Top

Published in:

Open Access 01-11-2018 | Review

The first line of defence: insights into mechanisms and relevance of phagocytosis in epithelial cells

Authors: Juliane Günther, Hans-Martin Seyfert

Published in: Seminars in Immunopathology | Issue 6/2018

Abstract

Epithelial tissues cover most of the external and internal surfaces of the body and its organs. Inevitably, these tissues serve as first line of defence against inorganic, organic, and microbial intruders. Epithelial cells are the main cell type of these tissues. Besides their function as cellular barrier, there is growing evidence that epithelial cells are of particular relevance as initial sensors of danger and also as executers of adequate defence responses. These cells feature various essential functions to maintain tissue integrity in health and disease. In this review, we survey some of the different innate immune functions of epithelial cells in mucosal tissues being constantly exposed to a plethora of harmless contaminants but also of pathogens. We discuss how epithelial cells avoid inadequate immune responses in such conditions. In particular, we will focus on the diverse types and mechanisms of phagocytosis used by epithelial cells to not only maintain homeostasis but to also harness the host response against invading pathogens.

Whitsett JA, Alenghat T (2014) Respiratory epithelial cells orchestrate pulmonary innate immunity. Nat Immunol 16:27CrossRef

Quayle AJ (2002) The innate and early immune response to pathogen challenge in the female genital tract and the pivotal role of epithelial cells. J Reprod Immunol 57(1):61–79CrossRef

Zasloff M (2007) Antimicrobial peptides, innate immunity, and the normally sterile urinary tract. J Am Soc Nephrol 18(11):2810–2816CrossRef

Peterson LW, Artis D (2014) Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis. Nat Rev Immunol 14:141–153CrossRef

Günther J, Koy M, Berthold A, Schuberth HJ, Seyfert HM (2016) Comparison of the pathogen species-specific immune response in udder derived cell types and their models. Vet Res 47(1):22CrossRef

Pasparakis M, Haase I, Nestle FO (2014) Mechanisms regulating skin immunity and inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 14:289–301CrossRef

Tang D, Kang R, Coyne CB, Zeh HJ, Lotze MT (2012) PAMPs and DAMPs: signal 0s that spur autophagy and immunity. Immunol Rev 249(1):158–175CrossRef

McClure R, Massari P (2014) TLR-dependent human mucosal epithelial cell responses to microbial pathogens. Front Immunol 5:386. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00386 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Zheng NX, Wang Y, Hu DD, Yan L, Jiang YY (2015) The role of pattern recognition receptors in the innate recognition of Candida albicans. Virulence 6(4):347–361CrossRef

10.

Pandey S, Kawai T, Akira S (2015) Microbial sensing by Toll-like receptors and intracellular nucleic acid sensors. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 7:a016246. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a016246 CrossRef

11.

Hatai H, Lepelley A, Zeng W, Hayden MS, Ghosh S (2016) Toll-like receptor 11 (TLR11) interacts with flagellin and profilin through disparate mechanisms. PLOS ONE 11(2):e0148987. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148987 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

12.

Guillot L, Le Goffic R, Bloch S, Escriou N, Akira S, Chignard M, Si-Tahar M (2005) Involvement of Toll-like receptor 3 in the immune response of lung epithelial cells to double-stranded RNA and influenza A virus. J Biol Chem 280(7):5571–5580CrossRef

13.

Kim TH, Lee HK (2014) Innate immune recognition of respiratory syncytial virus infection. BMB Rep 47(4):184–191CrossRef

14.

Pott J, Stockinger S, Torow N, Smoczek A, Lindner C, McInerney G, Bäckhed F, Baumann U, Pabst O, Bleich A, Hornef MW (2012) Age-dependent TLR3 expression of the intestinal epithelium contributes to rotavirus susceptibility. PLOS Pathogens 8(5):e1002670. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002670 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

15.

Ioannidis I, McNally B, Willette M, Peeples ME, Chaussabel D, Durbin JE, Ramilo O, Mejias A, Flano E (2012) Plasticity and virus specificity of the airway epithelial cell immune response during respiratory virus infection. J Virol 86(10):5422–5436CrossRef

16.

Li Y, Liu MF, Zuo ZY, Liu J, Yu X, Guan Y, Zhan RH, Han QJ, Zhang J, Zhou RB, Sun R, Tian ZG, Zhang C (2017) TLR9 regulates the NF-kappa B-NLRP3-IL-1 beta pathway negatively in salmonella-induced NKG2D-mediated intestinal inflammation. J Immunol 199(2):761–773CrossRef

17.

