therefore, it is notably important to fully characterise the differences between mice and humans regarding important aspects of the disease. It is now widely known that inflammation plays an important role in the development of AD, a role that is not only a response to the surrounding pathological environment, but rather seems to be strongly implicated in the aetiology of the disease as indicated by the genetic studies. This review highlights relevant differences in inflammation and in microglia, the innate immune cell of the brain, between mice and humans regarding genetics and morphology in normal ageing, and the relationship of microglia with AD-like pathology, the inflammatory profile, and cognition. We conclude that some noteworthy differences exist between mice and humans regarding microglial characteristics, in distribution, gene expression, and states of activation. This may have repercussions in the way that transgenic mice respond to, and influence, the AD-like pathology. However, despite these differences, human and mouse microglia also show similarities in morphology and behaviour, such that the mouse is a suitable model for studying the role of microglia, as long as these differences are taken into consideration when delineating new strategies to approach the study of neurodegenerative diseases.
Literature
go back to reference Askew K, Li K, Olmos-Alonso A, Garcia-Moreno F, Liang Y, Richardson P, Tipton T, Chapman MA, Riecken K, Beccari S, Sierra A, Molnar Z, Cragg MS, Garaschuk O, Perry VH, Gomez-Nicola D (2017) Coupled proliferation and apoptosis maintain the rapid turnover of microglia in the adult brain. Cell Rep 18(2):391–405. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2016.12.041 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Askew K, Li K, Olmos-Alonso A, Garcia-Moreno F, Liang Y, Richardson P, Tipton T, Chapman MA, Riecken K, Beccari S, Sierra A, Molnar Z, Cragg MS, Garaschuk O, Perry VH, Gomez-Nicola D (2017) Coupled proliferation and apoptosis maintain the rapid turnover of microglia in the adult brain. Cell Rep 18(2):391–405. doi:10.​1016/​j.​celrep.​2016.​12.​041 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Bayer AJ, Bullock R, Jones RW, Wilkinson D, Paterson KR, Jenkins L, Millais SB, Donoghue S (2005) Evaluation of the safety and immunogenicity of synthetic Abeta42 (AN1792) in patients with AD. Neurology 64(1):94–101PubMedCrossRef Bayer AJ, Bullock R, Jones RW, Wilkinson D, Paterson KR, Jenkins L, Millais SB, Donoghue S (2005) Evaluation of the safety and immunogenicity of synthetic Abeta42 (AN1792) in patients with AD. Neurology 64(1):94–101PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Biscaro B, Lindvall O, Tesco G, Ekdahl CT, Nitsch RM (2012) Inhibition of microglial activation protects hippocampal neurogenesis and improves cognitive deficits in a transgenic mouse model for Alzheimer’s disease. Neurodegener Dis 9(4):187–198. doi:10.1159/000330363 PubMedCrossRef Biscaro B, Lindvall O, Tesco G, Ekdahl CT, Nitsch RM (2012) Inhibition of microglial activation protects hippocampal neurogenesis and improves cognitive deficits in a transgenic mouse model for Alzheimer’s disease. Neurodegener Dis 9(4):187–198. doi:10.​1159/​000330363 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Biswas SK, Gangi L, Paul S, Schioppa T, Saccani A, Sironi M, Bottazzi B, Doni A, Vincenzo B, Pasqualini F, Vago L, Nebuloni M, Mantovani A, Sica A (2006) A distinct and unique transcriptional program expressed by tumor-associated macrophages (defective NF-kappaB and enhanced IRF-3/STAT1 activation). Blood 107(5):2112–2122. doi:10.1182/blood-2005-01-0428 PubMedCrossRef Biswas SK, Gangi L, Paul S, Schioppa T, Saccani A, Sironi M, Bottazzi B, Doni A, Vincenzo B, Pasqualini F, Vago L, Nebuloni M, Mantovani A, Sica A (2006) A distinct and unique transcriptional program expressed by tumor-associated macrophages (defective NF-kappaB and enhanced IRF-3/STAT1 activation). Blood 107(5):2112–2122. doi:10.​1182/​blood-2005-01-0428 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Bouhlel MA, Derudas B, Rigamonti E, Dievart R, Brozek J, Haulon S, Zawadzki C, Jude B, Torpier G, Marx N, Staels B, Chinetti-Gbaguidi G (2007) PPARgamma activation primes human monocytes into alternative M2 macrophages with anti-inflammatory properties. Cell Metab 6(2):137–143. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2007.06.010 PubMedCrossRef Bouhlel MA, Derudas B, Rigamonti E, Dievart R, Brozek J, Haulon S, Zawadzki C, Jude B, Torpier G, Marx N, Staels B, Chinetti-Gbaguidi G (2007) PPARgamma activation primes human monocytes into alternative M2 macrophages with anti-inflammatory properties. Cell Metab 6(2):137–143. doi:10.​1016/​j.​cmet.​2007.​06.​010 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Brendza RP, Bacskai BJ, Cirrito JR, Simmons KA, Skoch JM, Klunk WE, Mathis CA, Bales KR, Paul SM, Hyman BT, Holtzman DM (2005) Anti-Abeta antibody treatment promotes the rapid recovery of amyloid-associated neuritic dystrophy in PDAPP transgenic mice. J Clin Invest 115(2):428–433PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Brendza RP, Bacskai BJ, Cirrito JR, Simmons KA, Skoch JM, Klunk WE, Mathis CA, Bales KR, Paul SM, Hyman BT, Holtzman DM (2005) Anti-Abeta antibody treatment promotes the rapid recovery of amyloid-associated neuritic dystrophy in PDAPP transgenic mice. J Clin Invest 115(2):428–433PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Butovsky O, Jedrychowski MP, Moore CS, Cialic R, Lanser AJ, Gabriely G, Koeglsperger T, Dake B, Wu PM, Doykan CE, Fanek Z, Liu L, Chen Z, Rothstein JD, Ransohoff RM, Gygi SP, Antel JP, Weiner HL (2014) Identification of a unique TGF-beta-dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia. Nat Neurosci 17(1):131–143. doi:10.1038/nn.3599 PubMedCrossRef Butovsky O, Jedrychowski MP, Moore CS, Cialic R, Lanser AJ, Gabriely G, Koeglsperger T, Dake B, Wu PM, Doykan CE, Fanek Z, Liu L, Chen Z, Rothstein JD, Ransohoff RM, Gygi SP, Antel JP, Weiner HL (2014) Identification of a unique TGF-beta-dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia. Nat Neurosci 17(1):131–143. doi:10.​1038/​nn.​3599 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Buttini M, Masliah E, Barbour R, Grajeda H, Motter R, Johnson-Wood K, Khan K, Seubert P, Freedman S, Schenk D, Games D (2005) Beta-amyloid immunotherapy prevents synaptic degeneration in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurosci 25(40):9096–9101PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral Buttini M, Masliah E, Barbour R, Grajeda H, Motter R, Johnson-Wood K, Khan K, Seubert P, Freedman S, Schenk D, Games D (2005) Beta-amyloid immunotherapy prevents synaptic degeneration in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurosci 25(40):9096–9101PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral
go back to reference Capani F, Ellisman MH, Martone ME (2001) Filamentous actin is concentrated in specific subpopulations of neuronal and glial structures in rat central nervous system. Brain Res 923(1–2):1–11PubMedCrossRef Capani F, Ellisman MH, Martone ME (2001) Filamentous actin is concentrated in specific subpopulations of neuronal and glial structures in rat central nervous system. Brain Res 923(1–2):1–11PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference CFAS (2001) Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in England and Wales. Neuropathology Group of the Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study. Lancet 357(9251):169–175CrossRef CFAS (2001) Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in England and Wales. Neuropathology Group of the Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study. Lancet 357(9251):169–175CrossRef
go back to reference Chai X, Wu S, Murray TK, Kinley R, Cella CV, Sims H, Buckner N, Hanmer J, Davies P, O’Neill MJ, Hutton ML, Citron M (2011) Passive immunization with anti-Tau antibodies in two transgenic models: reduction of Tau pathology and delay of disease progression. J Biol Chem 286(39):34457–34467. doi:10.1074/jbc.M111.229633 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Chai X, Wu S, Murray TK, Kinley R, Cella CV, Sims H, Buckner N, Hanmer J, Davies P, O’Neill MJ, Hutton ML, Citron M (2011) Passive immunization with anti-Tau antibodies in two transgenic models: reduction of Tau pathology and delay of disease progression. J Biol Chem 286(39):34457–34467. doi:10.​1074/​jbc.​M111.​229633 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Chavant F, Deguil J, Pain S, Ingrand I, Milin S, Fauconneau B, Perault-Pochat MC, Lafay-Chebassier C (2010) Imipramine, in part through tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibition, prevents cognitive decline and beta-amyloid accumulation in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 332(2):505–514. doi:10.1124/jpet.109.162164 PubMedCrossRef Chavant F, Deguil J, Pain S, Ingrand I, Milin S, Fauconneau B, Perault-Pochat MC, Lafay-Chebassier C (2010) Imipramine, in part through tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibition, prevents cognitive decline and beta-amyloid accumulation in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 332(2):505–514. doi:10.​1124/​jpet.​109.