Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Reproductive Health
Published in: Reproductive Health 1/2021

01-12-2021 | Insulins | Review

Investigation of common risk factors between polycystic ovary syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease: a narrative review

Authors: Nahid Sarahian, Hosna Sarvazad, Elham Sajadi, Nasrin Rahnejat, Narges Eskandari Roozbahani

Published in: Reproductive Health | Issue 1/2021

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

The most common endocrine and metabolic disorders in premenopausal women is polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), characterized by hyperandrogenism, chronic anovulation, and/or ultrasound evidence of small ovarian cysts. Obesity and insulin resistance are also the main factors influencing the clinical manifestations of this syndrome. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most typical progressive neurodegenerative disorder of the brain, and recent studies suggest a relationship between endocrinal dysregulation and neuronal loss during AD pathology.

Aim

This study aimed to evaluate the common risk factors for Alzheimer’s and PCOS based on previous studies. Knowing the common risk factors and eliminating them may prevent neurodegenerative Alzheimer’s disease in the future.

Method

In this narrative review, international databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and the Web of Science, were searched to retrieve the relevant studies. The relevant studies’ summaries were categorized to discuss the possible pathways that may explain the association between Alzheimer’s and PCOS signs/symptoms and complications.

Results

According to our research, the factors involved in Alzheimer’s and PCOS disorders may share some common risk factors. In patients with PCOS, increased LH to FSH ratio, decreased vitamin D, insulin resistance, and obesity are some of the most important factors that may increase the risk of Alzheimer’s disease.
Literature
1.
2.
González F. Inflammation in polycystic ovary syndrome: underpinning of insulin resistance and ovarian dysfunction. Steroids. 2012;77(4):300–5.PubMedCrossRef
3.
Wang J, Wu D, Guo H, Li M. Hyperandrogenemia and insulin resistance: The chief culprit of polycystic ovary syndrome. Life Sci. 2019;236:116940.PubMedCrossRef
4.
He FF, Li YM. Role of gut microbiota in the development of insulin resistance and the mechanism underlying polycystic ovary syndrome: a review. J Ovarian Res. 2020;13(1):73.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
5.
Sabayan B, Foroughinia F, Borhani Haghighi A, Mowla A. Are women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) at higher risk for development of Alzheimer disease? Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2007;21(3):265.PubMedCrossRef
6.
Barber TM, Kyrou I, Randeva HS, Weickert MO. Mechanisms of insulin resistance at the crossroad of obesity with associated metabolic abnormalities and cognitive dysfunction. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(2):546.PubMedCentralCrossRef
7.
Tang M, Taghibiglou C. The mechanisms of action of curcumin in Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;58(4):1003–16.PubMedCrossRef
8.
Wimo A, Guerchet M, Ali GC, Wu YT, Prina AM, Winblad B, et al. The worldwide costs of dementia 2015 and comparisons with 2010. Alzheimers Dement. 2017;13(1):1–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
9.
10.
Caselli RJ, Beach TG, Knopman DS, Graff-Radford NR, editors. Alzheimer disease: scientific breakthroughs and translational challenges. In: Mayo Clinic Proceedings; Elsevier. 2017.
11.
12.
Akwa Y. Steroids and Alzheimer’s disease: changes associated with pathology and therapeutic potential. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(13):4812.PubMedCentralCrossRef
13.
Du AT, Schuff N, Kramer JH, Rosen HJ, Gorno-Tempini ML, Rankin K, et al. Different regional patterns of cortical thinning in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia. Brain. 2007;130(Pt 4):1159–66.PubMed
14.
15.
Irwin MR, Vitiello MV. Implications of sleep disturbance and inflammation for Alzheimer’s disease dementia. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(3):296–306.PubMedCrossRef
16.
Silva MVF, Loures CdMG, Alves LCV, de Souza LC, Borges KBG, das Graças Carvalho M. Alzheimer’s disease: risk factors and potentially protective measures. J Biomed Sci. 2019;26(1):1–11.CrossRef
