Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Diabetes Reports 2/2014

01-02-2014 | Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes (PS Zeitler, Section Editor)

Cardiovascular Risk in Children and Adolescents with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Authors: Christopher Prendergast, Samuel S. Gidding

Published in: Current Diabetes Reports | Issue 2/2014

Login to get access

Abstract

The epidemic of childhood obesity worldwide has led to increased incidence of the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes in the pediatric and adolescent population. As such, there is increasing concern that this large population of children is at risk for the long-term complications of diabetes, specifically cardiovascular disease. With cardiovascular disease remaining the leading cause of death in adults, this presents a significant public health concern as these children age. In this article, we discuss cardiovascular disease and risk in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes, including the epidemiology of type 2 diabetes, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, obesity, hypertension, and left ventricular function.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Pinhas-Hamiel O, Zeitler P. The global spread of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2005;146:693.PubMedCrossRef Pinhas-Hamiel O, Zeitler P. The global spread of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2005;146:693.PubMedCrossRef
2.
go back to reference Pinhas-Hamiel O, Dolan LM, Daniels SR, et al. Increased incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus among adolescents. J Pediatr. 1996;128:608.PubMedCrossRef Pinhas-Hamiel O, Dolan LM, Daniels SR, et al. Increased incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus among adolescents. J Pediatr. 1996;128:608.PubMedCrossRef
3.
go back to reference Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Fact Sheet. National Estimates and General Information of Diabetes and Prediabetes in the United States, 2011. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2011. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Fact Sheet. National Estimates and General Information of Diabetes and Prediabetes in the United States, 2011. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2011.
4.
go back to reference Lee JM. Why young adults hold the key to assessing the obesity epidemic in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2008;162:682.PubMedCrossRef Lee JM. Why young adults hold the key to assessing the obesity epidemic in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2008;162:682.PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Lee JM, Okumura MJ, Freed GL, et al. Trends in hospitalizations for diabetes among children and young adults: United States, 1993-2004. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:3035.PubMedCrossRef Lee JM, Okumura MJ, Freed GL, et al. Trends in hospitalizations for diabetes among children and young adults: United States, 1993-2004. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:3035.PubMedCrossRef
6.
go back to reference Scott CR, Smith JM, Cradock MM, Pihoker C. Characteristics of youth-onset noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus at diagnosis. Pediatrics. 1997;100:84.PubMedCrossRef Scott CR, Smith JM, Cradock MM, Pihoker C. Characteristics of youth-onset noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus at diagnosis. Pediatrics. 1997;100:84.PubMedCrossRef
7.
go back to reference Freedman DS, Srinivasan SR, Burke GL, et al. Relation of body fat distribution to hyperinsulinemia in children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1987;46:403.PubMed Freedman DS, Srinivasan SR, Burke GL, et al. Relation of body fat distribution to hyperinsulinemia in children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1987;46:403.PubMed
8.
go back to reference Caprio S, Hyman LD, Limb C, et al. Central adiposity and its metabolic correlates in obese adolescent girls. Am J Physiol. 1995;269:E118.PubMed Caprio S, Hyman LD, Limb C, et al. Central adiposity and its metabolic correlates in obese adolescent girls. Am J Physiol. 1995;269:E118.PubMed
9.
go back to reference Juonala M, Magnussen CG, Berenson GS, Venn A, Burns TL, Sabin MA, et al. Childhood adiposity, adult adiposity, and cardiovascular risk factors. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1876–85.PubMedCrossRef Juonala M, Magnussen CG, Berenson GS, Venn A, Burns TL, Sabin MA, et al. Childhood adiposity, adult adiposity, and cardiovascular risk factors. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1876–85.PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Tirosh A, Shai I, Afek A, Dubnov-Raz G, Ayalon N, Gordon B, et al. Adolescent BMI trajectory and risk of diabetes versus coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1315–25.PubMedCrossRef Tirosh A, Shai I, Afek A, Dubnov-Raz G, Ayalon N, Gordon B, et al. Adolescent BMI trajectory and risk of diabetes versus coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1315–25.PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Li L, Pinot de Moira A, Power C. Predicting cardiovascular disease risk factors in mid-adulthood from childhood body mass index: utility of different cutoffs for childhood body mass index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:1204–11.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef Li L, Pinot de Moira A, Power C. Predicting cardiovascular disease risk factors in mid-adulthood from childhood body mass index: utility of different cutoffs for childhood body mass index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:1204–11.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Fagot-Campagna A, Pettitt DJ, Engelgau MM, et al. Type 2 diabetes among North American children and adolescents: an epidemiologic review and a public health perspective. J Pediatr. 2000;136:664.PubMedCrossRef Fagot-Campagna A, Pettitt DJ, Engelgau MM, et al. Type 2 diabetes among North American children and adolescents: an epidemiologic review and a public health perspective. J Pediatr. 2000;136:664.PubMedCrossRef
