Top

Published in:

01-12-2020 | Pneumonia | Narrative Review

Pulmonary infections complicating ARDS

Authors: Charles-Edouard Luyt, Lila Bouadma, Andrew Conway Morris, Jayesh A. Dhanani, Marin Kollef, Jeffrey Lipman, Ignacio Martin-Loeches, Saad Nseir, Otavio T. Ranzani, Antoine Roquilly, Matthieu Schmidt, Antoni Torres, Jean-François Timsit

Published in: Intensive Care Medicine | Issue 12/2020

Abstract

Pulmonary infection is one of the main complications occurring in patients suffering from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Besides traditional risk factors, dysregulation of lung immune defenses and microbiota may play an important role in ARDS patients. Prone positioning does not seem to be associated with a higher risk of pulmonary infection. Although bacteria associated with ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in ARDS patients are similar to those in patients without ARDS, atypical pathogens (Aspergillus, herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus) may also be responsible for infection in ARDS patients. Diagnosing pulmonary infection in ARDS patients is challenging, and requires a combination of clinical, biological and microbiological criteria. The role of modern tools (e.g., molecular methods, metagenomic sequencing, etc.) remains to be evaluated in this setting. One of the challenges of antimicrobial treatment is antibiotics diffusion into the lungs. Although targeted delivery of antibiotics using nebulization may be interesting, their place in ARDS patients remains to be explored. The use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in the most severe patients is associated with a high rate of infection and raises several challenges, diagnostic issues and pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics changes being at the top. Prevention of pulmonary infection is a key issue in ARDS patients, but there is no specific measure for these high-risk patients. Reinforcing preventive measures using bundles seems to be the best option.

Thompson BT, Chambers RC, Liu KD (2017) Acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 377:562–572. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1608077CrossRefPubMed

Magill SS, O’Leary E, Janelle SJ et al (2018) Changes in prevalence of health care-associated infections in US Hospitals. N Engl J Med 379:1732–1744. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1801550CrossRefPubMed

Forel J-M, Voillet F, Pulina D et al (2012) Ventilator-associated pneumonia and ICU mortality in severe ARDS patients ventilated according to a lung-protective strategy. Crit Care 16:R65. https://doi.org/10.1186/cc11312CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Ayzac L, Girard R, Baboi L et al (2016) Ventilator-associated pneumonia in ARDS patients: the impact of prone positioning. A secondary analysis of the PROSEVA trial. Intensive Care Med 42:871–878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-015-4167-5CrossRefPubMed

Papazian L, Klompas M, Luyt C-E (2020) Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a narrative review. Intensive Care Med. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-05980-0CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Leliefeld PHC, Wessels CM, Leenen LPH et al (2016) The role of neutrophils in immune dysfunction during severe inflammation. Crit Care 20:73. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-016-1250-4CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Hotchkiss RS, Monneret G, Payen D (2013) Immunosuppression in sepsis: a novel understanding of the disorder and a new therapeutic approach. Lancet Infect Dis 13:260–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70001-XCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Morris AC, Datta D, Shankar-Hari M et al (2018) Cell-surface signatures of immune dysfunction risk-stratify critically ill patients: INFECT study. Intensive Care Med 44:627–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-018-5247-0CrossRef

Morris AC, Kefala K, Wilkinson TS et al (2009) C5a mediates peripheral blood neutrophil dysfunction in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 180:19–28. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200812-1928OCCrossRefPubMedCentral

10.

Vourc’h M, Roquilly A, Asehnoune K (2018) Trauma-induced damage-associated molecular patterns-mediated remote organ injury and immunosuppression in the acutely ill patient. Front Immunol 9:1330. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.01330CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

11.

Bouras M, Asehnoune K, Roquilly A (2018) Contribution of dendritic cell responses to sepsis-induced immunosuppression and to susceptibility to secondary pneumonia. Front Immunol 9:2590. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02590CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

12.

Roquilly A, Jacqueline C, Davieau M et al (2020) Alveolar macrophages are epigenetically altered after inflammation, leading to long-term lung immunoparalysis. Nat Immunol 21:636–648. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-020-0673-xCrossRefPubMed

13.

Roquilly A, McWilliam HEG, Jacqueline C et al (2017) Local modulation of antigen-presenting cell development after resolution of pneumonia induces long-term susceptibility to secondary infections. Immunity 47:135-147.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2017.06.021CrossRefPubMed

14.