17.
Arao Y, Hamilton KJ, Wu S-P, Tsai M-J, DeMayo FJ, Korach KS. Dysregulation of hypothalamic-pituitary estrogen receptor α-mediated signaling causes episodic LH secretion and cystic ovary. FASEB J. 2019;33(6):7375–86.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
18.
Wang F, Zhang ZH, Xiao KZ, Wang ZC. Roles of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and hypothalamus-pituitary-ovary axis in the abnormal endocrine functions in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Zhongguo Yi Xue Ke Xue Yuan Xue Bao. 2017;39(5):699–704.PubMed
19.
Atwood CS, Bowen RL. The reproductive-cell cycle theory of aging: an update. Exp Gerontol. 2011;46(2–3):100–7.PubMedCrossRef
20.
Ahmad MH, Fatima M, Mondal AC. Role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and insulin signaling in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychobiology. 2019;77(4):197–205.PubMedCrossRef
21.
Blair JA, McGee H, Bhatta S, Palm R, Casadesus G. Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis involvement in learning and memory and Alzheimer’s disease: more than “just” estrogen. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2015;6:45.CrossRef
22.
Zhang G, Li J, Purkayastha S, Tang Y, Zhang H, Yin Y, et al. Hypothalamic programming of systemic ageing involving IKK-β, NF-κB and GnRH. Nature. 2013;497(7448):211–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
23.
Simpkins JW, Perez E, Wang X, Yang S, Wen Y, Singh M. The potential for estrogens in preventing Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2009;2(1):31–49.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
24.
Henderson VW. Alzheimer’s disease: review of hormone therapy trials and implications for treatment and prevention after menopause. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014;142:99–106.PubMedCrossRef
25.
Bhatta S, Blair JA, Casadesus G. Luteinizing hormone involvement in aging female cognition: not all is estrogen loss. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018;9:544.CrossRef
26.
Brinton RD, Yao J, Yin F, Mack WJ, Cadenas E. Perimenopause as a neurological transition state. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2015;11(7):393–405.PubMedCrossRef
27.
McEwen BS, Akama KT, Spencer-Segal JL, Milner TA, Waters EM. Estrogen effects on the brain: actions beyond the hypothalamus via novel mechanisms. Behav Neurosci. 2012;126(1):4–16.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
28.
Long J, He P, Shen Y, Li R. New evidence of mitochondria dysfunction in the female Alzheimer’s disease brain: deficiency of estrogen receptor-β. J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;30(3):545–58.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
29.
Lan YL, Zhao J, Li S. Update on the neuroprotective effect of estrogen receptor alpha against Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2015;43(4):1137–48.PubMedCrossRef
30.
Wharton W, Baker LD, Gleason CE, Dowling M, Barnet JH, Johnson S, et al. Short-term hormone therapy with transdermal estradiol improves cognition for postmenopausal women with Alzheimer’s disease: results of a randomized controlled trial. J Alzheimers Dis. 2011;26(3):495–505.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
31.
Galea LA, Wainwright SR, Roes MM, Duarte-Guterman P, Chow C, Hamson DK. Sex, hormones and neurogenesis in the hippocampus: hormonal modulation of neurogenesis and potential functional implications. J Neuroendocrinol. 2013;25(11):1039–61.PubMedCrossRef
32.
Malini NA, Roy GK. Evaluation of different ranges of LH:FSH ratios in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)—Clinical based case control study. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 2018;260:51–7.PubMedCrossRef
33.
Bothou A, Koutlaki N, Iatrakis G, Mastorakos G, Tsikouras P, Liberis V, et al. ANTIMÜLLERIAN HORMONE AS INDICATOR OF OVARIAN DYSFUNCTION. Acta Endocrinol (Buchar). 2017;13(2):237–45.CrossRef
34.
Balen A. The pathophysiology of polycystic ovary syndrome: trying to understand PCOS and its endocrinology. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004;18(5):685–706.PubMedCrossRef
35.
Braunstein GD, Vaitukaitis JL, Carbone PP, Ross GT. Ectopic production of human chorionic gonadotrophin by neoplasms. Ann Intern Med. 1973;78(1):39–45.PubMedCrossRef
36.
