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Open Access 01-12-2021 | Public Health | Review

COVID-19 false dichotomies and a comprehensive review of the evidence regarding public health, COVID-19 symptomatology, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, mask wearing, and reinfection

Authors: Kevin Escandón, Angela L. Rasmussen, Isaac I. Bogoch, Eleanor J. Murray, Karina Escandón, Saskia V. Popescu, Jason Kindrachuk

Published in: BMC Infectious Diseases | Issue 1/2021

Abstract

Scientists across disciplines, policymakers, and journalists have voiced frustration at the unprecedented polarization and misinformation around coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Several false dichotomies have been used to polarize debates while oversimplifying complex issues. In this comprehensive narrative review, we deconstruct six common COVID-19 false dichotomies, address the evidence on these topics, identify insights relevant to effective pandemic responses, and highlight knowledge gaps and uncertainties. The topics of this review are: 1) Health and lives vs. economy and livelihoods, 2) Indefinite lockdown vs. unlimited reopening, 3) Symptomatic vs. asymptomatic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, 4) Droplet vs. aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2, 5) Masks for all vs. no masking, and 6) SARS-CoV-2 reinfection vs. no reinfection. We discuss the importance of multidisciplinary integration (health, social, and physical sciences), multilayered approaches to reducing risk (“Emmentaler cheese model”), harm reduction, smart masking, relaxation of interventions, and context-sensitive policymaking for COVID-19 response plans. We also address the challenges in understanding the broad clinical presentation of COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and SARS-CoV-2 reinfection. These key issues of science and public health policy have been presented as false dichotomies during the pandemic. However, they are hardly binary, simple, or uniform, and therefore should not be framed as polar extremes. We urge a nuanced understanding of the science and caution against black-or-white messaging, all-or-nothing guidance, and one-size-fits-all approaches. There is a need for meaningful public health communication and science-informed policies that recognize shades of gray, uncertainties, local context, and social determinants of health.

Infodemic is the overabundance of information (some accurate and some not) making it hard for people to find reliable sources and guidance [2].

Broadly, misinformation can be defined as incorrect information, possibly by accident [13]. In contrast, disinformation is often used to denote misinformation that is deliberately false and disseminated.

Engagement echo chambers and filter bubbles relate to social media practices that exhibit highly segmented interaction with social media content [14]. Echo chambers may reinforce shared stances and preexisting views of like-minded people. Echo chambers are not the exclusive or necessarily the main mechanism of misinformation.

Works deemed essential include but are not limited to healthcare, law enforcement, government, fire department, first responders, delivery/pick-up services, and transportation.

A lockdown is understood as a complete shutting down of all economic activity except if deemed most essential, along with stay-at-home orders and usually with stringent travel restrictions [25].

Respiratory etiquette or hygiene refers to covering mouth and nose with a disposable tissue when coughing or sneezing and disposing of it after use, or coughing/sneezing into the inner elbows or sleeve, followed by hand hygiene.

The term “Emmentaler cheese” is more appropriate than "Swiss cheese" since not all Swiss cheeses have holes [104].

SSEs refer to activities and settings where an individual gives rise to a large number of secondary infections [35, 112]. Closed environments, poorly ventilated environments, crowded places, and prolonged exposures all correlate with emergence of SSEs. These hotspots are important as both community infection sources and targets for effective contact tracing, targeted restrictions, and NPIs. SSEs could be influenced by biological features (e.g., an individual with increased infectiousness inferred by viral loads), behavioral/social features (e.g., an infectious individual with high number of susceptible contacts), environmental features (e.g., high-risk settings due to high human interaction or density), and opportunistic features (e.g., singing or activities leading to increased probability of transmission and infection) [35].

The dispersion parameter k quantifies the variability in the number of secondary cases and is used as a measure of the impact of superspreading. A lower k parameter indicates higher transmission heterogeneity (higher superspreading potential). k for SARS-CoV-2 has been variably estimated from 0.04 to 0.58 [112‐115].

COVID-19 absolutism is the discouragement and prohibition of absolutely any behavior leading to some risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection [133].

This term has been used to refer to the notion of behavioral fatigue potentially associated with a lower adherence to public health interventions.

Outdoor gatherings of household members, sports like tennis, and hiking or jogging while distancing are examples of lower-risk outdoor activities.

From a public health perspective, a mass gathering is defined as an event where the number of people attending (usually thousands but this is variable) may strain the planning and response resources of the host community, state, or country [145].