13.
14.
go back to reference Savage PJ, Bennett PH, Senter RG, Miller M. High prevalence of diabetes in young Pima Indians: evidence of phenotypic variation in a genetically isolated population. Diabetes. 1979;28:937.PubMedCrossRef Savage PJ, Bennett PH, Senter RG, Miller M. High prevalence of diabetes in young Pima Indians: evidence of phenotypic variation in a genetically isolated population. Diabetes. 1979;28:937.PubMedCrossRef
15.
go back to reference Arslanian S, Suprasongsin C. Differences in the in vivo insulin secretion and sensitivity of healthy black versus white adolescents. J Pediatr. 1996;129:440.PubMedCrossRef Arslanian S, Suprasongsin C. Differences in the in vivo insulin secretion and sensitivity of healthy black versus white adolescents. J Pediatr. 1996;129:440.PubMedCrossRef
16.
go back to reference Arslanian SA. Metabolic differences between Caucasian and African-American children and the relationship to type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2002;15 Suppl 1:509.PubMed Arslanian SA. Metabolic differences between Caucasian and African-American children and the relationship to type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2002;15 Suppl 1:509.PubMed
17.
go back to reference Danadian K, Balasekaran G, Lewy V, et al. Insulin sensitivity in African-American children with and without family history of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:1325.PubMedCrossRef Danadian K, Balasekaran G, Lewy V, et al. Insulin sensitivity in African-American children with and without family history of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:1325.PubMedCrossRef
18.
go back to reference Svec F, Nastasi K, Hilton C, et al. Black-white contrasts in insulin levels during pubertal development. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Diabetes. 1992;41:313.PubMedCrossRef Svec F, Nastasi K, Hilton C, et al. Black-white contrasts in insulin levels during pubertal development. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Diabetes. 1992;41:313.PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Banerji MA. Impaired beta-cell and alpha-cell function in African-American children with type 2 diabetes mellitus — "Flatbush diabetes". J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2002;15 Suppl 1:493.PubMed Banerji MA. Impaired beta-cell and alpha-cell function in African-American children with type 2 diabetes mellitus — "Flatbush diabetes". J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2002;15 Suppl 1:493.PubMed
20.
go back to reference Cruz ML, Weigensberg MJ, Huang TT, et al. The metabolic syndrome in overweight Hispanic youth and the role of insulin sensitivity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:108.PubMedCrossRef Cruz ML, Weigensberg MJ, Huang TT, et al. The metabolic syndrome in overweight Hispanic youth and the role of insulin sensitivity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:108.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Goran MI, Bergman RN, Avila Q, et al. Impaired glucose tolerance and reduced beta-cell function in overweight Latino children with a positive family history for type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:207.PubMedCrossRef Goran MI, Bergman RN, Avila Q, et al. Impaired glucose tolerance and reduced beta-cell function in overweight Latino children with a positive family history for type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:207.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference American Diabetes Association. Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:381.CrossRef American Diabetes Association. Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:381.CrossRef
23.
go back to reference Copeland KC, Zeitler P, Geffner M, et al. Characteristics of adolescents and youth with recent-onset type 2 diabetes: the TODAY cohort at baseline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:159.PubMedCrossRef Copeland KC, Zeitler P, Geffner M, et al. Characteristics of adolescents and youth with recent-onset type 2 diabetes: the TODAY cohort at baseline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:159.PubMedCrossRef
24.