Laganà AS, Rossetti P, Buscema M, La Vignera S, Condorelli RA, Gullo G, et al. Metabolism and ovarian function in PCOS women: a therapeutic approach with inositols. Int J Endocrinol. 2016;2016:6306410.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
37.
Kazmi SRH, Can AS. Luteinizing hormone deficiency. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island: StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2020.
38.
Nna VU, Bakar ABA, Ahmad A, Mohamed M. Down-regulation of steroidogenesis-related genes and its accompanying fertility decline in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats: ameliorative effect of metformin. Andrology. 2019;7(1):110–23.PubMedCrossRef
39.
Keskin FE, Özkaya HM, Ortaç M, Salabaş E, Kadıoğlu A, Kadıoğlu P. Sexual function in women with Cushing’s syndrome: a controlled study. Turk J Urol. 2018;44(4):287–93.PubMedPubMedCentral
40.
Khattak M, Sultana N, Usman R, Khattak U, Zafar U, Salman H. Luteinizing hormone to follicle stimulating hormone ratio in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad. 2020;32(2):255–8.PubMed
41.
Kaur R, Kaur T, Kaur A. Genetic association study from North India to analyze association of CYP19A1 and CYP17A1 with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2018;35(6):1123–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
42.
Burnham VL, Thornton JE. Luteinizing hormone as a key player in the cognitive decline of Alzheimer’s disease. Horm Behav. 2015;76:48–56.PubMedCrossRef
43.
Verdile G, Laws SM, Henley D, Ames D, Bush AI, Ellis KA, et al. Associations between gonadotropins, testosterone and β amyloid in men at risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(1):69–75.PubMedCrossRef
44.
Bohm-Levine N, Goldberg AR, Mariani M, Frankfurt M, Thornton J. Reducing luteinizing hormone levels after ovariectomy improves spatial memory: possible role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Horm Behav. 2020;118:104590.PubMedCrossRef
45.
Rodrigues MA, Verdile G, Foster JK, Hogervorst E, Joesbury K, Dhaliwal S, et al. Gonadotropins and cognition in older women. J Alzheimers Dis. 2008;13(3):267–74.PubMedCrossRef
46.
Lebovitz HE. Insulin resistance—a common link between type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2006;8(3):237–49.PubMedCrossRef
47.
Legro RS, Castracane VD, Kauffman RP. Detecting insulin resistance in polycystic ovary syndrome: purposes and pitfalls. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2004;59(2):141–54.PubMedCrossRef
48.
Mastorakos G, Lambrinoudaki I, Creatsas G. Polycystic ovary syndrome in adolescents: current and future treatment options. Paediatr Drugs. 2006;8(5):311–8.PubMedCrossRef
49.
Prudente S, Trischitta V. The TRIB3 Q84R polymorphism, insulin resistance and related metabolic alterations. Biochem Soc Trans. 2015;43(5):1108–11.PubMedCrossRef
50.
Zhang Y, Hu M, Jia W, Liu G, Zhang J, Wang B, et al. Hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance modulate gravid uterine and placental ferroptosis in PCOS-like rats. J Endocrinol. 2020;246(3):247–63.PubMedCrossRef
51.
Sousa-Nunes R, Yee LL, Gould AP. Fat cells reactivate quiescent neuroblasts via TOR and glial insulin relays in Drosophila. Nature. 2011;471(7339):508–12.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
52.
Gómez JM. Growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I as an endocrine axis in Alzheimer’s disease. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2008;8(2):143–51.PubMedCrossRef
53.
Fusco S, Spinelli M, Cocco S, Ripoli C, Mastrodonato A, Natale F, et al. Maternal insulin resistance multigenerationally impairs synaptic plasticity and memory via gametic mechanisms. Nat Commun. 2019;10(1):4799.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
54.
Spinelli M, Fusco S, Grassi C. Brain insulin resistance and hippocampal plasticity: mechanisms and biomarkers of cognitive decline. Front Neurosci. 2019;13:788.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
55.
56.
de la Monte SM, Tong M, Bowling N, Moskal P. si-RNA inhibition of brain insulin or insulin-like growth factor receptors causes developmental cerebellar abnormalities: relevance to fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Mol Brain. 2011;4:13.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
57.