​162164 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Colton CA, Wilcock DM, Wink DA, Davis J, Van Nostrand WE, Vitek MP (2008) The effects of NOS2 gene deletion on mice expressing mutated human AbetaPP. J Alzheimers Dis 15(4):571–587PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Colton CA, Wilcock DM, Wink DA, Davis J, Van Nostrand WE, Vitek MP (2008) The effects of NOS2 gene deletion on mice expressing mutated human AbetaPP. J Alzheimers Dis 15(4):571–587PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Corder EH, Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, Schmechel DE, Gaskell PC, Small GW, Roses AD, Haines JL, Pericak-Vance MA (1993) Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in late onset families. Science 261(5123):921–923PubMedCrossRef Corder EH, Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, Schmechel DE, Gaskell PC, Small GW, Roses AD, Haines JL, Pericak-Vance MA (1993) Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in late onset families. Science 261(5123):921–923PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Corneveaux JJ, Myers AJ, Allen AN, Pruzin JJ, Ramirez M, Engel A, Nalls MA, Chen K, Lee W, Chewning K, Villa SE, Meechoovet HB, Gerber JD, Frost D, Benson HL, O’Reilly S, Chibnik LB, Shulman JM, Singleton AB, Craig DW, Van Keuren-Jensen KR, Dunckley T, Bennett DA, De Jager PL, Heward C, Hardy J, Reiman EM, Huentelman MJ (2010) Association of CR1, CLU and PICALM with Alzheimer’s disease in a cohort of clinically characterized and neuropathologically verified individuals. Hum Mol Genet 19(16):3295–3301. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddq221 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Corneveaux JJ, Myers AJ, Allen AN, Pruzin JJ, Ramirez M, Engel A, Nalls MA, Chen K, Lee W, Chewning K, Villa SE, Meechoovet HB, Gerber JD, Frost D, Benson HL, O’Reilly S, Chibnik LB, Shulman JM, Singleton AB, Craig DW, Van Keuren-Jensen KR, Dunckley T, Bennett DA, De Jager PL, Heward C, Hardy J, Reiman EM, Huentelman MJ (2010) Association of CR1, CLU and PICALM with Alzheimer’s disease in a cohort of clinically characterized and neuropathologically verified individuals. Hum Mol Genet 19(16):3295–3301. doi:10.​1093/​hmg/​ddq221 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Cosenza MA, Zhao ML, Si Q, Lee SC (2002) Human brain parenchymal microglia express CD14 and CD45 and are productively infected by HIV-1 in HIV-1 encephalitis. Brain Pathol 12(4):442–455PubMedCrossRef Cosenza MA, Zhao ML, Si Q, Lee SC (2002) Human brain parenchymal microglia express CD14 and CD45 and are productively infected by HIV-1 in HIV-1 encephalitis. Brain Pathol 12(4):442–455PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Cribbs DH, Berchtold NC, Perreau V, Coleman PD, Rogers J, Tenner AJ, Cotman CW (2012) Extensive innate immune gene activation accompanies brain aging, increasing vulnerability to cognitive decline and neurodegeneration: a microarray study. J Neuroinflammation 9:179–197. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-9-179 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Cribbs DH, Berchtold NC, Perreau V, Coleman PD, Rogers J, Tenner AJ, Cotman CW (2012) Extensive innate immune gene activation accompanies brain aging, increasing vulnerability to cognitive decline and neurodegeneration: a microarray study. J Neuroinflammation 9:179–197. doi:10.​1186/​1742-2094-9-179 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Davis DG, Schmitt FA, Wekstein DR, Markesbery WR (1999) Alzheimer neuropathologic alterations in aged cognitively normal subjects. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 58(4):376–388PubMedCrossRef Davis DG, Schmitt FA, Wekstein DR, Markesbery WR (1999) Alzheimer neuropathologic alterations in aged cognitively normal subjects. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 58(4):376–388PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Doody RS, Thomas RG, Farlow M, Iwatsubo T, Vellas B, Joffe S, Kieburtz K, Raman R, Sun X, Aisen PS, Siemers E, Liu-Seifert H, Mohs R, Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study Steering Committee, Solanezumab Study Group (2014) Phase 3 trials of solanezumab for mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 370(4):311–321. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1312889 PubMedCrossRef Doody RS, Thomas RG, Farlow M, Iwatsubo T, Vellas B, Joffe S, Kieburtz K, Raman R, Sun X, Aisen PS, Siemers E, Liu-Seifert H, Mohs R, Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study Steering Committee, Solanezumab Study Group (2014) Phase 3 trials of solanezumab for mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 370(4):311–321. doi:10.​1056/​NEJMoa1312889 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Edison P, Archer HA, Gerhard A, Hinz R, Pavese N, Turkheimer FE, Hammers A, Tai YF, Fox N, Kennedy A, Rossor M, Brooks DJ (2008) Microglia, amyloid, and cognition in Alzheimer’s disease: an [11C](R)PK11195-PET and [11C]PIB-PET study. Neurobiol Dis 32(3):412–419PubMedCrossRef Edison P, Archer HA, Gerhard A, Hinz R, Pavese N, Turkheimer FE, Hammers A, Tai YF, Fox N, Kennedy A, Rossor M, Brooks DJ (2008) Microglia, amyloid, and cognition in Alzheimer’s disease: an [11C](R)PK11195-PET and [11C]PIB-PET study. Neurobiol Dis 32(3):412–419PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Engler H, Forsberg A, Almkvist O, Blomquist G, Larsson E, Savitcheva I, Wall A, Ringheim A, Langstrom B, Nordberg A (2006) Two-year follow-up of amyloid deposition in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Brain 129(Pt 11):2856–2866. doi:10.1093/brain/awl178 PubMedCrossRef Engler H, Forsberg A, Almkvist O, Blomquist G, Larsson E, Savitcheva I, Wall A, Ringheim A, Langstrom B, Nordberg A (2006) Two-year follow-up of amyloid deposition in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Brain 129(Pt 11):2856–2866. doi:10.​1093/​brain/​awl178 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Finckh U, Alberici A, Antoniazzi M, Benussi L, Fedi V, Giannini C, Gal A, Nitsch RM, Binetti G (2000) Variable expression of familial Alzheimer disease associated with presenilin 2 mutation M239I. Neurology 54(10):2006–2008PubMedCrossRef Finckh U, Alberici A, Antoniazzi M, Benussi L, Fedi V, Giannini C, Gal A, Nitsch RM, Binetti G (2000) Variable expression of familial Alzheimer disease associated with presenilin 2 mutation M239I. Neurology 54(10):2006–2008PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Frautschy SA, Yang F, Irrizarry M, Hyman B, Saido TC, Hsiao K, Cole GM (1998) Microglial response to amyloid plaques in APPsw transgenic mice. Am J Pathol 152(1):307–317PubMedPubMedCentral Frautschy SA, Yang F, Irrizarry M, Hyman B, Saido TC, Hsiao K, Cole GM (1998) Microglial response to amyloid plaques in APPsw transgenic mice. Am J Pathol 152(1):307–317PubMedPubMedCentral
go back to reference Frommelt P, Schnabel R, Kuhne W, Nee LE, Polinsky RJ (1991) Familial Alzheimer disease: a large, multigeneration German kindred. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 5(1):36–43PubMedCrossRef Frommelt P, Schnabel R, Kuhne W, Nee LE, Polinsky RJ (1991) Familial Alzheimer disease: a large, multigeneration German kindred. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 5(1):36–43PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Gallagher JJ, Minogue AM, Lynch MA (2013) Impaired performance of female APP/PS1 mice in the Morris water maze is coupled with increased Abeta accumulation and microglial activation. Neurodegener Dis 11(1):33–41. doi:10.1159/000337458 PubMedCrossRef Gallagher JJ, Minogue AM, Lynch MA (2013) Impaired performance of female APP/PS1 mice in the Morris water maze is coupled with increased Abeta accumulation and microglial activation. Neurodegener Dis 11(1):33–41. doi:10.​1159/​000337458 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Gate D, Rezai-Zadeh K, Jodry D, Rentsendorj A, Town T (2010) Macrophages in Alzheimer’s disease: the blood-borne identity. J Neural Transm (Vienna, Austria: 1996) 117(8):961–970. doi:10.1007/s00702-010-0422-7 CrossRef Gate D, Rezai-Zadeh K, Jodry D, Rentsendorj A, Town T (2010) Macrophages in Alzheimer’s disease: the blood-borne identity. J Neural Transm (Vienna, Austria: 1996) 117(8):961–970. doi:10.​1007/​s00702-010-0422-7 CrossRef
go back to reference Global Burden of Disease Study Collaborators (2015) Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 386(9995):743–800. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4 CrossRef Global Burden of Disease Study Collaborators (2015) Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 386(9995):743–800. doi:10.​1016/​S0140-6736(15)60692-4 CrossRef
go back to reference Goate A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Mullan M, Brown J, Crawford F, Fidani L, Giuffra L, Haynes A, Irving N, James L et al (1991) Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 349(6311):704–706PubMedCrossRef Goate A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Mullan M, Brown J, Crawford F, Fidani L, Giuffra L, Haynes A, Irving N, James L et al (1991) Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 349(6311):704–706PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Gordon MN, King DL, Diamond DM, Jantzen PT, Boyett KV, Hope CE, Hatcher JM, DiCarlo G, Gottschall WP, Morgan D, Arendash GW (2001) Correlation between cognitive deficits and Abeta deposits in transgenic APP+PS1 mice. Neurobiol Aging 22(3):377–385PubMedCrossRef Gordon MN, King DL, Diamond DM, Jantzen PT, Boyett KV, Hope CE, Hatcher JM, DiCarlo G, Gottschall WP, Morgan D, Arendash GW (2001) Correlation between cognitive deficits and Abeta deposits in transgenic APP+PS1 mice. Neurobiol Aging 22(3):377–385PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Grabowski TJ, Cho HS, Vonsattel JP, Rebeck GW, Greenberg SM (2001) Novel amyloid precursor protein mutation in an Iowa family with dementia and severe cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 49(6):697–705PubMedCrossRef Grabowski TJ, Cho HS, Vonsattel JP, Rebeck GW, Greenberg SM (2001) Novel amyloid precursor protein mutation in an Iowa family with dementia and severe cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 49(6):697–705PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Guerreiro R, Wojtas A, Bras J, Carrasquillo MM, Rogaeva E, Majounie E, Cruchaga C, Sassi C, Kauwe JS, Younkin SG, Hazrati L, Collinge J, Pocock J, Lashley T, Williams J, Lambert JC, Amouyel P, Goate AM, Rademakers R, Morgan K, Powell J, St George-Hyslop P, Singleton AB, Hardy J, Alzheimer Genetic Analysis Group (2012) TREM2 variants in Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 368(2):117–127PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Guerreiro R, Wojtas A, Bras J, Carrasquillo MM, Rogaeva E, Majounie E, Cruchaga C, Sassi C, Kauwe JS, Younkin SG, Hazrati L, Collinge J, Pocock J, Lashley T, Williams J, Lambert JC, Amouyel P, Goate AM, Rademakers R, Morgan K, Powell J, St George-Hyslop P, Singleton AB, Hardy J, Alzheimer Genetic Analysis Group (2012) TREM2 variants in Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 368(2):117–127PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Gur RC, Turetsky BI, Matsui M, Yan M, Bilker W, Hughett P, Gur RE (1999) Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: correlations with cognitive performance. J Neurosci 19(10):4065–4072PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral Gur RC, Turetsky BI, Matsui M, Yan M, Bilker W, Hughett P, Gur RE (1999) Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: correlations with cognitive performance. J Neurosci 19(10):4065–4072PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral
go back to reference Hamza TH, Zabetian CP, Tenesa A, Laederach A, Montimurro J, Yearout D, Kay DM, Doheny KF, Paschall J, Pugh E, Kusel VI, Collura R, Roberts J, Griffith A, Samii A, Scott WK, Nutt J, Factor SA, Payami H (2010) Common genetic variation in the HLA region is associated with late-onset sporadic Parkinson’s disease. Nat Genet 42(9):781–785. doi:10.1038/ng.642 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Hamza TH, Zabetian CP, Tenesa A, Laederach A, Montimurro J, Yearout D, Kay DM, Doheny KF, Paschall J, Pugh E, Kusel VI, Collura R, Roberts J, Griffith A, Samii A, Scott WK, Nutt J, Factor SA, Payami H (2010) Common genetic variation in the HLA region is associated with late-onset sporadic Parkinson’s disease. Nat Genet 42(9):781–785. doi:10.​1038/​ng.​642 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Hardy JA, Higgins GA (1992) Alzheimer’s disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science 256(5054):184–185PubMedCrossRef Hardy JA, Higgins GA (1992) Alzheimer’s disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science 256(5054):184–185PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Harold D, Abraham R, Hollingworth P, Sims R, Gerrish A, Hamshere ML, Pahwa JS, Moskvina V, Dowzell K, Williams A, Jones N, Thomas C, Stretton A, Morgan AR, Lovestone S, Powell J, Proitsi P, Lupton MK, Brayne C, Rubinsztein DC, Gill M, Lawlor B, Lynch A, Morgan K, Brown KS, Passmore PA, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Holmes C, Mann D, Smith AD, Love S, Kehoe PG, Hardy J, Mead S, Fox N, Rossor M, Collinge J, Maier W, Jessen F, Schurmann B, van den Bussche H, Heuser I, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J, Dichgans M, Frolich L, Hampel H, Hull M, Rujescu D, Goate AM, Kauwe JS, Cruchaga C, Nowotny P, Morris JC, Mayo K, Sleegers K, Bettens K, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Van Broeckhoven C, Livingston G, Bass NJ, Gurling H, McQuillin A, Gwilliam R, Deloukas P, Al-Chalabi A, Shaw CE, Tsolaki M, Singleton AB, Guerreiro R, Muhleisen TW, Nothen MM, Moebus S, Jockel KH, Klopp N, Wichmann HE, Carrasquillo MM, Pankratz VS, Younkin SG, Holmans PA, O’Donovan M, Owen MJ, Williams J (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and PICALM associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 41(10):1088–1093PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Harold D, Abraham R, Hollingworth P, Sims R, Gerrish A, Hamshere ML, Pahwa JS, Moskvina V, Dowzell K, Williams A, Jones N, Thomas C, Stretton A, Morgan AR, Lovestone S, Powell J, Proitsi P, Lupton MK, Brayne C, Rubinsztein DC, Gill M, Lawlor B, Lynch A, Morgan K, Brown KS, Passmore PA, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Holmes C, Mann D, Smith AD, Love S, Kehoe PG, Hardy J, Mead S, Fox N, Rossor M, Collinge J, Maier W, Jessen F, Schurmann B, van den Bussche H, Heuser I, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J, Dichgans M, Frolich L, Hampel H, Hull M, Rujescu D, Goate AM, Kauwe JS, Cruchaga C, Nowotny P, Morris JC, Mayo K, Sleegers K, Bettens K, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Van Broeckhoven C, Livingston G, Bass NJ, Gurling H, McQuillin A, Gwilliam R, Deloukas P, Al-Chalabi A, Shaw CE, Tsolaki M, Singleton AB, Guerreiro R, Muhleisen TW, Nothen MM, Moebus S, Jockel KH, Klopp N, Wichmann HE, Carrasquillo MM, Pankratz VS, Younkin SG, Holmans PA, O’Donovan M, Owen MJ, Williams J (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and PICALM associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 41(10):1088–1093PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Harries LW, Hernandez D, Henley W, Wood AR, Holly AC, Bradley-Smith RM, Yaghootkar H, Dutta A, Murray A, Frayling TM, Guralnik JM, Bandinelli S, Singleton A, Ferrucci L, Melzer D (2011) Human aging is characterized by focused changes in gene expression and deregulation of alternative splicing. Aging Cell 10(5):868–878. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2011.00726.x PubMedCrossRef Harries LW, Hernandez D, Henley W, Wood AR, Holly AC, Bradley-Smith RM, Yaghootkar H, Dutta A, Murray A, Frayling TM, Guralnik JM, Bandinelli S, Singleton A, Ferrucci L, Melzer D (2011) Human aging is characterized by focused changes in gene expression and deregulation of alternative splicing. Aging Cell 10(5):868–878. doi:10.​1111/​j.​1474-9726.​2011.​00726.​x PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Hjorth E, Zhu M, Toro VC, Vedin I, Palmblad J, Cederholm T, Freund-Levi Y, Faxen-Irving G, Wahlund LO, Basun H, Eriksdotter M, Schultzberg M (2013) Omega-3 fatty acids enhance phagocytosis of Alzheimer’s disease-related amyloid-beta42 by human microglia and decrease inflammatory markers. J Alzheimers Dis 35(4):697–713. doi:10.3233/jad-130131 PubMedCrossRef Hjorth E, Zhu M, Toro VC, Vedin I, Palmblad J, Cederholm T, Freund-Levi Y, Faxen-Irving G, Wahlund LO, Basun H, Eriksdotter M, Schultzberg M (2013) Omega-3 fatty acids enhance phagocytosis of Alzheimer’s disease-related amyloid-beta42 by human microglia and decrease inflammatory markers. J Alzheimers Dis 35(4):697–713. doi:10.​3233/​jad-130131 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Holcomb L, Gordon MN, McGowan E, Yu X, Benkovic S, Jantzen P, Wright K, Saad I, Mueller R, Morgan D, Sanders S, Zehr C, O’Campo K, Hardy J, Prada CM, Eckman C, Younkin S, Hsiao K, Duff K (1998) Accelerated Alzheimer-type phenotype in transgenic mice carrying both mutant amyloid precursor protein and presenilin 1 transgenes. Nat Med 4(1):97–100PubMedCrossRef Holcomb L, Gordon MN, McGowan E, Yu X, Benkovic S, Jantzen P, Wright K, Saad I, Mueller R, Morgan D, Sanders S, Zehr C, O’Campo K, Hardy J, Prada CM, Eckman C, Younkin S, Hsiao K, Duff K (1998) Accelerated Alzheimer-type phenotype in transgenic mice carrying both mutant amyloid precursor protein and presenilin 1 transgenes. Nat Med 4(1):97–100PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Hollingworth P, Harold D, Sims R, Gerrish A, Lambert JC, Carrasquillo MM, Abraham R, Hamshere ML, Pahwa JS, Moskvina V, Dowzell K, Jones N, Stretton A, Thomas C, Richards A, Ivanov D, Widdowson C, Chapman J, Lovestone S, Powell J, Proitsi P, Lupton MK, Brayne C, Rubinsztein DC, Gill M, Lawlor B, Lynch A, Brown KS, Passmore PA, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Holmes C, Mann D, Smith AD, Beaumont H, Warden D, Wilcock G, Love S, Kehoe PG, Hooper NM, Vardy ER, Hardy J, Mead S, Fox NC, Rossor M, Collinge J, Maier W, Jessen F, Ruther E, Schurmann B, Heun R, Kolsch H, van den Bussche H, Heuser I, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J, Dichgans M, Frolich L, Hampel H, Gallacher J, Hull M, Rujescu D, Giegling I, Goate AM, Kauwe JS, Cruchaga C, Nowotny P, Morris JC, Mayo K, Sleegers K, Bettens K, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Van Broeckhoven C, Livingston G, Bass NJ, Gurling H, McQuillin A, Gwilliam R, Deloukas P, Al-Chalabi A, Shaw CE, Tsolaki M, Singleton AB, Guerreiro R, Muhleisen TW, Nothen MM, Moebus S, Jockel KH, Klopp N, Wichmann HE, Pankratz VS, Sando SB, Aasly JO, Barcikowska M, Wszolek ZK, Dickson DW, Graff-Radford NR, Petersen RC, van Duijn CM, Breteler MM, Ikram MA, DeStefano AL, Fitzpatrick AL, Lopez O, Launer LJ, Seshadri S, Berr C, Campion D, Epelbaum J, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Alperovitch A, Lathrop M, Feulner TM, Friedrich P, Riehle C, Krawczak M, Schreiber S, Mayhaus M, Nicolhaus S, Wagenpfeil S, Steinberg S, Stefansson H, Stefansson K, Snaedal J, Bjornsson S, Jonsson PV, Chouraki V, Genier-Boley B, Hiltunen M, Soininen H, Combarros O, Zelenika D, Delepine M, Bullido MJ, Pasquier F, Mateo I, Frank-Garcia A, Porcellini E, Hanon O, Coto E, Alvarez V, Bosco P, Siciliano G, Mancuso M, Panza F, Solfrizzi V, Nacmias B, Sorbi S, Bossu P, Piccardi P, Arosio B, Annoni G, Seripa D, Pilotto A, Scarpini E, Galimberti D, Brice A, Hannequin D, Licastro F, Jones L, Holmans PA, Jonsson T, Riemenschneider M, Morgan K, Younkin SG, Owen MJ, O’Donovan M, Amouyel P, Williams J (2011) Common variants at ABCA7, MS4A6A/MS4A4E, EPHA1, CD33 and CD2AP are associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 43(5):429–435. doi:10.1038/ng.803 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Hollingworth P, Harold D, Sims R, Gerrish A, Lambert JC, Carrasquillo MM, Abraham R, Hamshere ML, Pahwa JS, Moskvina V, Dowzell K, Jones N, Stretton A, Thomas C, Richards A, Ivanov D, Widdowson C, Chapman J, Lovestone S, Powell J, Proitsi P, Lupton MK, Brayne C, Rubinsztein DC, Gill M, Lawlor B, Lynch A, Brown KS, Passmore