Mayer S, Raulf MK, Lepenies B (2017) C-type lectins: their network and roles in pathogen recognition and immunity. Histochem Cell Biol 147(2):223–237CrossRef

18.

Dambuza IM, Brown GD (2015) C-type lectins in immunity: recent developments. Current Opinion in Immunology 32:21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2014.12.002 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

19.

Netea MG, Joosten LAB, Latz E, Mills KHG, Natoli G, Stunnenberg HG, O’Neill LAJ, Xavier RJ (2016) Trained immunity: a program of innate immune memory in health and disease. Science 352(6284):aaf1098. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf1098 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

20.

Caruso R, Warner N, Inohara N, Nunez G (2014) NOD1 and NOD2: signaling, host defense, and inflammatory disease. Immunity 41(6):898–908CrossRef

21.

Negroni A, Colantoni E, Vitali R, Palone F, Pierdomenico M, Costanzo M, Cesi V, Cucchiara S, Stronati L (2016) NOD2 induces autophagy to control AIEC bacteria infectiveness in intestinal epithelial cells. Inflamm Res 65(10):803–813CrossRef

22.

Krokowski S, Mostowy S (2016) Interactions between Shigella flexneri and the autophagy machinery. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 6:17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2016.00017 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

23.

Opitz B, Püschel A, Schmeck B, Hocke AC, Rosseau S, Hammerschmidt S, Schumann RR, Suttorp N, Hippenstiel S (2004) Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain proteins are innate immune receptors for internalized Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Biol Chem 279(35):36426–36432CrossRef

24.

Sharma D, Kanneganti TD (2016) The cell biology of inflammasomes: mechanisms of inflammasome activation and regulation. J Cell Biol 213(6):617–629. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201602089 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

25.

Claes AK, Zhou JY, Philpott DJ (2015) NOD-like receptors: guardians of intestinal mucosal barriers. Physiology 30(3):241–250CrossRef

26.

Chen L, Wilson JE, Koenigsknecht MJ, Chou WC, Montgomery SA, Truax AD, Brickey WJ, Packey CD, Maharshak N, Matsushima GK, Plevy SE, Young VB, Sartor RB, Ting JP-Y (2017) NLRP12 attenuates colon inflammation by maintaining colonic microbial diversity and promoting protective commensal bacterial growth. Nat Immunol 18:541–551CrossRef

27.

Schoggins JW (2018) Recent advances in antiviral interferon-stimulated gene biology. F1000Res 7:309. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.12450.1 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

28.

Yu S, Gao N (2015) Compartmentalizing intestinal epithelial cell Toll-like receptors for immune surveillance. Cell Mol Life Sci 72(17):3343–3353CrossRef

29.

Weitnauer M, Mijosek V, Dalpke AH (2015) Control of local immunity by airway epithelial cells. Mucosal Immunol 9:287CrossRef

30.

Petzl W, Zerbe H, Günther J, Yang W, Seyfert HM, Nürnberg G, Schuberth HJ (2008) Escherichia coli, but not Staphylococcus aureus triggers an early increased expression of factors contributing to the innate immune defense in the udder of the cow. Vet Res 39(2):18. https://doi.org/10.1051/vetres:2007057 CrossRefPubMed

31.

Lee BL, Barton GM (2014) Trafficking of endosomal Toll-like receptors. Trends Cell Biol 24(6):360–369CrossRef

32.

Brubaker SW, Bonham KS, Zanoni I, Kagan JC (2015) Innate immune pattern recognition: a cell biological perspective. Annu Rev Immunol 33(1):257–290CrossRef

33.

Randow F, MacMicking JD, James LC (2013) Cellular self-defense: how cell-autonomous immunity protects against pathogens. Science 340(6133):701–706. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1233028 CrossRefPubMed

34.

Lee CC, Avalos AM, Ploegh HL (2012) Accessory molecules for Toll-like receptors and their function. Nat Rev Immunol 12:168–179CrossRef

35.

Afonina IS, Zhong Z, Karin M, Beyaert R (2017) Limiting inflammation-the negative regulation of NF-kappaB and the NLRP3 inflammasome. Nat Immunol 18:861–869CrossRef

36.

Rothschild DE, McDaniel DK, Ringel-Scaia VM, Allen IC (2018) Modulating inflammation through the negative regulation of NF-kappaB signaling. J Leukoc Biol 103:1131–1150. https://doi.org/10.1002/JLB.3MIR0817-346RRR CrossRef

37.

Beeson PB (1947) Tolerance to bacterial pyrogens: I. Factors influencing its development. J Exp Med 86(1):29–38CrossRef

38.