go back to reference Tattersal RB, Fajans SS. Prevalence of diabetes and glucose intolerance in 199 offspring of 37 conjugal diabetic parents. Diabetes. 1975;24:452.PubMedCrossRef Tattersal RB, Fajans SS. Prevalence of diabetes and glucose intolerance in 199 offspring of 37 conjugal diabetic parents. Diabetes. 1975;24:452.PubMedCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Vassy JL, Dasmahapatra P, Meigs JB, Schork NJ, Magnussen CG, Chen W, et al. Genotype prediction of adult type 2 diabetes from adolescence in a multi-racial population. Pediatrics. 2012;130:e1235–42.PubMedCrossRef Vassy JL, Dasmahapatra P, Meigs JB, Schork NJ, Magnussen CG, Chen W, et al. Genotype prediction of adult type 2 diabetes from adolescence in a multi-racial population. Pediatrics. 2012;130:e1235–42.PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Vassy JL, Donelan K, Hivert MF, Green RC, Grant RW. Genetic susceptibility testing for chronic disease and intention for behavior change in healthy young adults. J Community Genet. 2013;4:263–71.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef Vassy JL, Donelan K, Hivert MF, Green RC, Grant RW. Genetic susceptibility testing for chronic disease and intention for behavior change in healthy young adults. J Community Genet. 2013;4:263–71.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
27.
28.
go back to reference Ouchi N, Kihara S, Funahashi T, Matsuzawa Y, Walsh K. Obesity, adiponectin and vascular inflammatory disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2003;14:561–6.PubMedCrossRef Ouchi N, Kihara S, Funahashi T, Matsuzawa Y, Walsh K. Obesity, adiponectin and vascular inflammatory disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2003;14:561–6.PubMedCrossRef
29.
go back to reference Li S, Shin HJ, Ding EL, van Dam RM. Adiponectin levels and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2009;302:179–88.PubMedCrossRef Li S, Shin HJ, Ding EL, van Dam RM. Adiponectin levels and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2009;302:179–88.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Siitonen N, Pulkkinen L, Lindström J, Kolehmainen M, Schwab U, Eriksson JG, et al. Association of ADIPOR2 gene variants with cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes risk in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance: the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2011;10:83. doi:10.1186/1475-2840-10-83.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef Siitonen N, Pulkkinen L, Lindström J, Kolehmainen M, Schwab U, Eriksson JG, et al. Association of ADIPOR2 gene variants with cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes risk in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance: the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2011;10:83. doi:10.​1186/​1475-2840-10-83.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE. Cause-specific mortality in a population-based study of diabetes. Am J Public Health. 1991;81:1158–62.PubMedCrossRef Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE. Cause-specific mortality in a population-based study of diabetes. Am J Public Health. 1991;81:1158–62.PubMedCrossRef
32.
go back to reference Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-yr cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care. 1993;16:434–44.PubMedCrossRef Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-yr cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care. 1993;16:434–44.PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Laakso M. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: challenge for treatment and prevention. J Intern Med. 2001;249:225–35.PubMedCrossRef Laakso M. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: challenge for treatment and prevention. J Intern Med. 2001;249:225–35.PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Juutilainen A, Lehto S, Rönnemaa T, Pyörälä K, Laakso M. Type 2 diabetes as a "coronary heart disease equivalent": an 18-year prospective population-based study in Finnish subjects. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:2901–7.PubMedCrossRef Juutilainen A, Lehto S, Rönnemaa T, Pyörälä K, Laakso M. Type 2 diabetes as a "coronary heart disease equivalent": an 18-year prospective population-based study in Finnish subjects. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:2901–7.PubMedCrossRef
35.
go back to reference Strong JP, Malcom GT, McMahan CA, Tracy RE, Newman III WP, Herderick EE, et al. Prevalence and extent of atherosclerosis in adolescents and young adults: implications for prevention from the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study. JAMA. 1999;281:727–35.PubMedCrossRef Strong JP, Malcom GT, McMahan CA, Tracy RE, Newman III WP, Herderick EE, et al. Prevalence and extent of atherosclerosis in adolescents and young adults: implications for prevention from the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study. JAMA. 1999;281:727–35.PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference Berenson GS, Srinivasan SR, Bao W, Newman III WP, Tracy RE, Wattigney WA. Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1650–6.PubMedCrossRef Berenson GS, Srinivasan SR, Bao W, Newman III WP, Tracy RE, Wattigney WA. Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1650–6.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Zieske AW, Malcom GT, Strong JP. Natural history and risk factors of atherosclerosis in children and youth: the PDAY study. Pediatr Pathol Mol Med. 2002;21:213–37.PubMedCrossRef Zieske AW, Malcom GT, Strong JP. Natural history and risk factors of atherosclerosis in children and youth: the PDAY study. Pediatr Pathol Mol Med. 2002;21:213–37.PubMedCrossRef
38.
go back to reference Tracy RE, Newman III WP, Wattigney WA, Berenson GS. Risk factors and atherosclerosis in youth autopsy findings of the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Med Sci. 1995;310:37–41.CrossRef Tracy RE, Newman III WP, Wattigney WA, Berenson GS. Risk factors and atherosclerosis in youth autopsy findings of the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Med Sci. 1995;310:37–41.CrossRef