PA, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Holmes C, Mann D, Smith AD, Beaumont H, Warden D, Wilcock G, Love S, Kehoe PG, Hooper NM, Vardy ER, Hardy J, Mead S, Fox NC, Rossor M, Collinge J, Maier W, Jessen F, Ruther E, Schurmann B, Heun R, Kolsch H, van den Bussche H, Heuser I, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J, Dichgans M, Frolich L, Hampel H, Gallacher J, Hull M, Rujescu D, Giegling I, Goate AM, Kauwe JS, Cruchaga C, Nowotny P, Morris JC, Mayo K, Sleegers K, Bettens K, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Van Broeckhoven C, Livingston G, Bass NJ, Gurling H, McQuillin A, Gwilliam R, Deloukas P, Al-Chalabi A, Shaw CE, Tsolaki M, Singleton AB, Guerreiro R, Muhleisen TW, Nothen MM, Moebus S, Jockel KH, Klopp N, Wichmann HE, Pankratz VS, Sando SB, Aasly JO, Barcikowska M, Wszolek ZK, Dickson DW, Graff-Radford NR, Petersen RC, van Duijn CM, Breteler MM, Ikram MA, DeStefano AL, Fitzpatrick AL, Lopez O, Launer LJ, Seshadri S, Berr C, Campion D, Epelbaum J, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Alperovitch A, Lathrop M, Feulner TM, Friedrich P, Riehle C, Krawczak M, Schreiber S, Mayhaus M, Nicolhaus S, Wagenpfeil S, Steinberg S, Stefansson H, Stefansson K, Snaedal J, Bjornsson S, Jonsson PV, Chouraki V, Genier-Boley B, Hiltunen M, Soininen H, Combarros O, Zelenika D, Delepine M, Bullido MJ, Pasquier F, Mateo I, Frank-Garcia A, Porcellini E, Hanon O, Coto E, Alvarez V, Bosco P, Siciliano G, Mancuso M, Panza F, Solfrizzi V, Nacmias B, Sorbi S, Bossu P, Piccardi P, Arosio B, Annoni G, Seripa D, Pilotto A, Scarpini E, Galimberti D, Brice A, Hannequin D, Licastro F, Jones L, Holmans PA, Jonsson T, Riemenschneider M, Morgan K, Younkin SG, Owen MJ, O’Donovan M, Amouyel P, Williams J (2011) Common variants at ABCA7, MS4A6A/MS4A4E, EPHA1, CD33 and CD2AP are associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 43(5):429–435. doi:10.​1038/​ng.​803 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Holmes C, El-Okl M, Williams AL, Cunningham C, Wilcockson D, Perry VH (2003) Systemic infection, interleukin 1beta, and cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74(6):788–789PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Holmes C, El-Okl M, Williams AL, Cunningham C, Wilcockson D, Perry VH (2003) Systemic infection, interleukin 1beta, and cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74(6):788–789PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Holmes C, Boche D, Wilkinson D, Yadegarfar G, Hopkins V, Bayer A, Jones RW, Bullock R, Love S, Neal JW, Zotova E, Nicoll JA (2008) Long-term effects of Abeta42 immunisation in Alzheimer’s disease: follow-up of a randomised, placebo-controlled phase I trial. Lancet 372(9634):216–223. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61075-2 PubMedCrossRef Holmes C, Boche D, Wilkinson D, Yadegarfar G, Hopkins V, Bayer A, Jones RW, Bullock R, Love S, Neal JW, Zotova E, Nicoll JA (2008) Long-term effects of Abeta42 immunisation in Alzheimer’s disease: follow-up of a randomised, placebo-controlled phase I trial. Lancet 372(9634):216–223. doi:10.​1016/​S0140-6736(08)61075-2 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Holmes C, Cunningham C, Zotova E, Woolford J, Dean C, Kerr S, Culliford D, Perry VH (2009) Systemic inflammation and disease progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 73(10):768–774PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Holmes C, Cunningham C, Zotova E, Woolford J, Dean C, Kerr S, Culliford D, Perry VH (2009) Systemic inflammation and disease progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 73(10):768–774PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Hsiao K, Chapman P, Nilsen S, Eckman C, Harigaya Y, Younkin S, Yang F, Cole G (1996) Correlative memory deficits, Abeta elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice. Science 274(5284):99–102PubMedCrossRef Hsiao K, Chapman P, Nilsen S, Eckman C, Harigaya Y, Younkin S, Yang F, Cole G (1996) Correlative memory deficits, Abeta elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice. Science 274(5284):99–102PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Janelsins MC, Mastrangelo MA, Oddo S, LaFerla FM, Federoff HJ, Bowers WJ (2005) Early correlation of microglial activation with enhanced tumor necrosis factor-alpha and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression specifically within the entorhinal cortex of triple transgenic Alzheimer’s disease mice. J Neuroinflammation 2:23PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Janelsins MC, Mastrangelo MA, Oddo S, LaFerla FM, Federoff HJ, Bowers WJ (2005) Early correlation of microglial activation with enhanced tumor necrosis factor-alpha and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression specifically within the entorhinal cortex of triple transgenic Alzheimer’s disease mice. J Neuroinflammation 2:23PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Jankowsky JL, Fadale DJ, Anderson J, Xu GM, Gonzales V, Jenkins NA, Copeland NG, Lee MK, Younkin LH, Wagner SL, Younkin SG, Borchelt DR (2004) Mutant presenilins specifically elevate the levels of the 42 residue beta-amyloid peptide in vivo: evidence for augmentation of a 42-specific gamma secretase. Hum Mol Genet 13(2):159–170. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddh019 PubMedCrossRef Jankowsky JL, Fadale DJ, Anderson J, Xu GM, Gonzales V, Jenkins NA, Copeland NG, Lee MK, Younkin LH, Wagner SL, Younkin SG, Borchelt DR (2004) Mutant presenilins specifically elevate the levels of the 42 residue beta-amyloid peptide in vivo: evidence for augmentation of a 42-specific gamma secretase. Hum Mol Genet 13(2):159–170. doi:10.​1093/​hmg/​ddh019 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Janus C, Pearson J, McLaurin J, Mathews PM, Jiang Y, Schmidt SD, Chishti MA, Horne P, Heslin D, French J, Mount HT, Nixon RA, Mercken M, Bergeron C, Fraser PE, St George-Hyslop P, Westaway D (2000) Abeta peptide immunization reduces behavioural impairment and plaques in a model of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 408(6815):979–982PubMedCrossRef Janus C, Pearson J, McLaurin J, Mathews PM, Jiang Y, Schmidt SD, Chishti MA, Horne P, Heslin D, French J, Mount HT, Nixon RA, Mercken M, Bergeron C, Fraser PE, St George-Hyslop P, Westaway D (2000) Abeta peptide immunization reduces behavioural impairment and plaques in a model of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 408(6815):979–982PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Jones L, Holmans PA, Hamshere ML, Harold D, Moskvina V, Ivanov D, Pocklington A, Abraham R, Hollingworth P, Sims R, Gerrish A, Pahwa JS, Jones N, Stretton A, Morgan AR, Lovestone S, Powell J, Proitsi P, Lupton MK, Brayne C, Rubinsztein DC, Gill M, Lawlor B, Lynch A, Morgan K, Brown KS, Passmore PA, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Holmes C, Mann D, Smith AD, Love S, Kehoe PG, Mead S, Fox N, Rossor M, Collinge J, Maier W, Jessen F, Schurmann B, Heun R, Kolsch H, van den Bussche H, Heuser I, Peters O, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J, Dichgans M, Frolich L, Hampel H, Hull M, Rujescu D, Goate AM, Kauwe JS, Cruchaga C, Nowotny P, Morris JC, Mayo K, Livingston G, Bass NJ, Gurling H, McQuillin A, Gwilliam R, Deloukas P, Al-Chalabi A, Shaw CE, Singleton AB, Guerreiro R, Muhleisen TW, Nothen MM, Moebus S, Jockel KH, Klopp N, Wichmann HE, Ruther E, Carrasquillo MM, Pankratz VS, Younkin SG, Hardy J, O’Donovan MC, Owen MJ, Williams J (2010b) Genetic evidence implicates the immune system and cholesterol metabolism in the aetiology of Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS One 5(11):e13950. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013950 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Jones L, Holmans PA, Hamshere ML, Harold D, Moskvina V, Ivanov D, Pocklington A, Abraham R, Hollingworth P, Sims R, Gerrish A, Pahwa JS, Jones N, Stretton A, Morgan AR, Lovestone S, Powell J, Proitsi P, Lupton MK, Brayne C, Rubinsztein DC, Gill M, Lawlor B, Lynch A, Morgan K, Brown KS, Passmore PA, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Holmes C, Mann D, Smith AD, Love S, Kehoe PG, Mead S, Fox N, Rossor M, Collinge J, Maier W, Jessen F, Schurmann B, Heun R, Kolsch H, van den Bussche H, Heuser I, Peters O, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J, Dichgans M, Frolich L, Hampel H, Hull M, Rujescu D, Goate AM, Kauwe JS, Cruchaga C, Nowotny P, Morris JC, Mayo K, Livingston G, Bass NJ, Gurling H, McQuillin A, Gwilliam R, Deloukas P, Al-Chalabi A, Shaw CE, Singleton AB, Guerreiro R, Muhleisen TW, Nothen MM, Moebus S, Jockel KH, Klopp N, Wichmann HE, Ruther E, Carrasquillo MM, Pankratz VS, Younkin SG, Hardy J, O’Donovan MC, Owen MJ, Williams J (2010b) Genetic evidence implicates the immune system and cholesterol metabolism in the aetiology of Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS One 5(11):e13950. doi:10.​1371/​journal.​pone.​0013950 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Jonsson T, Stefansson H, Steinberg S, Jonsdottir I, Jonsson PV, Snaedal J, Bjornsson S, Huttenlocher J, Levey AI, Lah JL, Rujescu D, Hampel H, Giegling I, Andreassen OA, Engedal K, Ulstein I, Djurovic S, Ibrahim-Verbaas C, Hofman A, Ikram MA, Van Duijn CM, Thorsteinsdottir U, Kong A, Stefansson H (2012) Variant of TREM2 associated with the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 368(2):107–116PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Jonsson T, Stefansson H, Steinberg S, Jonsdottir I, Jonsson PV, Snaedal J, Bjornsson S, Huttenlocher J, Levey AI, Lah JL, Rujescu D, Hampel H, Giegling I, Andreassen OA, Engedal K, Ulstein I, Djurovic S, Ibrahim-Verbaas C, Hofman A, Ikram MA, Van Duijn CM, Thorsteinsdottir U, Kong A, Stefansson H (2012) Variant of TREM2 associated with the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 368(2):107–116PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Karran E, Mercken M, De Strooper B (2011) The amyloid cascade hypothesis for Alzheimer’s disease: an appraisal for the development of therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov 10(9):698–712. doi:10.1038/nrd3505 PubMedCrossRef Karran E, Mercken M, De Strooper B (2011) The amyloid cascade hypothesis for Alzheimer’s disease: an appraisal for the development of therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov 10(9):698–712. doi:10.