Wood AJ, Vassallo AM, Ruchaud-Sparagano M-H et al (2020) C5a impairs phagosomal maturation in the neutrophil through phosphoproteomic remodelling. JCI Insight. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.137029CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

15.

Boomer JS, To K, Chang KC et al (2011) Immunosuppression in patients who die of sepsis and multiple organ failure. JAMA 306:2594–2605. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1829CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

16.

Netea MG, Joosten LAB (2018) Trained immunity and local innate immune memory in the lung. Cell 175:1463–1465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.11.007CrossRefPubMed

17.

Villar J, Ferrando C, Martínez D et al (2020) Dexamethasone treatment for the acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med 8:267–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(19)30417-5CrossRefPubMed

18.

The Lancet Respiratory Medicine (2019) Harnessing the microbiome for lung health. Lancet Respir Med 7:827. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(19)30307-8CrossRefPubMed

19.

Dickson RP, Singer BH, Newstead MW et al (2016) Enrichment of the lung microbiome with gut bacteria in sepsis and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Nat Microbiol 1:16113. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.113CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

20.

Dickson RP, Erb-Downward JR, Falkowski NR et al (2018) The lung microbiota of healthy mice are highly variable, cluster by environment, and reflect variation in baseline lung innate immunity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 198:497–508. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201711-2180OCCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

21.

Zakharkina T, Martin-Loeches I, Matamoros S et al (2017) The dynamics of the pulmonary microbiome during mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit and the association with occurrence of pneumonia. Thorax 72:803–810. https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2016-209158CrossRefPubMed

22.

Dickson RP, Schultz MJ, van der Poll T et al (2020) Lung microbiota predict clinical outcomes in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 201:555–563. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201907-1487OCCrossRefPubMed

23.

Panzer AR, Lynch SV, Langelier C et al (2018) Lung microbiota is related to smoking status and to development of acute respiratory distress syndrome in critically ill trauma patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 197:621–631. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201702-0441OCCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

24.

Luyt C-E, Combes A, Deback C et al (2007) Herpes simplex virus lung infection in patients undergoing prolonged mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 175:935–942. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200609-1322OCCrossRefPubMed

25.

Ravi A, Halstead FD, Bamford A et al (2019) Loss of microbial diversity and pathogen domination of the gut microbiota in critically ill patients. Microb Genom. https://doi.org/10.1099/mgen.0.000293CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

26.

Robak OH, Heimesaat MM, Kruglov AA et al (2018) Antibiotic treatment-induced secondary IgA deficiency enhances susceptibility to Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. J Clin Invest 128:3535–3545. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI97065CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

27.

Roquilly A, Torres A, Villadangos JA et al (2019) Pathophysiological role of respiratory dysbiosis in hospital-acquired pneumonia. Lancet Respir Med 7:710–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(19)30140-7CrossRefPubMed

28.

Arulkumaran N, Routledge M, Schlebusch S et al (2020) Antimicrobial-associated harm in critical care: a narrative review. Intensive Care Med 46:225–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-05929-3CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

29.

van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M et al (2013) Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 368:407–415. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1205037CrossRefPubMed

30.

Besselink MG, van Santvoort HC, Buskens E et al (2008) Probiotic prophylaxis in predicted severe acute pancreatitis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 371:651–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60207-XCrossRefPubMed

31.

Yelin I, Flett KB, Merakou C et al (2019) Genomic and epidemiological evidence of bacterial transmission from probiotic capsule to blood in ICU patients. Nat Med 25:1728–1732. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-019-0626-9CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

32.

Madotto F, Rezoagli E, Pham T et al (2020) Hyperoxemia and excess oxygen use in early acute respiratory distress syndrome: insights from the LUNG SAFE study. Critical Care (London, England) 24:125. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-2826-6CrossRef

33.

Girardis M, Busani S, Damiani E et al (2016) Effect of conservative vs conventional oxygen therapy on mortality among patients in an intensive care unit: the oxygen-ICU randomized clinical trial. JAMA 316:1583–1589. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.11993CrossRefPubMed

34.

Asfar P, Schortgen F, Boisramé-Helms J et al (2017) Hyperoxia and hypertonic saline in patients with septic shock (HYPERS2S): a two-by-two factorial, multicentre, randomised, clinical trial. Lancet Respir Med. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(17)30046-2CrossRefPubMed

35.