39.
40.
go back to reference McGill Jr HC, McMahan CA, Herderick EE, Zieske AW, Malcom GT, Tracy RE, et al. Obesity accelerates the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in young men. Circulation. 2002;105:2712–8.PubMedCrossRef McGill Jr HC, McMahan CA, Herderick EE, Zieske AW, Malcom GT, Tracy RE, et al. Obesity accelerates the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in young men. Circulation. 2002;105:2712–8.PubMedCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Mahoney LT, Burns TL, Stanford W, Thompson BH, Witt JD, Rost CA, et al. Coronary risk factors measured in childhood and young adult life are associated with coronary artery calcification in young adults: the Muscatine Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:277–84.PubMedCrossRef Mahoney LT, Burns TL, Stanford W, Thompson BH, Witt JD, Rost CA, et al. Coronary risk factors measured in childhood and young adult life are associated with coronary artery calcification in young adults: the Muscatine Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:277–84.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kahonen M, Taittonen L, Laitinen T, Maki-Torkko N, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA. 2003;290:2277–83.PubMedCrossRef Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kahonen M, Taittonen L, Laitinen T, Maki-Torkko N, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA. 2003;290:2277–83.PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Schmidt AM, Yan SD, Wautier JL, Stern D. Activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products: a mechanism for chronic vascular dysfunction in diabetic vasculopathy and atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 1999;84:489–97.PubMedCrossRef Schmidt AM, Yan SD, Wautier JL, Stern D. Activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products: a mechanism for chronic vascular dysfunction in diabetic vasculopathy and atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 1999;84:489–97.PubMedCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Libby P, Plutzky J. Diabetic macrovascular disease: the glucose paradox? Circulation. 2002;106:2760–3.PubMedCrossRef Libby P, Plutzky J. Diabetic macrovascular disease: the glucose paradox? Circulation. 2002;106:2760–3.PubMedCrossRef
45.
go back to reference The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:977–86.CrossRef The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:977–86.CrossRef
46.
go back to reference Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, Genuth SM, Lachin JM, Orchard TJ, et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2643–53.PubMedCrossRef Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, Genuth SM, Lachin JM, Orchard TJ, et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2643–53.PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Nathan DM, Lachin J, Cleary P, Orchard T, Brillon DJ, Backlund JY, et al. Intensive diabetes therapy and carotid intima-media thickness in type 1 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2294–303.PubMedCrossRef Nathan DM, Lachin J, Cleary P, Orchard T, Brillon DJ, Backlund JY, et al. Intensive diabetes therapy and carotid intima-media thickness in type 1 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2294–303.PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352:837–53.CrossRef UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352:837–53.CrossRef
49.
go back to reference Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, Matthews DR, Neil HA. Ten-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1577–89.PubMedCrossRef Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, Matthews DR, Neil HA. Ten-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1577–89.PubMedCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, Matthews DR, Manley SE, Cull CA, et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ. 2000;321:405–12.PubMedCrossRef Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, Matthews DR, Manley SE, Cull CA, et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ. 2000;321:405–12.PubMedCrossRef
51.
go back to reference Friedman GD, Cutter GR, Donahue RP, et al. CARDIA: study design, recruitment, and some characteristics of the examined subjects. J Clin Epidemiol. 1988;41:1105–16.PubMedCrossRef Friedman GD, Cutter GR, Donahue RP, et al. CARDIA: study design, recruitment, and some characteristics of the examined subjects. J Clin Epidemiol. 1988;41:1105–16.PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Loria CM, Liu K, Lewis CE, Hulley SB, Sidney S, Schreiner PJ, et al. Early adult risk factor levels and subsequent coronary artery calcification: the CARDIA Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:2013–20.PubMedCrossRef Loria CM, Liu K, Lewis CE, Hulley SB, Sidney S, Schreiner PJ, et al. Early adult risk factor levels and subsequent coronary artery calcification: the CARDIA Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:2013–20.PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference Schauer IE, Snell-Bergeon JK, Bergman BC, Maahs DM, Kretowski A, Eckel RH, et al. Insulin resistance, defective insulin-mediated fatty acid suppression, and coronary artery calcification in subjects with and without type 1 diabetes: the CACTI study. Diabetes. 