​1038/​nrd3505 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Kawahara K, Suenobu M, Yoshida A, Koga K, Hyodo A, Ohtsuka H, Kuniyasu A, Tamamaki N, Sugimoto Y, Nakayama H (2012) Intracerebral microinjection of interleukin-4/interleukin-13 reduces beta-amyloid accumulation in the ipsilateral side and improves cognitive deficits in young amyloid precursor protein 23 mice. Neuroscience 207:243–260. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.01.049 PubMedCrossRef Kawahara K, Suenobu M, Yoshida A, Koga K, Hyodo A, Ohtsuka H, Kuniyasu A, Tamamaki N, Sugimoto Y, Nakayama H (2012) Intracerebral microinjection of interleukin-4/interleukin-13 reduces beta-amyloid accumulation in the ipsilateral side and improves cognitive deficits in young amyloid precursor protein 23 mice. Neuroscience 207:243–260. doi:10.​1016/​j.​neuroscience.​2012.​01.​049 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Kitazawa M, Cheng D, Tsukamoto MR, Koike MA, Wes PD, Vasilevko V, Cribbs DH, LaFerla FM (2011) Blocking IL-1 signaling rescues cognition, attenuates tau pathology, and restores neuronal beta-catenin pathway function in an Alzheimer’s disease model. J Immunol 187(12):6539–6549. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1100620 PubMedCrossRef Kitazawa M, Cheng D, Tsukamoto MR, Koike MA, Wes PD, Vasilevko V, Cribbs DH, LaFerla FM (2011) Blocking IL-1 signaling rescues cognition, attenuates tau pathology, and restores neuronal beta-catenin pathway function in an Alzheimer’s disease model. J Immunol 187(12):6539–6549. doi:10.​4049/​jimmunol.​1100620 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Lambert JC, Heath S, Even G, Campion D, Sleegers K, Hiltunen M, Combarros O, Zelenika D, Bullido MJ, Tavernier B, Letenneur L, Bettens K, Berr C, Pasquier F, Fievet N, Barberger-Gateau P, Engelborghs S, De Deyn P, Mateo I, Franck A, Helisalmi S, Porcellini E, Hanon O, de Pancorbo MM, Lendon C, Dufouil C, Jaillard C, Leveillard T, Alvarez V, Bosco P, Mancuso M, Panza F, Nacmias B, Bossu P, Piccardi P, Annoni G, Seripa D, Galimberti D, Hannequin D, Licastro F, Soininen H, Ritchie K, Blanche H, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Gut I, Van Broeckhoven C, Alperovitch A, Lathrop M, Amouyel P (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and CR1 associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 41(10):1094–1099PubMedCrossRef Lambert JC, Heath S, Even G, Campion D, Sleegers K, Hiltunen M, Combarros O, Zelenika D, Bullido MJ, Tavernier B, Letenneur L, Bettens K, Berr C, Pasquier F, Fievet N, Barberger-Gateau P, Engelborghs S, De Deyn P, Mateo I, Franck A, Helisalmi S, Porcellini E, Hanon O, de Pancorbo MM, Lendon C, Dufouil C, Jaillard C, Leveillard T, Alvarez V, Bosco P, Mancuso M, Panza F, Nacmias B, Bossu P, Piccardi P, Annoni G, Seripa D, Galimberti D, Hannequin D, Licastro F, Soininen H, Ritchie K, Blanche H, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Gut I, Van Broeckhoven C, Alperovitch A, Lathrop M, Amouyel P (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and CR1 associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 41(10):1094–1099PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Lambert JC, Grenier-Boley B, Chouraki V, Heath S, Zelenika D, Fievet N, Hannequin D, Pasquier F, Hanon O, Brice A, Epelbaum J, Berr C, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Campion D, Lathrop M, Amouyel P (2010) Implication of the immune system in Alzheimer’s disease: evidence from genome-wide pathway analysis. J Alzheimers Dis 20(4):1107–1118. doi:10.3233/JAD-2010-100018 PubMedCrossRef Lambert JC, Grenier-Boley B, Chouraki V, Heath S, Zelenika D, Fievet N, Hannequin D, Pasquier F, Hanon O, Brice A, Epelbaum J, Berr C, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Campion D, Lathrop M, Amouyel P (2010) Implication of the immune system in Alzheimer’s disease: evidence from genome-wide pathway analysis. J Alzheimers Dis 20(4):1107–1118. doi:10.​3233/​JAD-2010-100018 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Lawson LJ, Perry VH, Dri P, Gordon S (1990) Heterogeneity in the distribution and morphology of microglia in the normal adult mouse brain. Neuroscience 39(1):151–170PubMedCrossRef Lawson LJ, Perry VH, Dri P, Gordon S (1990) Heterogeneity in the distribution and morphology of microglia in the normal adult mouse brain. Neuroscience 39(1):151–170PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Lewis J, Dickson DW, Lin WL, Chisholm L, Corral A, Jones G, Yen SH, Sahara N, Skipper L, Yager D, Eckman C, Hardy J, Hutton M, McGowan E (2001) Enhanced neurofibrillary degeneration in transgenic mice expressing mutant tau and APP. Science 293(5534):1487–1491PubMedCrossRef Lewis J, Dickson DW, Lin WL, Chisholm L, Corral A, Jones G, Yen SH, Sahara N, Skipper L, Yager D, Eckman C, Hardy J, Hutton M, McGowan E (2001) Enhanced neurofibrillary degeneration in transgenic mice expressing mutant tau and APP. Science 293(5534):1487–1491PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Lombardo JA, Stern EA, McLellan ME, Kajdasz ST, Hickey GA, Bacskai BJ, Hyman BT (2003) Amyloid-beta antibody treatment leads to rapid normalization of plaque-induced neuritic alterations. J Neurosci 23(34):10879–10883PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral Lombardo JA, Stern EA, McLellan ME, Kajdasz ST, Hickey GA, Bacskai BJ, Hyman BT (2003) Amyloid-beta antibody treatment leads to rapid normalization of plaque-induced neuritic alterations. J Neurosci 23(34):10879–10883PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral
go back to reference Lopez-Gonzalez I, Schluter A, Aso E, Garcia-Esparcia P, Ansoleaga B, LLorens F, Carmona M, Moreno J, Fuso A, Portero-Otin M, Pamplona R, Pujol A, Ferrer I (2015) Neuroinflammatory signals in Alzheimer disease and APP/PS1 transgenic mice: correlations with plaques, tangles, and oligomeric species. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 74(4):319–344. doi:10.1097/NEN.0000000000000176 PubMedCrossRef Lopez-Gonzalez I, Schluter A, Aso E, Garcia-Esparcia P, Ansoleaga B, LLorens F, Carmona M, Moreno J, Fuso A, Portero-Otin M, Pamplona R, Pujol A, Ferrer I (2015) Neuroinflammatory signals in Alzheimer disease and APP/PS1 transgenic mice: correlations with plaques, tangles, and oligomeric species. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 74(4):319–344. doi:10.​1097/​NEN.​0000000000000176​ PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Maheswaran S, Barjat H, Rueckert D, Bate ST, Howlett DR, Tilling L, Smart SC, Pohlmann A, Richardson JC, Hartkens T, Hill DL, Upton N, Hajnal JV, James MF (2009) Longitudinal regional brain volume changes quantified in normal aging and Alzheimer’s APP × PS1 mice using MRI. Brain Res 1270:19–32. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.02.045 PubMedCrossRef Maheswaran S, Barjat H, Rueckert D, Bate ST, Howlett DR, Tilling L, Smart SC, Pohlmann A, Richardson JC, Hartkens T, Hill DL, Upton N, Hajnal JV, James MF (2009) Longitudinal regional brain volume changes quantified in normal aging and Alzheimer’s APP × PS1 mice using MRI. Brain Res 1270:19–32. doi:10.​1016/​j.​brainres.​2009.​02.​045 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Marcon G, Giaccone G, Cupidi C, Balestrieri M, Beltrami CA, Finato N, Bergonzi P, Sorbi S, Bugiani O, Tagliavini F (2004) Neuropathological and clinical phenotype of an Italian Alzheimer family with M239V mutation of presenilin 2 gene. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63(3):199–209PubMedCrossRef Marcon G, Giaccone G, Cupidi C, Balestrieri M, Beltrami CA, Finato N, Bergonzi P, Sorbi S, Bugiani O, Tagliavini F (2004) Neuropathological and clinical phenotype of an Italian Alzheimer family with M239V mutation of presenilin 2 gene. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63(3):199–209PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference McDowell I (2001) Alzheimer’s disease: insights from epidemiology. Aging (Milan, Italy) 13(3):143–162 McDowell I (2001) Alzheimer’s disease: insights from epidemiology. Aging (Milan, Italy) 13(3):143–162
go back to reference McGeer PL, Itagaki S, Tago H, McGeer EG (1987) Reactive microglia in patients with senile dementia of the Alzheimer type are positive for the histocompatibility glycoprotein HLA-DR. Neurosci Lett 79(1–2):195–200PubMedCrossRef McGeer PL, Itagaki S, Tago H, McGeer EG (1987) Reactive microglia in patients with senile dementia of the Alzheimer type are positive for the histocompatibility glycoprotein HLA-DR. Neurosci Lett 79(1–2):195–200PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mittelbronn M, Dietz K, Schluesener HJ, Meyermann R (2001) Local distribution of microglia in the normal adult human central nervous system differs by up to one order of magnitude. Acta Neuropathol 101(3):249–255PubMed Mittelbronn M, Dietz K, Schluesener HJ, Meyermann R (2001) Local distribution of microglia in the normal adult human central nervous system differs by up to one order of magnitude. Acta Neuropathol 101(3):249–255PubMed