Gourbal B, Pinaud S, Beckers Gerold JM, Meer Jos WM, Conrath U, Netea MG (2018) Innate immune memory: an evolutionary perspective. Immunol Rev 283(1):21–40CrossRef

39.

Neagos J, Standiford TJ, Newstead MW, Zeng X, Huang SK, Ballinger MN (2015) Epigenetic regulation of tolerance to Toll-like receptor ligands in alveolar epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 53(6):872–881CrossRef

40.

Günther J, Petzl W, Zerbe H, Schuberth H-J, Seyfert H-M (2016) TLR ligands, but not modulators of histone modifiers, can induce the complex immune response pattern of endotoxin tolerance in mammary epithelial cells. Innate Immun 23(2):155–164CrossRef

41.

Rawlins EL, Hogan BLM (2008) Ciliated epithelial cell lifespan in the mouse trachea and lung. Am J Phys Lung Cell Mol Phys 295(1):L231–L234

42.

Kopf M, Schneider C, Nobs SP (2014) The development and function of lung-resident macrophages and dendritic cells. Nat Immunol 16:36CrossRef

43.

Schwayer C, Sikora M, Slovakova J, Kardos R, Heisenberg CP (2016) Actin rings of power. Dev Cell 37(6):493–506CrossRef

44.

Duszyc K, Gomez GA, Schroder K, Sweet MJ, Yap AS (2017) In life there is death: how epithelial tissue barriers are preserved despite the challenge of apoptosis. Tissue Barriers 5(4):e1345353CrossRef

45.

Green DR, Oguin TH, Martinez J (2016) The clearance of dying cells: table for two. Cell Death Differ 23:915–926CrossRef

46.

Arandjelovic S, Ravichandran KS (2015) Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in homeostasis. Nat Immunol 16:907–917CrossRef

47.

Davies SP, Reynolds GM, Stamataki Z (2018) Clearance of apoptotic cells by tissue epithelia: a putative role for hepatocytes in liver efferocytosis. Front Immunol 9:44. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00044 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

48.

Birge RB, Boeltz S, Kumar S, Carlson J, Wanderley J, Calianese D, Barcinski M, Brekken RA, Huang X, Hutchins JT, Freimark B, Empig C, Mercer J, Schroit AJ, Schett G, Herrmann M (2016) Phosphatidylserine is a global immunosuppressive signal in efferocytosis, infectious disease, and cancer. Cell Death Differ 23:962–978CrossRef

49.

Henson PM (2017) Cell removal: efferocytosis. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 33(1):127–144CrossRef

50.

Juncadella IJ, Kadl A, Sharma AK, Shim YM, Hochreiter-Hufford A, Borish L, Ravichandran KS (2012) Apoptotic cell clearance by bronchial epithelial cells critically influences airway inflammation. Nature 493:547–551CrossRef

51.

Han CZ, Juncadella IJ, Kinchen JM, Buckley MW, Klibanov AL, Dryden K, Onengut-Gumuscu S, Erdbrügger U, Turner SD, Shim YM, Tung KS, Ravichandran KS (2016) Macrophages redirect phagocytosis by non-professional phagocytes and influence inflammation. Nature 539:570–574CrossRef

52.

Chand HS, Woldegiorgis Z, Schwalm K, McDonald J, Tesfaigzi Y (2012) Acute inflammation induces insulin-like growth factor-1 to mediate Bcl-2 and Muc5ac expression in airway epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 47(6):784–791CrossRef

53.

Blander JM (2016) Death in the intestinal epithelium-basic biology and implications for inflammatory bowel disease. FEBS J 283(14):2720–2730CrossRef

54.

Lee CS, Penberthy KK, Wheeler KM, Juncadella IJ, Vandenabeele P, Lysiak JJ, Ravichandran KS (2016) Boosting apoptotic cell clearance by colonic epithelial cells attenuates inflammation in-vivo. Immunity 44(4):807–820CrossRef

55.

Sandahl M, Hunter DM, Strunk KE, Earp HS, Cook RS (2010) Epithelial cell-directed efferocytosis in the post-partum mammary gland is necessary for tissue homeostasis and future lactation. BMC Dev Biol 10(1):122CrossRef

56.

Ribet D, Cossart P (2015) How bacterial pathogens colonize their hosts and invade deeper tissues. Microbes Infect 17(3):173–183CrossRef

57.

Veiga E, Guttman JA, Bonazzi M, Boucrot E, Toledo-Arana A, Lin AE, Enninga J, Pizarro-Cerda J, Finlay BB, Kirchhausen T, Cossart P (2007) Invasive and adherent bacterial pathogens co-opt host clathrin for infection. Cell Host Microbe 2(5):340–351CrossRef

58.