de la Monte SM. Insulin resistance and neurodegeneration: progress towards the development of new therapeutics for alzheimer’s disease. Drugs. 2017;77(1):47–65.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
58.
Kałużna M, Człapka-Matyasik M, Wachowiak-Ochmańska K, Moczko J, Kaczmarek J, Janicki A, et al. Effect of central obesity and hyperandrogenism on selected inflammatory markers in patients with PCOS: a WHtR-matched case-control study. J Clin Med. 2020;9(9):3024.PubMedCentralCrossRef
59.
60.
Schmidt J, Weijdegård B, Mikkelsen AL, Lindenberg S, Nilsson L, Brännström M. Differential expression of inflammation-related genes in the ovarian stroma and granulosa cells of PCOS women. Mol Hum Reprod. 2014;20(1):49–58.PubMedCrossRef
61.
Webers A, Heneka MT, Gleeson PA. The role of innate immune responses and neuroinflammation in amyloid accumulation and progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Immunol Cell Biol. 2020;98(1):28–41.PubMedCrossRef
62.
Axen KV, Dikeakos A, Sclafani A. High dietary fat promotes syndrome X in nonobese rats. J Nutr. 2003;133(7):2244–9.PubMedCrossRef
63.
64.
López S, Bermúdez B, Pacheco YM, Villar J, Abia R, Muriana FJ. Distinctive postprandial modulation of beta cell function and insulin sensitivity by dietary fats: monounsaturated compared with saturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88(3):638–44.PubMedCrossRef
65.
66.
Dandrea MR, Reiser PA, Gumula NA, Hertzog BM, Andrade-Gordon P. Application of triple immunohistochemistry to characterize amyloid plaque-associated inflammation in brains with Alzheimer’s disease. Biotech Histochem. 2001;76(2):97–106.PubMedCrossRef
67.
Giovannini MG, Scali C, Prosperi C, Bellucci A, Vannucchi MG, Rosi S, et al. Beta-amyloid-induced inflammation and cholinergic hypofunction in the rat brain in vivo: involvement of the p38MAPK pathway. Neurobiol Dis. 2002;11(2):257–74.PubMedCrossRef
68.
Standridge JB. Pharmacotherapeutic approaches to the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2004;2(2):119–32.PubMedCrossRef
69.
Wood H. Dementia: peripheral inflammation could be a prodromal indicator of dementia. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(3):127.PubMed
70.
71.
Hachul H, Polesel DN, Tock L, Carneiro G, Pereira AZ, Zanella MT, et al. Sleep disorders in polycystic ovary syndrome: influence of obesity and hyperandrogenism. Rev Assoc Med Bras (1992). 2019;65(3):375–83.CrossRef
72.
Kumarendran B, Sumilo D, O’Reilly MW, Toulis KA, Gokhale KM, Wijeyaratne CN, et al. Increased risk of obstructive sleep apnoea in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a population-based cohort study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2019;180(4):265–72.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
73.
Fogel RB, Malhotra A, Pillar G, Pittman SD, Dunaif A, White DP. Increased prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(3):1175–80.PubMed
74.
Andersen ML, Alvarenga TF, Mazaro-Costa R, Hachul HC, Tufik S. The association of testosterone, sleep, and sexual function in men and women. Brain Res. 2011;1416:80–104.PubMedCrossRef
75.
76.
Leproult R, Van Cauter E. Role of sleep and sleep loss in hormonal release and metabolism. Endocr Dev. 2010;17:11–21.PubMedCrossRef
77.
Tock L, Carneiro G, Togeiro SM, Hachul H, Pereira AZ, Tufik S, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea predisposes to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Endocr Pract. 2014;20(3):244–51.PubMedCrossRef
78.
79.
Mokhlesi B, Scoccia B, Mazzone T, Sam S. Risk of obstructive sleep apnea in obese and nonobese women with polycystic ovary syndrome and healthy reproductively normal women. Fertil Steril. 2012;97(3):786–91.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
80.
Spinedi E, Cardinali DP. The polycystic ovary syndrome and the metabolic syndrome: a possible chronobiotic-cytoprotective adjuvant therapy. Int J Endocrinol. 2018;2018:1349868.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
81.
82.
Marcouiller F, Boukari R, Laouafa S, Lavoie R, Joseph V. The nuclear progesterone receptor reduces post-sigh apneas during sleep and increases the ventilatory response to hypercapnia in adult female mice. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(6):e100421.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
83.
Shi L, Chen SJ, Ma MY, Bao YP, Han Y, Wang YM, et al. Sleep disturbances increase the risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;40:4–16.PubMedCrossRef