ICU-ROX Investigators and the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group M, Mackle D, Bellomo R et al (2020) Conservative oxygen therapy during mechanical ventilation in the ICU. N Engl J Med 382:989–998. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1903297CrossRef

36.

Young P, Mackle D, Bellomo R et al (2020) Conservative oxygen therapy for mechanically ventilated adults with sepsis: a post hoc analysis of data from the intensive care unit randomized trial comparing two approaches to oxygen therapy (ICU-ROX). Intensive Care Med 46:17–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-019-05857-xCrossRefPubMed

37.

Kallet RH (2013) Adjunct therapies during mechanical ventilation: airway clearance techniques, therapeutic aerosols, and gases. Respir Care 58:1053–1073. https://doi.org/10.4187/respcare.02217CrossRefPubMed

38.

Entezari M, Javdan M, Antoine DJ et al (2014) Inhibition of extracellular HMGB1 attenuates hyperoxia-induced inflammatory acute lung injury. Redox Biol 2:314–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2014.01.013CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

39.

Kikuchi Y, Tateda K, Fuse ET et al (2009) Hyperoxia exaggerates bacterial dissemination and lethality in Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 22:333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pupt.2008.12.021CrossRefPubMed

40.

Six S, Jaffal K, Ledoux G et al (2016) Hyperoxemia as a risk factor for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-016-1368-4CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

41.

Mounier R, Adrie C, Français A et al (2010) Study of prone positioning to reduce ventilator-associated pneumonia in hypoxaemic patients. Eur Respir J 35:795–804. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00057509CrossRefPubMed

42.

Fernandez R, Trenchs X, Klamburg J et al (2008) Prone positioning in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicenter randomized clinical trial. Intensive Care Med. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00134-008-1119-3CrossRefPubMed

43.

Guerin C, Gaillard S, Lemasson S et al (2004) Effects of systematic prone positioning in hypoxemic acute respiratory failure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 292:2379–2387. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.292.19.2379CrossRefPubMed

44.

Voggenreiter G, Aufmkolk M, Stiletto RJ et al (2005) Prone positioning improves oxygenation in post-traumatic lung injury—a prospective randomized trial. J Trauma 59:333–341. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ta.0000179952.95921.49CrossRefPubMed

45.

Fernando SM, Tran A, Cheng W et al (2020) Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill adult patients-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 46:1170–1179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-06036-zCrossRefPubMed

46.

Browne E, Hellyer TP, Baudouin SV et al (2014) A national survey of the diagnosis and management of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. BMJ Open Respir Res 1:e000066. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjresp-2014-000066CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

47.

Berton DC, Kalil AC, Teixeira PJZ (2014) Quantitative versus qualitative cultures of respiratory secretions for clinical outcomes in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006482.pub4CrossRefPubMed

48.

Luyt C-E, Hékimian G, Bonnet I et al (2020) Usefulness of point-of-care multiplex PCR to rapidly identify pathogens responsible for ventilator-associated pneumonia and their resistance to antibiotics: an observational study. Crit Care 24:378. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03102-2CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

49.

Conway Morris A, Gadsby N, McKenna JP et al (2017) 16S pan-bacterial PCR can accurately identify patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Thorax 72:1046–1048. https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2016-209065CrossRefPubMed

50.

Peiffer-Smadja N, Bouadma L, Mathy V et al (2020) Performance and impact of a multiplex PCR in ICU patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia or ventilated hospital-acquired pneumonia. Crit Care 24:366. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03067-2CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

51.

Schauwvlieghe AFAD, Rijnders BJA, Philips N et al (2018) Invasive aspergillosis in patients admitted to the intensive care unit with severe influenza: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Respir Med 6:782–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(18)30274-1CrossRefPubMed

52.

Meduri GU, Reddy RC, Stanley T, El-Zeky F (1998) Pneumonia in acute respiratory distress syndrome. A prospective evaluation of bilateral bronchoscopic sampling. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:870–875. https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.158.3.9706112CrossRefPubMed

53.

Rebetz J, Semple JW, Kapur R (2018) The pathogenic involvement of neutrophils in acute respiratory distress syndrome and transfusion-related acute lung injury. Transfus Med Hemother 45:290–298. https://doi.org/10.1159/000492950CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

54.

Morris AC, Kefala K, Wilkinson TS et al (2010) Diagnostic importance of pulmonary interleukin-1beta and interleukin-8 in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Thorax 65:201–207. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2009.122291CrossRef

55.