2011;60:306–14.PubMedCrossRef Schauer IE, Snell-Bergeon JK, Bergman BC, Maahs DM, Kretowski A, Eckel RH, et al. Insulin resistance, defective insulin-mediated fatty acid suppression, and coronary artery calcification in subjects with and without type 1 diabetes: the CACTI study. Diabetes. 2011;60:306–14.PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference Chambless LE, Heiss G, Folsom AR, Rosamond W, Szklo M, Sharrett AR, et al. Association of coronary heart disease incidence with carotid arterial wall thickness and major risk factors: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study, 1987–1993. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;146:483–94.PubMedCrossRef Chambless LE, Heiss G, Folsom AR, Rosamond W, Szklo M, Sharrett AR, et al. Association of coronary heart disease incidence with carotid arterial wall thickness and major risk factors: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study, 1987–1993. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;146:483–94.PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, Selzer RH, Liu CR, Liu CH, et al. The role of carotid arterial intima-media thickness in predicting clinical coronary events. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:262–9.PubMedCrossRef Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, Selzer RH, Liu CR, Liu CH, et al. The role of carotid arterial intima-media thickness in predicting clinical coronary events. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:262–9.PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Furberg CD, Adams Jr HP, Applegate WB, Byington RP, Espeland MA, Hartwell T, et al. Asymptomatic Carotid Artery Progression Study (ACAPS) Research Group. Effect of lovastatin on early carotid atherosclerosis and cardio- vascular events. Circulation. 1994;90:1679–87.PubMedCrossRef Furberg CD, Adams Jr HP, Applegate WB, Byington RP, Espeland MA, Hartwell T, et al. Asymptomatic Carotid Artery Progression Study (ACAPS) Research Group. Effect of lovastatin on early carotid atherosclerosis and cardio- vascular events. Circulation. 1994;90:1679–87.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Pitt B, Byington RP, Furberg CD, Hunninghake DB, Mancini GB, Miller ME, et al. Prevent Investigators. Effect of amlodipine on the progression of atherosclerosis and the occurrence of clinical events. Circulation. 2000;102:1503–10.PubMedCrossRef Pitt B, Byington RP, Furberg CD, Hunninghake DB, Mancini GB, Miller ME, et al. Prevent Investigators. Effect of amlodipine on the progression of atherosclerosis and the occurrence of clinical events. Circulation. 2000;102:1503–10.PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Salonen R, Nyyssonen K, Porkkala E, Rummukainen J, Belder R, Park JS, et al. Kuopio Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (KAPS): a population-based primary preventive trial of the effect of LDL lowering on atherosclerotic progression in carotid and femoral arteries. Circulation. 1995;92:1758–64.PubMedCrossRef Salonen R, Nyyssonen K, Porkkala E, Rummukainen J, Belder R, Park JS, et al. Kuopio Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (KAPS): a population-based primary preventive trial of the effect of LDL lowering on atherosclerotic progression in carotid and femoral arteries. Circulation. 1995;92:1758–64.PubMedCrossRef
59.
go back to reference Urbina EM, Gao Z, Khoury PR, Martin LJ, Dolan LM. Insulin resistance and arterial stiffness in healthy adolescents and young adults. Diabetologia. 2012;55:625–31.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef Urbina EM, Gao Z, Khoury PR, Martin LJ, Dolan LM. Insulin resistance and arterial stiffness in healthy adolescents and young adults. Diabetologia. 2012;55:625–31.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Wadwa RP, Urbina EM, Anderson AM, Hamman RF, Dolan LM, Rodriguez BL, et al. SEARCH Study Group. Measures of arterial stiffness in youth with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:881–6.PubMedCrossRef Wadwa RP, Urbina EM, Anderson AM, Hamman RF, Dolan LM, Rodriguez BL, et al. SEARCH Study Group. Measures of arterial stiffness in youth with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:881–6.PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference Shah AS, Khoury PR, Dolan LM, Ippisch HM, Urbina EM, Daniels SR, et al. The effects of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus on cardiac structure and function in adolescents and young adults. Diabetologia. 2011;54:722–30.PubMedCrossRef Shah AS, Khoury PR, Dolan LM, Ippisch HM, Urbina EM, Daniels SR, et al. The effects of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus on cardiac structure and function in adolescents and young adults. Diabetologia. 2011;54:722–30.PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Castelli WP. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1561–6.PubMedCrossRef Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Castelli WP. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1561–6.PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Koren MJ, Devereux RB, Casale PN, Savage DD, Laragh JH. Relation of left ventricular mass and geometry to morbidity and mortality in uncomplicated essential hypertension. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:345–52.PubMedCrossRef Koren MJ, Devereux RB, Casale PN, Savage DD, Laragh JH. Relation of left ventricular mass and geometry to morbidity and mortality in uncomplicated essential hypertension. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:345–52.PubMedCrossRef