go back to reference Moehlmann T, Winkler E, Xia X, Edbauer D, Murrell J, Capell A, Kaether C, Zheng H, Ghetti B, Haass C, Steiner H (2002) Presenilin-1 mutations of leucine 166 equally affect the generation of the Notch and APP intracellular domains independent of their effect on Abeta 42 production. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99(12):8025–8030. doi:10.1073/pnas.112686799 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Moehlmann T, Winkler E, Xia X, Edbauer D, Murrell J, Capell A, Kaether C, Zheng H, Ghetti B, Haass C, Steiner H (2002) Presenilin-1 mutations of leucine 166 equally affect the generation of the Notch and APP intracellular domains independent of their effect on Abeta 42 production. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99(12):8025–8030. doi:10.​1073/​pnas.​112686799 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Morgan D, Diamond DM, Gottschall PE, Ugen KE, Dickey C, Hardy J, Duff K, Jantzen P, DiCarlo G, Wilcock D, Connor K, Hatcher J, Hope C, Gordon M, Arendash GW (2000) Abeta peptide vaccination prevents memory loss in an animal model of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 408(6815):982–985PubMedCrossRef Morgan D, Diamond DM, Gottschall PE, Ugen KE, Dickey C, Hardy J, Duff K, Jantzen P, DiCarlo G, Wilcock D, Connor K, Hatcher J, Hope C, Gordon M, Arendash GW (2000) Abeta peptide vaccination prevents memory loss in an animal model of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 408(6815):982–985PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Morgan D, Gordon MN, Tan J, Wilcock D, Rojiani AM (2005) Dynamic complexity of the microglial activation response in transgenic models of amyloid deposition: implications for Alzheimer therapeutics. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 64(9):743–753PubMedCrossRef Morgan D, Gordon MN, Tan J, Wilcock D, Rojiani AM (2005) Dynamic complexity of the microglial activation response in transgenic models of amyloid deposition: implications for Alzheimer therapeutics. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 64(9):743–753PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mullan M, Crawford F, Axelman K, Houlden H, Lilius L, Winblad B, Lannfelt L (1992) A pathogenic mutation for probable Alzheimer’s disease in the APP gene at the N-terminus of beta-amyloid. Nat Genet 1(5):345–347. doi:10.1038/ng0892-345 PubMedCrossRef Mullan M, Crawford F, Axelman K, Houlden H, Lilius L, Winblad B, Lannfelt L (1992) A pathogenic mutation for probable Alzheimer’s disease in the APP gene at the N-terminus of beta-amyloid. Nat Genet 1(5):345–347. doi:10.​1038/​ng0892-345 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mummery CJ, Patterson K, Price CJ, Ashburner J, Frackowiak RS, Hodges JR (2000) A voxel-based morphometry study of semantic dementia: relationship between temporal lobe atrophy and semantic memory. Ann Neurol 47(1):36–45PubMedCrossRef Mummery CJ, Patterson K, Price CJ, Ashburner J, Frackowiak RS, Hodges JR (2000) A voxel-based morphometry study of semantic dementia: relationship between temporal lobe atrophy and semantic memory. Ann Neurol 47(1):36–45PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Munoz L, Ralay Ranaivo H, Roy SM, Hu W, Craft JM, McNamara LK, Chico LW, Van Eldik LJ, Watterson DM (2007) A novel p38 alpha MAPK inhibitor suppresses brain proinflammatory cytokine up-regulation and attenuates synaptic dysfunction and behavioral deficits in an Alzheimer’s disease mouse model. J Neuroinflammation 4:21. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-4-21 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Munoz L, Ralay Ranaivo H, Roy SM, Hu W, Craft JM, McNamara LK, Chico LW, Van Eldik LJ, Watterson DM (2007) A novel p38 alpha MAPK inhibitor suppresses brain proinflammatory cytokine up-regulation and attenuates synaptic dysfunction and behavioral deficits in an Alzheimer’s disease mouse model. J Neuroinflammation 4:21. doi:10.​1186/​1742-2094-4-21 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Nicoll JA, Barton E, Boche D, Neal JW, Ferrer I, Thompson P, Vlachouli C, Wilkinson D, Bayer A, Games D, Seubert P, Schenk D, Holmes C (2006) Abeta species removal after Abeta42 immunization. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 65(11):1040–1048PubMedCrossRef Nicoll JA, Barton E, Boche D, Neal JW, Ferrer I, Thompson P, Vlachouli C, Wilkinson D, Bayer A, Games D, Seubert P, Schenk D, Holmes C (2006) Abeta species removal after Abeta42 immunization. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 65(11):1040–1048PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Oakley H, Cole SL, Logan S, Maus E, Shao P, Craft J, Guillozet-Bongaarts A, Ohno M, Disterhoft J, Van Eldik L, Berry R, Vassar R (2006) Intraneuronal beta-amyloid aggregates, neurodegeneration, and neuron loss in transgenic mice with five familial Alzheimer’s disease mutations: potential factors in amyloid plaque formation. J Neurosci 26(40):10129–10140. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1202-06.2006 PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral Oakley H, Cole SL, Logan S, Maus E, Shao P, Craft J, Guillozet-Bongaarts A, Ohno M, Disterhoft J, Van Eldik L, Berry R, Vassar R (2006) Intraneuronal beta-amyloid aggregates, neurodegeneration, and neuron loss in transgenic mice with five familial Alzheimer’s disease mutations: potential factors in amyloid plaque formation. J Neurosci 26(40):10129–10140. doi:10.​1523/​jneurosci.​1202-06.​2006 PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral
go back to reference Oddo S, Caccamo A, Shepherd JD, Murphy MP, Golde TE, Kayed R, Metherate R, Mattson MP, Akbari Y, LaFerla FM (2003) Triple-transgenic model of Alzheimer’s disease with plaques and tangles: intracellular Abeta and synaptic dysfunction. Neuron 39(3):409–421PubMedCrossRef Oddo S, Caccamo A, Shepherd JD, Murphy MP, Golde TE, Kayed R, Metherate R, Mattson MP, Akbari Y, LaFerla FM (2003) Triple-transgenic model of Alzheimer’s disease with plaques and tangles: intracellular Abeta and synaptic dysfunction. Neuron 39(3):409–421PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Ohsawa K, Imai Y, Kanazawa H, Sasaki Y, Kohsaka S (2000) Involvement of Iba1 in membrane ruffling and phagocytosis of macrophages/microglia. J Cell Sci 113(Pt 17):3073–3084PubMed Ohsawa K, Imai Y, Kanazawa H, Sasaki Y, Kohsaka S (2000) Involvement of Iba1 in membrane ruffling and phagocytosis of macrophages/microglia. J Cell Sci 113(Pt 17):3073–3084PubMed
go back to reference Radde R, Bolmont T, Kaeser SA, Coomaraswamy J, Lindau D, Stoltze L, Calhoun ME, Jaggi F, Wolburg H, Gengler S, Haass C, Ghetti B, Czech C, Holscher C, Mathews PM, Jucker M (2006) Abeta42-driven cerebral amyloidosis in transgenic mice reveals early and robust pathology. EMBO Rep 7(9):940–946. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400784 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Radde R, Bolmont T, Kaeser SA, Coomaraswamy J, Lindau D, Stoltze L, Calhoun ME, Jaggi F, Wolburg H, Gengler S, Haass C, Ghetti B, Czech C, Holscher C, Mathews PM, Jucker M (2006) Abeta42-driven cerebral amyloidosis in transgenic mice reveals early and robust pathology. EMBO Rep 7(9):940–946. doi:10.​1038/​sj.​embor.​7400784 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Rae F, Woods K, Sasmono T, Campanale N, Taylor D, Ovchinnikov DA, Grimmond SM, Hume DA, Ricardo SD, Little MH (2007) Characterisation and trophic functions of murine embryonic macrophages based upon the use of a Csf1r-EGFP transgene reporter. Dev Biol 308(1):232–246. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.05.027 PubMedCrossRef Rae F, Woods K, Sasmono T, Campanale N, Taylor D, Ovchinnikov DA, Grimmond SM, Hume DA, Ricardo SD, Little MH (2007) Characterisation and trophic functions of murine embryonic macrophages based upon the use of a Csf1r-EGFP transgene reporter. Dev Biol 308(1):232–246. doi:10.​1016/​j.​ydbio.​2007.​05.​027 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Rasool S, Martinez-Coria H, Wu JW, LaFerla F, Glabe CG (2013) Systemic vaccination with anti-oligomeric monoclonal antibodies improves cognitive function by reducing Abeta deposition and tau pathology in 3xTg-AD mice. J Neurochem 126(4):473–482. doi:10.1111/jnc.12305 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Rasool S, Martinez-Coria H, Wu JW, LaFerla F, Glabe CG (2013) Systemic vaccination with anti-oligomeric monoclonal antibodies improves cognitive function by reducing Abeta deposition and tau pathology in 3xTg-AD mice. J Neurochem 126(4):473–482. doi:10.​1111/​jnc.​12305 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Riley KP, Snowdon DA, Markesbery WR (2002) Alzheimer’s neurofibrillary pathology and the spectrum of cognitive function: findings from the Nun Study. Ann Neurol 51(5):567–577. doi:10.1002/ana.10161 PubMedCrossRef Riley KP, Snowdon DA, Markesbery WR (2002) Alzheimer’s neurofibrillary pathology and the spectrum of cognitive function: findings from the Nun Study. Ann Neurol 51(5):567–577. doi:10.​1002/​ana.​10161 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Riudavets MA, Bartoloni L, Troncoso JC, Pletnikova O, St George-Hyslop P, Schultz M, Sevlever G, Allegri RF (2013) Familial dementia with frontotemporal features associated with M146V presenilin-1 mutation. Brain Pathol 23(5):595–600. doi:10.1111/bpa.12051 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Riudavets MA, Bartoloni L, Troncoso JC, Pletnikova O, St George-Hyslop P, Schultz M, Sevlever G, Allegri RF (2013) Familial dementia with frontotemporal features associated with M146V presenilin-1 mutation. Brain Pathol 23(5):595–600. doi:10.​1111/​bpa.​12051 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Salloway S, Sperling R, Fox NC, Blennow K, Klunk W, Raskind M, Sabbagh M, Honig LS, Porsteinsson AP, Ferris S, Reichert M, Ketter N, Nejadnik B, Guenzler V, Miloslavsky M, Wang D, Lu Y, Lull J, Tudor IC, Liu E, Grundman M, Yuen E, Black R, Brashear HR, Bapineuzumab 301 and 302 Clinical Trial Investigators (2014) Two phase 3 trials of bapineuzumab in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 370(4):322–333. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1304839 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Salloway S, Sperling R, Fox NC, Blennow K, Klunk W, Raskind M, Sabbagh M, Honig LS, Porsteinsson AP, Ferris S, Reichert M, Ketter N, Nejadnik B, Guenzler V, Miloslavsky M, Wang D, Lu Y, Lull J, Tudor IC, Liu E, Grundman M, Yuen E, Black R, Brashear HR, Bapineuzumab 301 and 302 Clinical Trial Investigators (2014) Two phase 3 trials of bapineuzumab in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 370(4):322–333. doi:10.​1056/​NEJMoa1304839 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Schenk D, Barbour R, Dunn W, Gordon G, Grajeda H, Guido T, Hu K, Huang J, Johnson-Wood K, Khan K, Kholodenko D, Lee M, Liao Z, Lieberburg I, Motter R, Mutter L, Soriano F, Shopp G, Vasquez N, Vandevert C, Walker S, Wogulis M, Yednock T, Games D, Seubert P (1999) Immunization with amyloid-beta attenuates Alzheimer-disease-like pathology in the PDAPP mouse. Nature 400(6740):173–177PubMedCrossRef Schenk D, Barbour R, Dunn W, Gordon G, Grajeda H, Guido T, Hu K, Huang J, Johnson-Wood K, Khan K, Kholodenko D, Lee M, Liao Z, Lieberburg I, Motter R, Mutter L, Soriano F, Shopp G, Vasquez N, Vandevert C, Walker S, Wogulis M, Yednock T, Games D, Seubert P (1999) Immunization with amyloid-beta attenuates Alzheimer-disease-like pathology in the PDAPP mouse. Nature 400(6740):173–177PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Serrano-Pozo A, Muzikansky A, Gomez-Isla T, Growdon JH, Betensky RA, Frosch MP, Hyman BT (2013) Differential relationships of reactive astrocytes and microglia to fibrillar amyloid deposits in Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 72(6):462–471. doi:10.1097/NEN.0b013e3182933788 PubMedCrossRef Serrano-Pozo A, Muzikansky A, Gomez-Isla T, Growdon JH, Betensky RA, Frosch MP, Hyman BT (2013) Differential relationships of reactive astrocytes and microglia to fibrillar amyloid deposits in Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 72(6):462–471. doi:10.​1097/​NEN.​0b013e3182933788​ PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Sevigny J, Chiao P, Bussiere T, Weinreb PH, Williams L, Maier M, Dunstan R, Salloway S, Chen T, Ling Y, O’Gorman J, Qian F, Arastu M, Li M, Chollate S, Brennan MS, Quintero-Monzon O, Scannevin RH, Arnold HM, Engber T, Rhodes K, Ferrero J, Hang Y, Mikulskis A, Grimm J, Hock C, Nitsch RM, Sandrock A (2016) The antibody aducanumab reduces Abeta plaques in Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 537(7618):50–56. doi:10.1038/nature19323 PubMedCrossRef Sevigny J, Chiao P, Bussiere T, Weinreb PH, Williams L, Maier M, Dunstan R, Salloway S, Chen T, Ling Y, O’Gorman J, Qian F, Arastu M, Li M, Chollate S, Brennan MS, Quintero-Monzon O, Scannevin RH, Arnold HM, Engber T, Rhodes K, Ferrero J, Hang Y, Mikulskis A, Grimm J, Hock C, Nitsch RM, Sandrock A (2016) The antibody aducanumab reduces Abeta plaques in Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 537(7618):50–56. doi:10.​1038/​nature19323 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Simard AR, Soulet D, Gowing G, Julien JP, Rivest S (2006) Bone marrow-derived microglia play a critical role in restricting senile plaque formation in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuron 49(4):489–502PubMedCrossRef Simard AR, Soulet D, Gowing G, Julien JP, Rivest S (2006) Bone marrow-derived microglia play a critical role in restricting senile plaque formation in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuron 49(4):489–502PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Song M, Jin J, Lim JE, Kou J, Pattanayak A, Rehman JA, Kim HD, Tahara K, Lalonde R, Fukuchi K (2011) TLR4 mutation reduces microglial activation, increases Abeta deposits and exacerbates cognitive deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neuroinflammation 8:92. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-8-92 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Song M, Jin J, Lim JE, Kou J, Pattanayak A, Rehman JA, Kim HD, Tahara K, Lalonde R, Fukuchi K (2011) TLR4 mutation reduces microglial activation, increases Abeta deposits and exacerbates cognitive deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neuroinflammation 8:92. doi:10.​1186/​1742-2094-8-92 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Spires-Jones TL, Mielke ML, Rozkalne A, Meyer-Luehmann M, de Calignon A, Bacskai BJ, Schenk D, Hyman BT (2009) Passive immunotherapy rapidly increases structural plasticity in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease. Neurobiol Dis 33(2):213–220. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2008.10.011 PubMedCrossRef Spires-Jones TL, Mielke ML, Rozkalne A, Meyer-Luehmann M, de Calignon A, Bacskai BJ, Schenk D, Hyman BT (2009) Passive immunotherapy rapidly increases structural plasticity in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease. Neurobiol Dis 33(2):213–220. doi:10.​1016/​j.​nbd.​2008.​10.​011 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Stalder M, Phinney A, Probst A, Sommer B, Staufenbiel M, Jucker M (1999) Association of microglia with amyloid plaques in brains of APP23 transgenic mice. Am J Pathol 154(6):1673–1684PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Stalder M, Phinney A, Probst A, Sommer B, Staufenbiel M, Jucker M (1999) Association of microglia with amyloid plaques in brains of APP23 transgenic mice. Am J Pathol 154(6):1673–1684PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Tollervey JR, Wang Z, Hortobagyi T, Witten JT, Zarnack K, Kayikci M, Clark TA, Schweitzer AC, Rot G, Curk T, Zupan B, Rogelj B, Shaw CE, Ule J (2011) Analysis of alternative splicing associated with aging and neurodegeneration in the human brain. Genome Res 21(10):1572–1582. doi:10.1101/gr.122226.111 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Tollervey JR, Wang Z, Hortobagyi T, Witten JT, Zarnack K, Kayikci M, Clark TA, Schweitzer AC, Rot G, Curk T, Zupan B, Rogelj B, Shaw CE, Ule J (2011) Analysis of alternative splicing associated with aging and neurodegeneration in the human brain. Genome Res 21(10):1572–1582. doi:10.​1101/​gr.​122226.​111 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Waterston RH, Lindblad-Toh K, Birney E, Rogers J, Abril JF, Agarwal P, Agarwala R, Ainscough R, Alexandersson M, An P, Antonarakis SE, Attwood J, Baertsch R, Bailey J, Barlow K, Beck S, Berry E, Birren B, Bloom T, Bork P, Botcherby M, Bray N, Brent MR, Brown DG, Brown SD, Bult C, Burton J, Butler J, Campbell RD, Carninci P, Cawley S, Chiaromonte F, Chinwalla AT, Church DM, Clamp M, Clee C, Collins FS, Cook LL, Copley RR, Coulson A, Couronne O, Cuff J, Curwen V, Cutts T, Daly M, David R, Davies J, Delehaunty KD, Deri J, Dermitzakis ET, Dewey C, Dickens NJ, Diekhans M, Dodge S, Dubchak I, Dunn DM, Eddy SR, Elnitski L, Emes RD, Eswara P, Eyras E, Felsenfeld A, Fewell GA, Flicek P, Foley K, Frankel WN, Fulton LA, Fulton RS, Furey TS, Gage D, Gibbs RA, Glusman G, Gnerre S, Goldman N, Goodstadt L, Grafham D, Graves TA, Green ED, Gregory S, Guigo R, Guyer M, Hardison RC, Haussler D, Hayashizaki Y, Hillier LW, Hinrichs A, Hlavina W, Holzer T, Hsu F, Hua A, Hubbard T, Hunt A, Jackson I, Jaffe DB, Johnson LS, Jones M, Jones TA, Joy A, Kamal M, Karlsson EK, Karolchik D, Kasprzyk A, Kawai J, Keibler E, Kells C, Kent WJ, Kirby A, Kolbe DL, Korf I, Kucherlapati RS, Kulbokas EJ, Kulp D, Landers T, Leger JP, Leonard S, Letunic I, Levine R, Li J, Li M, Lloyd C, Lucas S, Ma B, Maglott DR, Mardis ER, Matthews L, Mauceli E, Mayer JH, McCarthy M, McCombie WR, McLaren S, McLay K, McPherson JD, Meldrim J, Meredith B, Mesirov JP, Miller W, Miner TL, Mongin E, Montgomery KT, Morgan M, Mott R, Mullikin JC, Muzny DM, Nash WE, Nelson JO, Nhan MN, Nicol R, Ning Z, Nusbaum C, O’Connor MJ, Okazaki Y, Oliver K, Overton-Larty E, Pachter L, Parra G, Pepin KH, Peterson J, Pevzner P, Plumb R, Pohl CS, Poliakov A, Ponce TC, Ponting CP, Potter S, Quail M, Reymond A, Roe BA, Roskin KM, Rubin EM, Rust AG, Santos R, Sapojnikov V, Schultz B, Schultz J, Schwartz MS, Schwartz S, Scott C, Seaman S, Searle S, Sharpe T, Sheridan A, Shownkeen R, Sims S, Singer JB, Slater G, Smit A, Smith DR, Spencer B, Stabenau A, Stange-Thomann N, Sugnet C, Suyama M, Tesler G, Thompson J, Torrents D, Trevaskis E, Tromp J, Ucla C, Ureta-Vidal A, Vinson JP, Von Niederhausern AC, Wade CM, Wall M, Weber RJ, Weiss RB, Wendl MC, West AP, Wetterstrand K, Wheeler R, Whelan S, Wierzbowski J, Willey D, Williams S, Wilson RK, Winter E, Worley KC, Wyman D, Yang S, Yang SP, Zdobnov EM, Zody MC, Lander ES (2002) Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome. Nature 420(6915):520–562. doi:10.1038/nature01262 PubMedCrossRef Waterston RH, Lindblad-Toh K, Birney E, Rogers J, Abril JF, Agarwal P, Agarwala R, Ainscough R, Alexandersson M, An P, Antonarakis SE, Attwood J, Baertsch R, Bailey J, Barlow K, Beck S, Berry E, Birren B, Bloom T, Bork P, Botcherby M, Bray N, Brent MR, Brown DG, Brown SD, Bult C, Burton J, Butler J, Campbell RD, Carninci P, Cawley S, Chiaromonte F, Chinwalla AT, Church DM, Clamp M, Clee C, Collins FS, Cook LL, Copley RR, Coulson A, Couronne O, Cuff J, Curwen V, Cutts T, Daly M, David R, Davies J, Delehaunty KD, Deri J, Dermitzakis ET, Dewey C, Dickens NJ, Diekhans M, Dodge S, Dubchak I, Dunn DM, Eddy SR, Elnitski L, Emes RD, Eswara P, Eyras E, Felsenfeld A, Fewell GA, Flicek P, Foley K, Frankel WN, Fulton LA, Fulton RS, Furey TS, Gage D, Gibbs RA, Glusman G, Gnerre S, Goldman N, Goodstadt L, Grafham D, Graves TA, Green ED, Gregory S, Guigo R, Guyer M, Hardison RC, Haussler D, Hayashizaki Y, Hillier LW, Hinrichs A, Hlavina W, Holzer T, Hsu F, Hua A, Hubbard T, Hunt A, Jackson I, Jaffe DB, Johnson LS, Jones M, Jones TA, Joy A, Kamal M, Karlsson EK, Karolchik D, Kasprzyk A, Kawai J, Keibler E, Kells C, Kent WJ, Kirby A, Kolbe DL, Korf I, Kucherlapati RS, Kulbokas EJ, Kulp D, Landers T, Leger JP, Leonard S, Letunic I, Levine R, Li J, Li M, Lloyd C, Lucas S, Ma B, Maglott DR, Mardis ER, Matthews L, Mauceli E, Mayer JH, McCarthy M, McCombie WR, McLaren S, McLay K, McPherson JD, Meldrim J, Meredith B, Mesirov JP, Miller W, Miner TL, Mongin E, Montgomery KT, Morgan M, Mott R, Mullikin JC, Muzny DM, Nash WE, Nelson JO, Nhan MN, Nicol R, Ning Z, Nusbaum C, O’Connor MJ, Okazaki Y, Oliver K, Overton-Larty E, Pachter L, Parra G, Pepin KH, Peterson J, Pevzner P, Plumb R, Pohl CS, Poliakov A, Ponce TC, Ponting CP, Potter S, Quail M, Reymond A, Roe BA, Roskin KM, Rubin EM, Rust AG, Santos R, Sapojnikov V, Schultz B, Schultz J, Schwartz MS, Schwartz S, Scott C, Seaman S, Searle S, Sharpe T, Sheridan A, Shownkeen R, Sims S, Singer JB, Slater G, Smit A, Smith DR, Spencer B, Stabenau A, Stange-Thomann N, Sugnet C, Suyama M, Tesler G, Thompson J, Torrents D, Trevaskis E, Tromp J, Ucla C, Ureta-Vidal A, Vinson JP, Von Niederhausern AC, Wade CM, Wall M, Weber RJ, Weiss RB, Wendl MC, West AP, Wetterstrand K, Wheeler R, Whelan S, Wierzbowski J, Willey D, Williams S, Wilson RK, Winter E, Worley KC, Wyman D, Yang S, Yang SP, Zdobnov EM, Zody MC, Lander ES (2002) Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome. Nature 420(6915):520–562. doi:10.