84.
Kang JE, Lim MM, Bateman RJ, Lee JJ, Smyth LP, Cirrito JR, et al. Amyloid-beta dynamics are regulated by orexin and the sleep-wake cycle. Science. 2009;326(5955):1005–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
85.
Xie L, Kang H, Xu Q, Chen MJ, Liao Y, Thiyagarajan M, et al. Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain. Science. 2013;342(6156):373–7.CrossRefPubMed
86.
87.
Bao YP, Han Y, Ma J, Wang RJ, Shi L, Wang TY, et al. Cooccurrence and bidirectional prediction of sleep disturbances and depression in older adults: meta-analysis and systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;75:257–73.PubMedCrossRef
88.
Mourao RJ, Mansur G, Malloy-Diniz LF, Castro Costa E, Diniz BS. Depressive symptoms increase the risk of progression to dementia in subjects with mild cognitive impairment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016;31(8):905–11.PubMedCrossRef
89.
Landel V, Annweiler C, Millet P, Morello M, Féron F, Vitamin D. Cognition and Alzheimer’s disease: the therapeutic benefit is in the D-tails. J Alzheimers Dis. 2016;53(2):419–44.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
90.
91.
Krul-Poel YHM, Koenders PP, Steegers-Theunissen RP, Ten Boekel E, Wee MMT, Louwers Y, et al. Vitamin D and metabolic disturbances in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): a cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(12):e0204748.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
92.
Wikiera B, Zubkiewicz-Kucharska A, Nocoń-Bohusz J, Noczyńska A. Metabolic disorders in polycystic ovary syndrome. Pediatr Endocrinol Diabetes Metab. 2017;23(4):204–8.PubMedCrossRef
93.
Karadağ C, Yoldemir T, Yavuz DG. Effects of vitamin D supplementation on insulin sensitivity and androgen levels in vitamin-D-deficient polycystic ovary syndrome patients. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2018;44(2):270–7.PubMedCrossRef
94.
Angellotti E, D’Alessio D, Dawson-Hughes B, Nelson J, Cohen RM, Gastaldelli A, et al. Vitamin D supplementation in patients with type 2 diabetes: the vitamin D for established type 2 diabetes (DDM2) study. J Endocr Soc. 2018;2(4):310–21.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
95.
96.
97.
Littlejohns TJ, Henley WE, Lang IA, Annweiler C, Beauchet O, Chaves PH, et al. Vitamin D and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2014;83(10):920–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
98.
Landel V, Annweiler C, Millet P, Morello M, Féron F, Vitamin D. Cognition and Alzheimer’s disease: the therapeutic benefit is in the D-tails. J Alzheimer’s Dis JAD. 2016;53(2):419–44.CrossRef
99.
Lim JJ, Lima PDA, Salehi R, Lee DR, Tsang BK. Regulation of androgen receptor signaling by ubiquitination during folliculogenesis and its possible dysregulation in polycystic ovarian syndrome. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):10272.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
100.
Zeng X, Xie YJ, Liu YT, Long SL, Mo ZC. Polycystic ovarian syndrome: correlation between hyperandrogenism, insulin resistance and obesity. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;502:214–21.PubMedCrossRef
101.
Palomba S, Falbo A, Chiossi G, Muscogiuri G, Fornaciari E, Orio F, et al. Lipid profile in nonobese pregnant women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a prospective controlled clinical study. Steroids. 2014;88:36–43.PubMedCrossRef
102.
Huang A, Brennan K, Azziz R. Prevalence of hyperandrogenemia in the polycystic ovary syndrome diagnosed by the National Institutes of Health 1990 criteria. Fertil Steril. 2010;93(6):1938–41.PubMedCrossRef
103.
Moran L, Teede H. Metabolic features of the reproductive phenotypes of polycystic ovary syndrome. Hum Reprod Update. 2009;15(4):477–88.PubMedCrossRef
104.
Kodaman PH, Duleba AJ. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors: do they have potential in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome? Drugs. 2008;68(13):1771–85.PubMedCrossRef
105.
Walters KA. Androgens in polycystic ovary syndrome: lessons from experimental models. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2016;23(3):257–63.PubMedCrossRef
106.