Hellyer TP, McAuley DF, Walsh TS et al (2020) Biomarker-guided antibiotic stewardship in suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAPrapid2): a randomised controlled trial and process evaluation. Lancet Respir Med 8:182–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(19)30367-4CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

56.

Luyt C-E, Hékimian G, Koulenti D, Chastre J (2018) Microbial cause of ICU-acquired pneumonia: hospital-acquired pneumonia versus ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care 24:332–338. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCC.0000000000000526CrossRefPubMed

57.

Markowicz P, Wolff M, Djedaïni K et al (2000) Multicenter prospective study of ventilator-associated pneumonia during acute respiratory distress syndrome. Incidence, prognosis, and risk factors. ARDS study group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:1942–1948. https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.161.6.9909122CrossRefPubMed

58.

Schmidt M, Bréchot N, Hariri S et al (2012) Nosocomial infections in adult cardiogenic shock patients supported by venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Clin Infect Dis 55:1633–1641. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis783CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

59.

Rodloff AC, Dowzicky MJ (2017) Antimicrobial susceptibility among european gram-negative and gram-positive isolates collected as part of the Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial (2004–2014). Chemotherapy 62:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1159/000445022CrossRefPubMed

60.

Sader HS, Castanheira M, Arends SJR et al (2019) Geographical and temporal variation in the frequency and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated from patients hospitalized with bacterial pneumonia: results from 20 years of the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997–2016). J Antimicrob Chemother 74:1595–1606. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkz074CrossRefPubMed

61.

Marston HD, Dixon DM, Knisely JM et al (2016) Antimicrobial resistance. JAMA 316:1193–1204. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.11764CrossRefPubMed

62.

Rodríguez-Núñez O, Periañez-Parraga L, Oliver A et al (2019) Higher MICs (> 2 mg/L) predict 30-day mortality in patients with lower respiratory tract infections caused by multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa treated with ceftolozane/tazobactam. Open Forum Infect Dis 6:ofz416. https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofz416CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

63.

Kelly BJ, Imai I, Bittinger K et al (2016) Composition and dynamics of the respiratory tract microbiome in intubated patients. Microbiome 4:7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-016-0151-8CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

64.

Keane S, Vallecoccia MS, Nseir S, Martin-Loeches I (2018) How can we distinguish ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis from pneumonia? Clin Chest Med 39:785–796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccm.2018.08.003CrossRefPubMed

65.

Keane S, Martin-Loeches I (2019) Host-pathogen interaction during mechanical ventilation: systemic or compartmentalized response? Crit Care 23:134. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-019-2410-0CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

66.

Zampieri FG, Póvoa P, Salluh JI et al (2020) Lower respiratory tract infection and short-term outcome in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Intensive Care Med 35:588–594. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885066618772498CrossRefPubMed

67.

Eyre DW, Sheppard AE, Madder H et al (2018) A Candida auris outbreak and its control in an intensive care setting. N Engl J Med 379:1322–1331. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1714373CrossRefPubMed

68.

Li Q, Guan X, Wu P et al (2020) Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 382:1199–1207. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

69.

McGann P, Snesrud E, Maybank R et al (2016) Escherichia coli harboring mcr-1 and blaCTX-M on a novel IncF plasmid: first report of mcr-1 in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 60:4420–4421. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01103-16CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

70.

Arabi YM, Balkhy HH, Hayden FG et al (2017) Middle east respiratory syndrome. N Engl J Med 376:584–594. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsr1408795CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

71.

Wilson MR, Sample HA, Zorn KC et al (2019) Clinical metagenomic sequencing for diagnosis of meningitis and encephalitis. N Engl J Med 380:2327–2340. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1803396CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

72.

Lugosi M, Alberti C, Zahar J-R et al (2014) Aspergillus in the lower respiratory tract of immunocompetent critically ill patients. J Infect 69:284–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2014.04.010CrossRefPubMed

73.

Camargo JF, Husain S (2014) Immune correlates of protection in human invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 59:569–577. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciu337CrossRefPubMed

74.

Martin-Loeches I, Schultz J, Vincent J-L et al (2017) Increased incidence of co-infection in critically ill patients with influenza. Intensive Care Med 43:48–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-016-4578-yCrossRefPubMed

75.