64.
go back to reference Li X, Li S, Ulusoy E, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. Childhood adiposity as a predictor of cardiac mass in adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation. 2004;110:3488–92.PubMedCrossRef Li X, Li S, Ulusoy E, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. Childhood adiposity as a predictor of cardiac mass in adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation. 2004;110:3488–92.PubMedCrossRef
65.
go back to reference Urbina EM, Gidding SS, Bao W, Pickoff AS, Berdusis K, Berenson GS. Effect of body size, ponderosity, and blood pressure on left ventricular growth in children and young adults in the Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation. 1995;91:2400–6.PubMedCrossRef Urbina EM, Gidding SS, Bao W, Pickoff AS, Berdusis K, Berenson GS. Effect of body size, ponderosity, and blood pressure on left ventricular growth in children and young adults in the Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation. 1995;91:2400–6.PubMedCrossRef
66.
go back to reference Nadeau KJ, Regensteiner JG, Bauer TA, Brown MS, Dorosz JL, Hull A, et al. Insulin resistance in adolescents with type 1 diabetes and its relationship to cardiovascular function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:513–21.PubMedCrossRef Nadeau KJ, Regensteiner JG, Bauer TA, Brown MS, Dorosz JL, Hull A, et al. Insulin resistance in adolescents with type 1 diabetes and its relationship to cardiovascular function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:513–21.PubMedCrossRef
67.
go back to reference Matikainen N, Taskinen MR. Management of dyslipidemias in the presence of the metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2012;14:721–31.PubMedCrossRef Matikainen N, Taskinen MR. Management of dyslipidemias in the presence of the metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2012;14:721–31.PubMedCrossRef
68.
go back to reference Giannini C, Santoro N, Caprio S, Kim G, Lartaud D, Shaw M, et al. The triglyceride-to-HDL cholesterol ratio: association with insulin resistance in obese youths of different ethnic backgrounds. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:1869–74.PubMedCrossRef Giannini C, Santoro N, Caprio S, Kim G, Lartaud D, Shaw M, et al. The triglyceride-to-HDL cholesterol ratio: association with insulin resistance in obese youths of different ethnic backgrounds. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:1869–74.PubMedCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Weiss R, Otvos JD, Sinnreich R, Miserez AR, Kark JD. The triglyceride to high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol ratio in adolescence and subsequent weight gain predict nuclear magnetic resonance-measured lipoprotein subclasses in adulthood. J Pediatr. 2011;158:44–50.PubMedCrossRef Weiss R, Otvos JD, Sinnreich R, Miserez AR, Kark JD. The triglyceride to high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol ratio in adolescence and subsequent weight gain predict nuclear magnetic resonance-measured lipoprotein subclasses in adulthood. J Pediatr. 2011;158:44–50.PubMedCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Burns SF, Lee SJ, Arslanian SA. Surrogate lipid markers for small dense low-density lipoprotein particles in overweight youth. J Pediatr. 2012;161(6):991–6.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef Burns SF, Lee SJ, Arslanian SA. Surrogate lipid markers for small dense low-density lipoprotein particles in overweight youth. J Pediatr. 2012;161(6):991–6.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference TODAY Study Group. A clinical trial to maintain glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2247–56.PubMedCentralCrossRef TODAY Study Group. A clinical trial to maintain glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2247–56.PubMedCentralCrossRef
72.••
go back to reference TODAY Study Group. Lipid and inflammatory cardiovascular risk worsens over 3 years in youth with type 2 diabetes: the TODAY clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2013;36:1758–64. This study demonstrates that adolescents with T2DM have a high prevalence of dyslipidemia and describes the difficulty in achieving lipid goals in this population. It also shows that diabetes interventions do not appear to prevent the worsening of CVD risk.CrossRef TODAY Study Group. Lipid and inflammatory cardiovascular risk worsens over 3 years in youth with type 2 diabetes: the TODAY clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2013;36:1758–64. This study demonstrates that adolescents with T2DM have a high prevalence of dyslipidemia and describes the difficulty in achieving lipid goals in this population. It also shows that diabetes interventions do not appear to prevent the worsening of CVD risk.CrossRef
73.
go back to reference Li C, Ford ES, McBride PE, Kwiterovich PO, McCrindle BW, Gidding SS. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration is associated with the metabolic syndrome among US youth aged 12-19 years. J Pediatr. 2011;158:201–7.PubMedCrossRef Li C, Ford ES, McBride PE, Kwiterovich PO, McCrindle BW, Gidding SS. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration is associated with the metabolic syndrome among US youth aged 12-19 years. J Pediatr. 2011;158:201–7.PubMedCrossRef
74.•