​1038/​nature01262 PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Wilcock DM, DiCarlo G, Henderson D, Jackson J, Clarke K, Ugen KE, Gordon MN, Morgan D (2003) Intracranially administered anti-Abeta antibodies reduce beta-amyloid deposition by mechanisms both independent of and associated with microglial activation. J Neurosci 23(9):3745–3751PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral Wilcock DM, DiCarlo G, Henderson D, Jackson J, Clarke K, Ugen KE, Gordon MN, Morgan D (2003) Intracranially administered anti-Abeta antibodies reduce beta-amyloid deposition by mechanisms both independent of and associated with microglial activation. J Neurosci 23(9):3745–3751PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral
go back to reference Wilcock DM, Munireddy SK, Rosenthal A, Ugen KE, Gordon MN, Morgan D (2004a) Microglial activation facilitates Abeta plaque removal following intracranial anti-Abeta antibody administration. Neurobiol Dis 15(1):11–20PubMedCrossRef Wilcock DM, Munireddy SK, Rosenthal A, Ugen KE, Gordon MN, Morgan D (2004a) Microglial activation facilitates Abeta plaque removal following intracranial anti-Abeta antibody administration. Neurobiol Dis 15(1):11–20PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Wilcock DM, Rojiani A, Rosenthal A, Subbarao S, Freeman MJ, Gordon MN, Morgan D (2004b) Passive immunotherapy against Abeta in aged APP-transgenic mice reverses cognitive deficits and depletes parenchymal amyloid deposits in spite of increased vascular amyloid and microhemorrhage. J Neuroinflammation 1(1):24PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Wilcock DM, Rojiani A, Rosenthal A, Subbarao S, Freeman MJ, Gordon MN, Morgan D (2004b) Passive immunotherapy against Abeta in aged APP-transgenic mice reverses cognitive deficits and depletes parenchymal amyloid deposits in spite of increased vascular amyloid and microhemorrhage. J Neuroinflammation 1(1):24PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Xue J, Schmidt SV, Sander J, Draffehn A, Krebs W, Quester I, De Nardo D, Gohel TD, Emde M, Schmidleithner L, Ganesan H, Nino-Castro A, Mallmann MR, Labzin L, Theis H, Kraut M, Beyer M, Latz E, Freeman TC, Ulas T, Schultze JL (2014) Transcriptome-based network analysis reveals a spectrum model of human macrophage activation. Immunity 40(2):274–288. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2014.01.006 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Xue J, Schmidt SV, Sander J, Draffehn A, Krebs W, Quester I, De Nardo D, Gohel TD, Emde M, Schmidleithner L, Ganesan H, Nino-Castro A, Mallmann MR, Labzin L, Theis H, Kraut M, Beyer M, Latz E, Freeman TC, Ulas T, Schultze JL (2014) Transcriptome-based network analysis reveals a spectrum model of human macrophage activation. Immunity 40(2):274–288. doi:10.​1016/​j.​immuni.​2014.​01.​006 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Yuan R, Peters LL, Paigen B (2011) Mice as a mammalian model for research on the genetics of aging. ILAR J 52(1):4–15PubMedCrossRef Yuan R, Peters LL, Paigen B (2011) Mice as a mammalian model for research on the genetics of aging. ILAR J 52(1):4–15PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Yue F, Cheng Y, Breschi A, Vierstra J, Wu W, Ryba T, Sandstrom R, Ma Z, Davis C, Pope BD, Shen Y, Pervouchine DD, Djebali S, Thurman RE, Kaul R, Rynes E, Kirilusha A, Marinov GK, Williams BA, Trout D, Amrhein H, Fisher-Aylor K, Antoshechkin I, DeSalvo G, See LH, Fastuca M, Drenkow J, Zaleski C, Dobin A, Prieto P, Lagarde J, Bussotti G, Tanzer A, Denas O, Li K, Bender MA, Zhang M, Byron R, Groudine MT, McCleary D, Pham L, Ye Z, Kuan S, Edsall L, Wu YC, Rasmussen MD, Bansal MS, Kellis M, Keller CA, Morrissey CS, Mishra T, Jain D, Dogan N, Harris RS, Cayting P, Kawli T, Boyle AP, Euskirchen G, Kundaje A, Lin S, Lin Y, Jansen C, Malladi VS, Cline MS, Erickson DT, Kirkup VM, Learned K, Sloan CA, Rosenbloom KR, Lacerda de Sousa B, Beal K, Pignatelli M, Flicek P, Lian J, Kahveci T, Lee D, Kent WJ, Ramalho Santos M, Herrero J, Notredame C, Johnson A, Vong S, Lee K, Bates D, Neri F, Diegel M, Canfield T, Sabo PJ, Wilken MS, Reh TA, Giste E, Shafer A, Kutyavin T, Haugen E, Dunn D, Reynolds AP, Neph S, Humbert R, Hansen RS, De Bruijn M, Selleri L, Rudensky A, Josefowicz S, Samstein R, Eichler EE, Orkin SH, Levasseur D, Papayannopoulou T, Chang KH, Skoultchi A, Gosh S, Disteche C, Treuting P, Wang Y, Weiss MJ, Blobel GA, Cao X, Zhong S, Wang T, Good PJ, Lowdon RF, Adams LB, Zhou XQ, Pazin MJ, Feingold EA, Wold B, Taylor J, Mortazavi A, Weissman SM, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Snyder MP, Guigo R, Gingeras TR, Gilbert DM, Hardison RC, Beer MA, Ren B, Mouse EC (2014) A comparative encyclopedia of DNA elements in the mouse genome. Nature 515(7527):355–364. doi:10.1038/nature13992 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Yue F, Cheng Y, Breschi A, Vierstra J, Wu W, Ryba T, Sandstrom R, Ma Z, Davis C, Pope BD, Shen Y, Pervouchine DD, Djebali S, Thurman RE, Kaul R, Rynes E, Kirilusha A, Marinov GK, Williams BA, Trout D, Amrhein H, Fisher-Aylor K, Antoshechkin I, DeSalvo G, See LH, Fastuca M, Drenkow J, Zaleski C, Dobin A, Prieto P, Lagarde J, Bussotti G, Tanzer A, Denas O, Li K, Bender MA, Zhang M, Byron R, Groudine MT, McCleary D, Pham L, Ye Z, Kuan S, Edsall L, Wu YC, Rasmussen MD, Bansal MS, Kellis M, Keller CA, Morrissey CS, Mishra T, Jain D, Dogan N, Harris RS, Cayting P, Kawli T, Boyle AP, Euskirchen G, Kundaje A, Lin S, Lin Y, Jansen C, Malladi VS, Cline MS, Erickson DT, Kirkup VM, Learned K, Sloan CA, Rosenbloom KR, Lacerda de Sousa B, Beal K, Pignatelli M, Flicek P, Lian J, Kahveci T, Lee D, Kent WJ, Ramalho Santos M, Herrero J, Notredame C, Johnson A, Vong S, Lee K, Bates D, Neri F, Diegel M, Canfield T, Sabo PJ, Wilken MS, Reh TA, Giste E, Shafer A, Kutyavin T, Haugen E, Dunn D, Reynolds AP, Neph S, Humbert R, Hansen RS, De Bruijn M, Selleri L, Rudensky A, Josefowicz S, Samstein R, Eichler EE, Orkin SH, Levasseur D, Papayannopoulou T, Chang KH, Skoultchi A, Gosh S, Disteche C, Treuting P, Wang Y, Weiss MJ, Blobel GA, Cao X, Zhong S, Wang T, Good PJ, Lowdon RF, Adams LB, Zhou XQ, Pazin MJ, Feingold EA, Wold B, Taylor J, Mortazavi A, Weissman SM, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Snyder MP, Guigo R, Gingeras TR, Gilbert DM, Hardison RC, Beer MA, Ren B, Mouse EC (2014) A comparative encyclopedia of DNA elements in the mouse genome. Nature 515(7527):355–364. doi:10.​1038/​nature13992 PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
go back to reference Zotova E, Bharambe V, Cheaveau M, Morgan W, Holmes C, Harris S, Neal JW, Love S, Nicoll JA, Boche D (2013) Inflammatory components in human Alzheimer’s disease and after active amyloid-beta42 immunization. Brain 136(Pt 9):2677–2696. doi:10.1093/brain/awt210 PubMedCrossRef Zotova E, Bharambe V, Cheaveau M, Morgan W, Holmes C, Harris S, Neal JW, Love S, Nicoll JA, Boche D (2013) Inflammatory components in human Alzheimer’s disease and after active amyloid-beta42 immunization. Brain 136(Pt 9):2677–2696. doi:10.​1093/​brain/​awt210 PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Innate immunity in Alzheimer’s disease: the relevance of animal models?
Authors
Diana K. Franco Bocanegra
James A. R. Nicoll
Delphine Boche
Publication date
01-05-2018
Publisher
Springer Vienna
Published in
Journal of Neural Transmission / Issue 5/2018
Print ISSN: 0300-9564
Electronic ISSN: 1435-1463
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-017-1729-4

Other articles of this Issue 5/2018

Journal of Neural Transmission 5/2018 Go to the issue

High Impact Review in Neuroscience, Neurology or Psychiatry - Review Article

Differential contribution of microglia and monocytes in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurology and Preclinical Neurological Studies - Review Article

The IL-1β phenomena in neuroinflammatory diseases

Neurology and Preclinical Neurological Studies - Review Article

Let’s make microglia great again in neurodegenerative disorders

Neurology and Preclinical Neurological Studies - Review Article

In vivo PET imaging of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease

Neurology and Preclinical Neurological Studies - Review Article

Neuroinflammatory responses in Alzheimer’s disease

Psychiatry and Preclinical Psychiatric Studies - Original Article

Kynurenine is correlated with IL-1β in plasma of schizophrenia patients