Contou D, Dorison M, Rosman J et al (2016) Aspergillus-positive lower respiratory tract samples in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome: a 10-year retrospective study. Ann Intensive Care 6:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-016-0156-2CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

76.

de Hemptinne Q, Remmelink M, Brimioulle S et al (2009) ARDS: a clinicopathological confrontation. Chest 135:944–949. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.08-1741CrossRefPubMed

77.

Limaye AP, Kirby KA, Rubenfeld GD et al (2008) Cytomegalovirus reactivation in critically ill immunocompetent patients. JAMA 300:413–422. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.300.4.413CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

78.

Ong DSY, Bonten MJM, Spitoni C et al (2017) Epidemiology of multiple herpes viremia in previously immunocompetent patients with septic shock. Clin Infect Dis 64:1204–1210. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix120CrossRefPubMed

79.

Papazian L, Hraiech S, Lehingue S et al (2016) Cytomegalovirus reactivation in ICU patients. Intensive Care Med 42:28–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-015-4066-9CrossRefPubMed

80.

Luyt C-E, Forel J-M, Hajage D et al (2019) Acyclovir for mechanically ventilated patients with herpes simplex virus oropharyngeal reactivation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.5713CrossRef

81.

Cowley NJ, Owen A, Shiels SC et al (2017) Safety and efficacy of antiviral therapy for prevention of cytomegalovirus reactivation in immunocompetent critically ill patients: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 177:774–783. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.0895CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

82.

Limaye AP, Stapleton RD, Peng L et al (2017) Effect of ganciclovir on IL-6 levels among cytomegalovirus-seropositive adults with critical illness: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 318:731–740. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.10569CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

83.

Loubet P, Voiriot G, Houhou-Fidouh N et al (2017) Impact of respiratory viruses in hospital-acquired pneumonia in the intensive care unit: a single-center retrospective study. J Clin Virol 91:52–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2017.04.001CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

84.

Papazian L, Aubron C, Brochard L et al (2019) Formal guidelines: management of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Ann Intensive Care 9:69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-019-0540-9CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

85.

Combes A, Hajage D, Capellier G et al (2018) Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 378:1965–1975. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1800385CrossRefPubMed

86.

Bizzarro MJ, Conrad SA, Kaufman DA, Rycus P (2011) Infections acquired during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in neonates, children, and adults. Pediatr Crit Care Med 12:277–281. https://doi.org/10.1097/PCC.0b013e3181e28894CrossRefPubMed

87.

Al-Fares A, Pettenuzzo T, Del Sorbo L (2019) Extracorporeal life support and systemic inflammation. Intensive Care Med Exp 7:46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40635-019-0249-yCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

88.

Grasselli G, Scaravilli V, Di Bella S et al (2017) Nosocomial infections during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: incidence, etiology, and impact on patients’ outcome. Crit Care Med 45:1726–1733. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000002652CrossRefPubMed

89.

Schmidt M, Brechot N, Hariri S et al (2012) Nosocomial infections in adult cardiogenic shock patients supported by venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Clin Infect Dis 55:1633–1641. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis783CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

90.

Bouglé A, Bombled C, Margetis D et al (2018) Ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients assisted by veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support: Epidemiology and risk factors of treatment failure. PLoS ONE 13:e0194976. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194976CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

91.

Aubron C, Cheng AC, Pilcher D et al (2013) Infections acquired by adults who receive extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: risk factors and outcome. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 34:24–30. https://doi.org/10.1086/668439CrossRefPubMed

92.

Schmidt M, Schellongowski P, Patroniti N et al (2018) Six-month outcome of immunocompromised severe ARDS patients rescued by ECMO. An international multicenter retrospective study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201708-1761OCCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

93.

Shekar K, Fraser JF, Smith MT, Roberts JA (2012) Pharmacokinetic changes in patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Crit Care 27(741):e9-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2012.02.013CrossRef

94.

Craig WA (1998) Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis 26:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1086/516284(quiz 11–12)CrossRefPubMed

95.

Blot SI, Pea F, Lipman J (2014) The effect of pathophysiology on pharmacokinetics in the critically ill patient–concepts appraised by the example of antimicrobial agents. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 77:3–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2014.07.006CrossRefPubMed

96.

Heffernan AJ, Sime FB, Lipman J et al (2019) Intrapulmonary pharmacokinetics of antibiotics used to treat nosocomial pneumonia caused by Gram-negative bacilli: a systematic review. Int J Antimicrob Agents 53:234–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2018.11.011CrossRefPubMed

97.