Arias CF, Silva-Ayala D, Lopez S (2015) Rotavirus entry: a deep journey into the cell with several exits. J Virol 89(2):890–893CrossRef

59.

Edinger T, Pohl M, Stertz S (2014) Entry of influenza A virus: host factors and antiviral targets. J Gen Virol 95:263–277. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.059477-0 CrossRefPubMed

60.

Croft CA, Culibrk L, Moore MM, Tebbutt SJ (2016) Interactions of aspergillus fumigatus conidia with airway epithelial cells: a critical review. Front Microbiol 7:472. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00472 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

61.

Eierhoff T, Bastian B, Thuenauer R, Madl J, Audfray A, Aigal S, Juillot S, Rydell GE, Müller S, de Bentzmann S, Imberty A, Fleck C, Römer W (2014) A lipid zipper triggers bacterial invasion. Proc Natl Acad Sci 111:12895–12900. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1402637111 CrossRefPubMed

62.

Pauwels AM, Trost M, Beyaert R, Hoffmann E (2017) Patterns, receptors, and signals: regulation of phagosome maturation. Trends Immunol 38(6):407–422CrossRef

63.

Blanchette CD, Woo YH, Thomas C, Shen N, Sulchek TA, Hiddessen AL (2009) Decoupling internalization, acidification and phagosomal-endosomal/lysosomal fusion during phagocytosis of InlA coated beads in epithelial cells. PLOS ONE 4(6):e6056. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006056 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

64.

Saftig P (2006) Physiology of the lysosome. In: Mehta A, Beck M, Sunder-Plassmann G (eds) Fabry disease: perspectives from 5 years of FOS. Oxford PharmaGenesis, Oxford

65.

Schukken YH, Günther J, Fitzpatrick J, Fontaine MC, Goetze L, Holst O, Leigh J, Petzl W, Schuberth HJ, Sipka A, Smith DGE, Quesnell R, Watts J, Yancey R, Zerbe H, Gurjar A, Zadoks RN, Seyfert HM (2011) Host-response patterns of intramammary infections in dairy cows. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 144(3–4):270–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.08.022 CrossRefPubMed

66.

Bauer I, Günther J, Wheeler TT, Engelmann S, Seyfert HM (2015) Extracellular milieu grossly alters pathogen-specific immune response of mammary epithelial cells. BMC Vet Res 11(1):172CrossRef

67.

Günther J, Czabanska A, Bauer I, Leigh JA, Holst O, Seyfert HM (2016) Streptococcus uberis strains isolated from the bovine mammary gland evade immune recognition by mammary epithelial cells, but not of macrophages. Vet Res 47(1):13CrossRef

68.

Günther J, Petzl W, Bauer I, Ponsuksili S, Zerbe H, Schuberth HJ, Brunner RM, Seyfert HM (2017) Differentiating Staphylococcus aureus from Escherichia coli mastitis: S. aureus triggers unbalanced immune-dampening and host cell invasion immediately after udder infection. Sci Rep 7(1):4811CrossRef

69.

Tuchscherr L, Medina E, Hussain M, Völker W, Heitmann V, Niemann S, Holzinger D, Roth J, Proctor RA, Becker K, Peters G, Löffler B (2011) Staphylococcus aureus phenotype switching: an effective bacterial strategy to escape host immune response and establish a chronic infection. EMBO Mol Med 3(3):129–141CrossRef

70.

Watson RO, Galan JE (2008) Campylobacter jejuni survives within epithelial cells by avoiding delivery to lysosomes. PLOS Pathogens 4(1):e14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.0040014 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

71.

Hautefort I, Thompson A, Eriksson-Ygberg S, Parker ML, Lucchini S, Danino V, Bongaerts RJM, Ahmad N, Rhen M, Hinton JCD (2007) During infection of epithelial cells Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium undergoes a time-dependent transcriptional adaptation that results in simultaneous expression of three type 3 secretion systems. Cell Microbiol 10(4):958–984CrossRef

72.

Capasso D, Pepe MV, Rossello J, Lepanto P, Arias P, Salzman V, Kierbel A (2016) Elimination of Pseudomonas aeruginosa through efferocytosis upon binding to apoptotic cells. PLOS Pathogens 12(12):e1006068. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1006068 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

73.

Deretic V, Saitoh T, Akira S (2013) Autophagy in infection, inflammation and immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 13:722–737CrossRef

74.