go back to reference Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents. summary report. Pediatrics. 2011;128:S213. These guidelines are the first to recognize T2DM as a condition associated with accelerated atherosclerosis and early CVD.CrossRef Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents. summary report. Pediatrics. 2011;128:S213. These guidelines are the first to recognize T2DM as a condition associated with accelerated atherosclerosis and early CVD.CrossRef
75.
go back to reference Hypertension in Diabetes Study (HDS). I. Prevalence of hypertension in newly presenting type 2 diabetic patients and the association with risk factors for cardiovascular and diabetic complications. J Hypertens. 1993;11:309–17.CrossRef Hypertension in Diabetes Study (HDS). I. Prevalence of hypertension in newly presenting type 2 diabetic patients and the association with risk factors for cardiovascular and diabetic complications. J Hypertens. 1993;11:309–17.CrossRef
77.
go back to reference Randeree HA, Omar MA, Motala AA, Seedat MA. Effect of insulin therapy on blood pressure in NIDDM patients with secondary failure. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:1258.PubMedCrossRef Randeree HA, Omar MA, Motala AA, Seedat MA. Effect of insulin therapy on blood pressure in NIDDM patients with secondary failure. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:1258.PubMedCrossRef
78.
go back to reference Nosadini R, Sambataro M, Thomaseth K, et al. Role of hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in determining sodium retention in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Kidney Int. 1993;44:139.PubMedCrossRef Nosadini R, Sambataro M, Thomaseth K, et al. Role of hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in determining sodium retention in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Kidney Int. 1993;44:139.PubMedCrossRef
79.
go back to reference Cruickshank K, Riste L, Anderson SG, et al. Aortic pulse-wave velocity and its relationship to mortality in diabetes and glucose intolerance: an integrated index of vascular function? Circulation. 2002;106:2085.PubMedCrossRef Cruickshank K, Riste L, Anderson SG, et al. Aortic pulse-wave velocity and its relationship to mortality in diabetes and glucose intolerance: an integrated index of vascular function? Circulation. 2002;106:2085.PubMedCrossRef
80.
go back to reference de Boer IH, Rue TC, Hall YN, Heagerty PJ, Weiss NS, Himmelfarb J. Temporal trends in the prevalence of diabetic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA. 2011;305:2532–9.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef de Boer IH, Rue TC, Hall YN, Heagerty PJ, Weiss NS, Himmelfarb J. Temporal trends in the prevalence of diabetic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA. 2011;305:2532–9.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
81.
go back to reference de Galan BE, Perkovic V, Ninomiya T, Pillai A, Patel A, Cass A, et al. Lowering blood pressure reduces renal events in type 2 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:883–92.PubMedCrossRef de Galan BE, Perkovic V, Ninomiya T, Pillai A, Patel A, Cass A, et al. Lowering blood pressure reduces renal events in type 2 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:883–92.PubMedCrossRef
82.
go back to reference Shatat IF, Flynn JT. Relationships between renin, aldosterone, and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure in obese adolescents. Pediatr Res. 2011;69:336–40.PubMedCrossRef Shatat IF, Flynn JT. Relationships between renin, aldosterone, and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure in obese adolescents. Pediatr Res. 2011;69:336–40.PubMedCrossRef
83.
go back to reference Retnakaran R, Cull CA, Thorne KI, Adler AI, Holman RR. UKPDS Study Group. Risk factors for renal dysfunction in type 2 diabetes: U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study 74. Diabetes. 2006;55:1832–9.PubMedCrossRef Retnakaran R, Cull CA, Thorne KI, Adler AI, Holman RR. UKPDS Study Group. Risk factors for renal dysfunction in type 2 diabetes: U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study 74. Diabetes. 2006;55:1832–9.PubMedCrossRef
84.
go back to reference Pinhas-Hamiel O, Zeitler P. Acute and chronic complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. Lancet. 2007;369:1823–31.PubMedCrossRef Pinhas-Hamiel O, Zeitler P. Acute and chronic complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. Lancet. 2007;369:1823–31.PubMedCrossRef
85.••
go back to reference Today Study Group. Rapid rise in hypertension and nephropathy in youth with type 2 diabetes: the TODAY clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2013;36:1735–41. This study provides a thorough description of the prevalence and natural history of hypertension and microalbuminuria in adolescents with T2DM.CrossRef Today Study Group. Rapid rise in hypertension and nephropathy in youth with type 2 diabetes: the TODAY clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2013;36:1735–41. This study provides a thorough description of the prevalence and natural history of hypertension and microalbuminuria in adolescents with T2DM.CrossRef
Metadata
Title
Cardiovascular Risk in Children and Adolescents with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Authors
Christopher Prendergast
Samuel S. Gidding
Publication date
01-02-2014
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Diabetes Reports / Issue 2/2014
Print ISSN: 1534-4827
Electronic ISSN: 1539-0829
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-013-0454-0

Other articles of this Issue 2/2014

Current Diabetes Reports 2/2014 Go to the issue

Hospital Management of Diabetes (G Umpierrez, Section Editor)

Management of Patients with Type 1 Diabetes in the Hospital

Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes (PS Zeitler, Section Editor)

Nephropathy in Youth and Young Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Hospital Management of Diabetes (G Umpierrez, Section Editor)

Inpatient Management of Women with Gestational and Pregestational Diabetes in Pregnancy

Live Webinar | 27-06-2024 | 18:00 (CEST)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Live: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)

WHO estimates that half of all patients worldwide are non-adherent to their prescribed medication. The consequences of poor adherence can be catastrophic, on both the individual and population level.

Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.

Prof. Kevin Dolgin
Prof. Florian Limbourg
Prof. Anoop Chauhan
Developed by: Springer Medicine
Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Highlights from the ACC 2024 Congress

Year in Review: Pediatric cardiology

Watch Dr. Anne Marie Valente present the last year's highlights in pediatric and congenital heart disease in the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Pulmonary vascular disease

The last year's highlights in pulmonary vascular disease are presented by Dr. Jane Leopold in this official video from ACC.24.

Year in Review: Valvular heart disease

Watch Prof. William Zoghbi present the last year's highlights in valvular heart disease from the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discusses last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.