Rodvold KA, George JM, Yoo L (2011) Penetration of anti-infective agents into pulmonary epithelial lining fluid: focus on antibacterial agents. Clin Pharmacokinet 50:637–664. https://doi.org/10.2165/11594090-000000000-00000CrossRefPubMed

98.

Dhanani JA, Cohen J, Parker SL et al (2018) A research pathway for the study of the delivery and disposition of nebulised antibiotics: an incremental approach from in vitro to large animal models. Intensive Care Med Exp 6:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40635-018-0180-7CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

99.

Kollef MH, Ricard J-D, Roux D et al (2017) A randomized trial of the amikacin fosfomycin inhalation system for the adjunctive therapy of Gram-negative ventilator-associated pneumonia: IASIS trial. Chest 151:1239–1246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2016.11.026CrossRefPubMed

100.

Niederman MS, Alder J, Bassetti M et al (2020) Inhaled amikacin adjunctive to intravenous standard-of-care antibiotics in mechanically ventilated patients with Gram-negative pneumonia (INHALE): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3, superiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis 20:330–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30574-2CrossRefPubMed

101.

Dhanani J, Fraser JF, Chan H-K et al (2016) Fundamentals of aerosol therapy in critical care. Crit Care 20:269. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-016-1448-5CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

102.

Stockmann C, Roberts JK, Yellepeddi VK, Sherwin CMT (2015) Clinical pharmacokinetics of inhaled antimicrobials. Clin Pharmacokinet 54:473–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40262-015-0250-xCrossRefPubMed

103.

Rouby J-J, Bouhemad B, Monsel A et al (2012) Aerosolized antibiotics for ventilator-associated pneumonia: lessons from experimental studies. Anesthesiology 117:1364–1380. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0b013e3182755d7aCrossRefPubMed

104.

Selting K, Waldrep JC, Reinero C et al (2008) Feasibility and safety of targeted cisplatin delivery to a select lung lobe in dogs via the AeroProbe intracorporeal nebulization catheter. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 21:255–268. https://doi.org/10.1089/jamp.2008.0684CrossRefPubMed

105.

Bouadma L, Wolff M, Lucet J-C (2012) Ventilator-associated pneumonia and its prevention. Curr Opin Infect Dis 25:395–404. https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0b013e328355a835CrossRefPubMed

106.

Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M et al (2016) Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis 63:e61–e111. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw353CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

107.

Leone M, Bouadma L, Bouhemad B et al (2018) Brief summary of French guidelines for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia in ICU. Ann Intensive Care 8:104. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-018-0444-0CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

108.

Bouadma L, Mourvillier B, Deiler V et al (2010) Changes in knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions throughout a multifaceted behavioral program aimed at preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 36:1341–1347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-010-1890-9CrossRefPubMed

109.

Labeau SO, Van de Vyver K, Brusselaers N et al (2011) Prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia with oral antiseptics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 11:845–854. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70127-XCrossRefPubMed

110.

Plantinga NL, Wittekamp BHJ, Leleu K et al (2016) Oral mucosal adverse events with chlorhexidine 2% mouthwash in ICU. Intensive Care Med 42:620–621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-016-4217-7CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

111.

Klompas M, Speck K, Howell MD et al (2014) Reappraisal of routine oral care with chlorhexidine gluconate for patients receiving mechanical ventilation: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med 174:751–761. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.359CrossRefPubMed

112.

Timsit J-F, Bassetti M (2018) Antipathy against SDD is justified: yes. Intensive Care Med 44:1165–1168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-018-5183-zCrossRefPubMed

113.

Gibot S, Cravoisy A, Levy B et al (2004) Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells and the diagnosis of pneumonia. N Engl J Med 350:451–458. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa031544CrossRefPubMed

114.

Oudhuis GJ, Beuving J, Bergmans D et al (2009) Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid is not predictive for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 35:1265–1270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-009-1463-yCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

115.

van Oort PM, Povoa P, Schnabel R et al (2018) The potential role of exhaled breath analysis in the diagnostic process of pneumonia-a systematic review. J Breath Res 12:024001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7163/aaa499CrossRefPubMed

116.