Yao PL, Zhuo S, Mei H, Chen XF, Li N, Zhu TF, et al. Androgen alleviates neurotoxicity of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) by promoting microglial clearance of Aβ and inhibiting microglial inflammatory response to Aβ. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2017;23(11):855–65.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
107.
Qu X, Donnelly R. Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) as an early biomarker and therapeutic target in polycystic ovary syndrome. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(21):8191.PubMedCentralCrossRef
108.
Dunn JF, Nisula BC, Rodbard D. Transport of steroid hormones: binding of 21 endogenous steroids to both testosterone-binding globulin and corticosteroid-binding globulin in human plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1981;53(1):58–68.PubMedCrossRef
109.
Zhu JL, Chen Z, Feng WJ, Long SL, Mo ZC. Sex hormone-binding globulin and polycystic ovary syndrome. Clin Chim Acta. 2019;499:142–8.PubMedCrossRef
110.
Valkenburg O, Uitterlinden AG, Piersma D, Hofman A, Themmen AP, de Jong FH, et al. Genetic polymorphisms of GnRH and gonadotrophic hormone receptors affect the phenotype of polycystic ovary syndrome. Hum Reprod. 2009;24(8):2014–22.PubMedCrossRef
111.
Marshall KM. Introduction to the interaction between gonadal steroids and the central nervous system. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2011;8:1–13.PubMedCrossRef
112.
Lizneva D, Suturina L, Walker W, Brakta S, Gavrilova-Jordan L, Azziz R. Criteria, prevalence, and phenotypes of polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil Steril. 2016;106(1):6–15.PubMedCrossRef
113.
Engmann L, Jin S, Sun F, Legro RS, Polotsky AJ, Hansen KR, et al. Racial and ethnic differences in the polycystic ovary syndrome metabolic phenotype. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2017;216(5):493.e1–e13.CrossRef
114.
Costello MF, Misso ML, Balen A, Boyle J, Devoto L, Garad RM, et al. Evidence summaries and recommendations from the international evidence-based guideline for the assessment and management of polycystic ovary syndrome: assessment and treatment of infertility. Hum Reprod Open. 2019;2019(1):hoy021.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
115.
Pasquali R, Gambineri A, Biscotti D, Vicennati V, Gagliardi L, Colitta D, et al. Effect of long-term treatment with metformin added to hypocaloric diet on body composition, fat distribution, and androgen and insulin levels in abdominally obese women with and without the polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85(8):2767–74.PubMedCrossRef
116.
Markowicz-Piasecka M, Sikora J, Szydłowska A, Skupień A, Mikiciuk-Olasik E, Huttunen KM. Metformin—a future therapy for neurodegenerative diseases. Pharm Res. 2017;34(12):2614–27.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
117.
Thangthaeng N, Rutledge M, Wong JM, Vann PH, Forster MJ, Sumien N. Metformin impairs spatial memory and visual acuity in old male mice. Aging Dis. 2017;8(1):17.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
118.
Hill DA, Crider M, Hill SR. Hormone therapy and other treatments for symptoms of menopause. Am Fam Physician. 2016;94(11):884–9.PubMed
Metadata
Title
Investigation of common risk factors between polycystic ovary syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease: a narrative review
Authors
Nahid Sarahian
Hosna Sarvazad
Elham Sajadi
Nasrin Rahnejat
Narges Eskandari Roozbahani
Publication date
01-12-2021
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Reproductive Health / Issue 1/2021
Electronic ISSN: 1742-4755
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01203-x

Other articles of this Issue 1/2021

Reproductive Health 1/2021 Go to the issue

Research

Seeking menstrual products: a qualitative exploration of the unmet menstrual needs of individuals experiencing homelessness in New York City

Research

An examination of the barriers to and benefits from collaborative couple contraceptive use in Rwanda

Research

Contraceptive counselling experiences in Spain in the process of creating a web-based contraceptive decision support tool: a qualitative study

Review

Women’s sleep position during pregnancy in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review

Commentary

The politest form of racism: sexual and reproductive health and rights paradigm in Canada

Research

Reproductive awareness and recognition of unintended pregnancy: young women, key informants and health care providers perspectives in South Africa