Elimination is often defined as the local reduction of infection to zero cases or a prolonged period of zero local transmission in a geographic region, with interventions still required to maintain it [162‐164].

Eradication is often defined as the global reduction of infection to zero cases as a result of deliberate efforts, with further interventions no longer needed [162‐164]. A further and more difficult step is extinction, which is when a pathogen no longer exists in nature or in the laboratory.

The incubation period is the time elapsed between infection and symptom onset. It usually ranges from 2 to 14 days. The mean incubation period for SARS-CoV-2 infection is 5.5–6.5 days, and the median incubation period is 5.1 days [118, 166].

Secondary attack rate is the percentage of secondary cases (infectees), among the total of contacts, resulting from one infected person (infector).

Medical AGPs are procedures that are likely to generate high concentrations of infectious respiratory aerosols (e.g., tracheal intubation, non-invasive positive pressure ventilation), placing HCWs at an increased risk for pathogen exposure and infection [251, 252]. The term AGP is a misnomer inasmuch as it is not the AGP per se that generates aerosols and drives transmission but the circumstances surrounding the AGP, including the air forced over the respiratory mucosa, index patient’s respiratory symptoms, exposure distance, and duration [253].

The reproduction number (R) is a measure that reflects the infectiousness of an agent. The basic reproduction number (R₀) is the average number of secondary infections caused by one infected person in a completely susceptible population, in the absence of interventions. The reproduction number varies according to several circumstances and time (thus called effective reproduction number at time t, R_t) as more people are infected (developing immunity) and public health measures are implemented.

Counter-visualizations are counterpublic’s data visualization practices that use orthodox methods to make unorthodox arguments [19]. They may serve the purpose of challenging mainstream narratives and promoting misinformation and conspiracy.

The precautionary principle assists with decision-making under uncertainty [525, 526]. Traditionally used to advice caution in the uptake of interventions or innovations with known benefits but uncertain risks [527], the precautionary principle has been substantially used in the opposite sense in the COVID-19 pandemic—to advocate the uptake of interventions because of the potential great benefits and minimal risks [432]. It has been argued that both the omission in the former case and the act in the latter case may prevent harm [528].

Masks may cause discomfort and subjective but minor breathing difficulties. However, claims pertaining to decreased oxygen saturation are unfounded. Recent studies assessing medical masks and cloth face coverings in the general adult population have not demonstrated major physiologic changes related to gas exchange [454, 455, 556‐561].

Acceptable evidence in support of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection consists of testing positive by qRT-PCR at two different time points (usually separated by a period of test negativity if documented), plus distinct genome sequencing of viral isolates on each episode [62, 63]. The lack of these data, which is expected outside research settings, hinders reporting of reinfection. In regions with robust genomic surveillance, sequencing a SARS-CoV-2 genetic variant from a sample of the second infection episode provides evidence of reinfection if the variant was not present in the region at the time of the first episode [623].

Re-positive or recurrent-positive cases are individuals who recovered from previously confirmed COVID-19 disease and had a positive test again, attributed to the same infection episode.

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Title: COVID-19 false dichotomies and a comprehensive review of the evidence regarding public health, COVID-19 symptomatology, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, mask wearing, and reinfection
Authors: Kevin Escandón
Angela L. Rasmussen
Isaac I. Bogoch
Eleanor J. Murray
Karina Escandón
Saskia V. Popescu
Jason Kindrachuk
Publication date: 01-12-2021
Publisher: BioMed Central
Keywords: Public Health
SARS-CoV-2
COVID-19
Published in: BMC Infectious Diseases / Issue 1/2021
Electronic ISSN: 1471-2334
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06357-4

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Other articles of this Issue 1/2021

A case report of transmission and disease caused by Mycobacterium caprae and Mycobacterium bovis in Lima, Peru

Congenital syphilis in East Baton Rouge parish, Louisiana: providers’ and women’s perspectives

Social network distribution of syphilis self-testing among men who have sex with men in China: study protocol for a cluster randomized control trial

Description of two fatal cases of melioidosis in Mexican children with acute pneumonia: case report

Acceptance of universal varicella vaccination among Swiss pediatricians and general practitioners who treat pediatric patients

Operational characteristics of an antibody detecting point of care test for Taenia solium infections in a community and hospital setting

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

Incentivised to exercise

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page