Ye W, Huang Q-D, Tang T-Y, Qin G-Y (2020) Diagnostic value of pentraxin 3 in respiratory tract infections: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 99:e19532. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000019532CrossRef

117.

Grover V, Pantelidis P, Soni N et al (2014) A biomarker panel (Bioscore) incorporating monocytic surface and soluble TREM-1 has high discriminative value for ventilator-associated pneumonia: a prospective observational study. PLoS ONE 9:e109686. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109686CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

118.

Salluh JIF, Souza-Dantas VC, Póvoa P (2017) The current status of biomarkers for the diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonias. Curr Opin Crit Care 23:391–397. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCC.0000000000000442CrossRefPubMed

119.

Máiz L, Del Campo R, Castro M et al (2012) Maintenance treatment with inhaled ampicillin in patients with cystic fibrosis and lung infection due to methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. Arch Bronconeumol 48:384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arbres.2012.04.002CrossRefPubMed

120.

Horianopoulou M, Kanellopoulou M, Paraskevopoulos I et al (2004) Use of inhaled ampicillin-sulbactam against multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii in bronchial secretions of intensive care unit patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 10:85–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00806.xCrossRefPubMed

121.

Claridge JA, Edwards NM, Swanson J et al (2007) Aerosolized ceftazidime prophylaxis against ventilator-associated pneumonia in high-risk trauma patients: results of a double-blind randomized study. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 8:83–90. https://doi.org/10.1089/sur.2006.042CrossRef

122.

Wood GC, Boucher BA, Croce MA et al (2002) Aerosolized ceftazidime for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia and drug effects on the proinflammatory response in critically ill trauma patients. Pharmacotherapy 22:972–982CrossRef

123.

Lu Q, Yang J, Liu Z et al (2011) Nebulized ceftazidime and amikacin in ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 184:106–115. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201011-1894OCCrossRefPubMed

124.

Radhakrishnan M, Jaganath A, Rao GSU, Kumari HBV (2008) Nebulized imipenem to control nosocomial pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Crit Care 23:148–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2007.10.037CrossRefPubMed

125.

Geller DE, Flume PA, Staab D et al (2011) Levofloxacin inhalation solution (MP-376) in patients with cystic fibrosis with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 183:1510–1516. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201008-1293OCCrossRefPubMed

126.

Palmer LB, Smaldone GC (2014) Reduction of bacterial resistance with inhaled antibiotics in the intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 189:1225–1233. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201312-2161OCCrossRefPubMed

127.

Palmer LB, Smaldone GC, Chen JJ et al (2008) Aerosolized antibiotics and ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 36:2008–2013. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e31817c0f9eCrossRefPubMed

128.

Hallal A, Cohn SM, Namias N et al (2007) Aerosolized tobramycin in the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a pilot study. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 8:73–82. https://doi.org/10.1089/sur.2006.051CrossRef

129.

Rouby JJ, Sole-Lleonart C, Rello J, Network EI, for Nebulized Antibiotics in Ventilator-associated Pneumonia (2020) Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria: understanding nebulization of aminoglycosides and colistin. Intensive Care Med 46:766–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-019-05890-wCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

130.

McCoy KS, Quittner AL, Oermann CM et al (2008) Inhaled aztreonam lysine for chronic airway Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 178:921–928. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200712-1804OCCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Title: Pulmonary infections complicating ARDS
Authors: Charles-Edouard Luyt
Lila Bouadma
Andrew Conway Morris
Jayesh A. Dhanani
Marin Kollef
Jeffrey Lipman
Ignacio Martin-Loeches
Saad Nseir
Otavio T. Ranzani
Antoine Roquilly
Matthieu Schmidt
Antoni Torres
Jean-François Timsit
Publication date: 01-12-2020
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Keywords: Pneumonia
Acute Respiratory Distress-Syndrome
Respiratory Microbiota
ECMO
ECMO
Published in: Intensive Care Medicine / Issue 12/2020
Print ISSN: 0342-4642
Electronic ISSN: 1432-1238
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-06292-z

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Pulmonary infections complicating ARDS

Abstract

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 12/2020

Neurally adjusted ventilatory assist in acute respiratory failure: a randomized controlled trial

Transfusion in the mechanically ventilated patient

Use of nasal high flow oxygen during acute respiratory failure

How to ventilate obstructive and asthmatic patients

Assessing delivery of mechanical ventilation: risks and benefits of large databases

What have we learned ventilating COVID-19 patients?