Gatica D, Lahiri V, Klionsky DJ (2018) Cargo recognition and degradation by selective autophagy. Nat Cell Biol 20(3):233–242CrossRef

75.

Kimura T, Jain A, Choi SW, Mandell MA, Johansen T, Deretic V (2017) TRIM-directed selective autophagy regulates immune activation. Autophagy 13(5):989–990CrossRef

76.

Kimura T, Mandell M, Deretic V (2016) Precision autophagy directed by receptor regulators – emerging examples within the TRIM family. J Cell Sci 129(5):881–891. https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.163758 CrossRefPubMed

77.

Iida T, Onodera K, Nakase H (2017) Role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol 23(11):1944–1953CrossRef

78.

Wlodarska M, Thaiss CA, Nowarski R, Henao-Mejia J, Zhang JP, Brown EM, Frankel G, Levy M, Katz MN, Philbrick WM, Elinav E, Finlay BB, Flavell RA (2014) NLRP6 inflammasome orchestrates the colonic host-microbial interface by regulating goblet cell mucus secretion. Cell 156(5):1045–1059CrossRef

79.

Jounai N, Kobiyama K, Shiina M, Ogata K, Ishii KJ, Takeshita F (2011) NLRP4 negatively regulates autophagic processes through an association with Beclin1. J Immunol 186(3):1646–1655. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1001654 CrossRefPubMed

80.

Maruyama T, Noda NN (2017) Autophagy-regulating protease Atg4: structure, function, regulation and inhibition. J Antibiot 71:72CrossRef

81.

Arimoto H, Takahashi D (2017) 8-Nitro-cGMP: a novel protein-reactive cNMP and its emerging roles in autophagy. In: Seifert R (ed) Non-canonical cyclic nucleotides. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 253–268CrossRef

82.

Kimmey JM, Stallings CL (2016) Bacterial pathogens versus autophagy: implications for therapeutic interventions. Trends Mol Med 22(12):1060–1076CrossRef

83.

Heckmann BL, Boada-Romero E, Cunha LD, Magne J, Green DR (2017) LC3-associated phagocytosis and inflammation. J Mol Biol 429(23):3561–3576CrossRef

Title: The first line of defence: insights into mechanisms and relevance of phagocytosis in epithelial cells
Authors: Juliane Günther
Hans-Martin Seyfert
Publication date: 01-11-2018
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: Seminars in Immunopathology / Issue 6/2018
Print ISSN: 1863-2297
Electronic ISSN: 1863-2300
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-018-0701-1

Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Highlights from the ACC 2024 Congress

Year in Review: Pediatric cardiology

Pediatric Cardiology Video

Watch Dr. Anne Marie Valente present the last year's highlights in pediatric and congenital heart disease in the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Pulmonary vascular disease

Cardiopulmonary Comorbidity Video

The last year's highlights in pulmonary vascular disease are presented by Dr. Jane Leopold in this official video from ACC.24.

Year in Review: Valvular heart disease

Valvular Heart Disease Video

Watch Prof. William Zoghbi present the last year's highlights in valvular heart disease from the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Heart Failure Video

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discusses last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Heart Failure Video

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discusses last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

Watch now

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

16-04-2024 Type 2 Diabetes News

Incentivised to exercise

11-04-2024 Lifestyle Modifications News

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

10-04-2024 Myocardial Infarction News

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page

Image Credits

STEP AAG HeroTeaserCollection image/© Tarek / Generated with AI / Stock.adobe.com, ACC 2024 Pediatric and Congenital Heart Disease: Year in Review/© 2024 American College of Cardiology, ACC 2024 Pulmonary Vascular Disease: Year in Review/© 2024 American College of Cardiology, ACC 2024 Valvular Heart Disease: Year in Review/© 2024 American College of Cardiology, ACC 2024 HF and Cardiomyopathies: Year in Review/© 2024 American College of Cardiology, Woman out walking/© Seventyfour / stock.adobe.com (symbolic image with model), Woman checking smartwatch /© saltdium / stock.adobe.com (symbolic image with model), Cardiac catheterization/© Damian / stock.adobe.com

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 6/2018

Homage to Mechnikov – the phagocytic system: past and present

Picket-fences in the plasma membrane: functions in immune cells and phagocytosis

IgA nephropathy: clearance kinetics of IgA-containing immune complexes

Acute and chronic phagocyte determinants of cardiac allograft vasculopathy

Macrophage-microbe interaction: lessons learned from the pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Pivotal role of innate myeloid cells in cerebral post-ischemic sterile inflammation

Highlights from the ACC 2024 Congress

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage