Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
BMC Medicine
Published in: BMC Medicine 1/2019

Open Access 01-12-2019 | Alzheimer's Disease | Opinion

Translational research on reserve against neurodegenerative disease: consensus report of the International Conference on Cognitive Reserve in the Dementias and the Alzheimer’s Association Reserve, Resilience and Protective Factors Professional Interest Area working groups

Authors: Robert Perneczky, Gerd Kempermann, Amos D. Korczyn, Fiona E. Matthews, M. Arfan Ikram, Nikolaos Scarmeas, Gael Chetelat, Yaakov Stern, Michael Ewers

Published in: BMC Medicine | Issue 1/2019

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

The concept of reserve was established to account for the observation that a given degree of neurodegenerative pathology may result in varying degrees of symptoms in different individuals. There is a large amount of evidence on epidemiological risk and protective factors for neurodegenerative diseases and dementia, yet the biological mechanisms that underpin the protective effects of certain lifestyle and physiological variables remain poorly understood, limiting the development of more effective preventive and treatment strategies. Additionally, different definitions and concepts of reserve exist, which hampers the coordination of research and comparison of results across studies.

Discussion

This paper represents the consensus of a multidisciplinary group of experts from different areas of research related to reserve, including clinical, epidemiological and basic sciences. The consensus was developed during meetings of the working groups of the first International Conference on Cognitive Reserve in the Dementias (24–25 November 2017, Munich, Germany) and the Alzheimer’s Association Reserve and Resilience Professional Interest Area (25 July 2018, Chicago, USA). The main objective of the present paper is to develop a translational perspective on putative mechanisms underlying reserve against neurodegenerative disease, combining evidence from epidemiological and clinical studies with knowledge from animal and basic research. The potential brain functional and structural basis of reserve in Alzheimer’s disease and other brain disorders are discussed, as well as relevant lifestyle and genetic factors assessed in both humans and animal models.

Conclusion

There is an urgent need to advance our concept of reserve from a hypothetical model to a more concrete approach that can be used to improve the development of effective interventions aimed at preventing dementia. Our group recommends agreement on a common dictionary of terms referring to different aspects of reserve, the improvement of opportunities for data sharing across individual cohorts, harmonising research approaches across laboratories and groups to reduce heterogeneity associated with human data, global coordination of clinical trials to more effectively explore whether reducing epidemiological risk factors leads to a reduced burden of neurodegenerative diseases in the population, and an increase in our understanding of the appropriateness of animal models for reserve research.
Literature
1.
Wimo A, Guerchet M, Ali GC, Wu YT, Prina AM, Winblad B, Jonsson L, Liu Z, Prince M. The worldwide costs of dementia 2015 and comparisons with 2010. Alzheimers Dement. 2017;13(1):1–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
2.
Calcoen D, Elias L, Yu X. What does it take to produce a breakthrough drug? Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2015;14(3):161–2.CrossRefPubMed
3.
Cummings J, Lee G, Ritter A, Zhong K. Alzheimer's disease drug development pipeline: 2018. Alzheimers Dement. 2018;4:195–214.
4.
Hutter CM, Mechanic LE, Chatterjee N, Kraft P, Gillanders EM. NCI Gene-Environment Think Tank. Gene-environment interactions in cancer epidemiology: a National Cancer Institute Think Tank report. Genet Epidemiol. 2013;37(7):643–57.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
5.
6.
Sperling RA, Aisen PS, Beckett LA, Bennett DA, Craft S, Fagan AM, Iwatsubo T, Jack CR Jr, Kaye J, Montine TJ, et al. Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(3):280–92.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
7.
Livingston G, Sommerlad A, Orgeta V, Costafreda SG, Huntley J, Ames D, Ballard C, Banerjee S, Burns A, Cohen-Mansfield J, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. Lancet. 2017;390(10113):2673–734.CrossRefPubMed
8.
Terracciano A, Sutin AR, An Y, O'Brien RJ, Ferrucci L, Zonderman AB, Resnick SM. Personality and risk of Alzheimer's disease: new data and meta-analysis. Alzheimers Dement. 2014;10(2):179–86.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Andersson J, Oudin A, Sundstrom A, Forsberg B, Adolfsson R, Nordin M. Road traffic noise, air pollution, and risk of dementia – results from the Betula project. Environ Res. 2018;166:334–9.CrossRefPubMed
10.
11.
Wu YT, Beiser AS, Breteler MMB, Fratiglioni L, Helmer C, Hendrie HC, Honda H, Ikram MA, Langa KM, Lobo A, et al. The changing prevalence and incidence of dementia over time – current evidence. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017;13(6):327–39.CrossRefPubMed
12.
Habeck C, Razlighi Q, Gazes Y, Barulli D, Steffener J, Stern Y. Cognitive reserve and brain maintenance: orthogonal concepts in theory and practice. Cereb Cortex. 2017;27(8):3962–9.PubMed
13.
Nyberg L, Lovden M, Riklund K, Lindenberger U, Backman L. Memory aging and brain maintenance. Trends Cogn Sci. 2012;16(5):292–305.CrossRefPubMed
14.
15.
Blessed G, Tomlinson BE, Roth M. The association between quantitative measures of dementia and of senile change in the cerebral grey matter of elderly subjects. Br J Psychiatry. 1968;114(512):797–811.CrossRefPubMed
16.
Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, Wilder D, Mayeux R. Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. JAMA. 1994;271(13):1004–10.CrossRefPubMed
17.
McGurn B, Deary IJ, Starr JM. Childhood cognitive ability and risk of late-onset Alzheimer and vascular dementia. Neurology. 2008;71(14):1051–6.CrossRefPubMed
18.
Scarmeas N, Levy G, Tang MX, Manly J, Stern Y. Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 2001;57(12):2236–42.CrossRefPubMed
19.
Stern Y, Alexander GE, Prohovnik I, Stricks L, Link B, Lennon MC, Mayeux R. Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology. Neurology. 1995;45(1):55–60.CrossRefPubMed
20.
Perneczky R. Population-based approaches to Alzheimer's disease prevention. Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1750:15–29.CrossRefPubMed
21.
Zahodne LB, Stern Y, Manly JJ. Differing effects of education on cognitive decline in diverse elders with low versus high educational attainment. Neuropsychology. 2015;29(4):649–57.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Chapko D, McCormack R, Black C, Staff R, Murray A. Life-course determinants of cognitive reserve (CR) in cognitive aging and dementia – a systematic literature review. Aging Ment Health. 2018;22(8):915–26.CrossRefPubMed
23.
Meng X, D'Arcy C. Education and dementia in the context of the cognitive reserve hypothesis: a systematic review with meta-analyses and qualitative analyses. PLoS One. 2012;7(6):e38268.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
24.
Valenzuela MJ, Sachdev P. Brain reserve and dementia: a systematic review. Psychological Med. 2006;36(4):441–54.CrossRef
25.
Scarmeas N, Stern Y. Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. J Clin Exper Neuropsychol. 2003;25(5):625–33.CrossRef
26.
Christie GJ, Hamilton T, Manor BD, Farb NAS, Farzan F, Sixsmith A, Temprado JJ, Moreno S. Do lifestyle activities protect against cognitive decline in aging? A review. Front Aging Neurosci. 2017;9:381.CrossRefPubMed
27.
Harrison SL, Sajjad A, Bramer WM, Ikram MA, Tiemeier H, Stephan BC. Exploring strategies to operationalize cognitive reserve: a systematic review of reviews. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2015;37(3):253–64.CrossRefPubMed
28.
Bennett DA, Arnold SE, Valenzuela MJ, Brayne C, Schneider JA. Cognitive and social lifestyle: links with neuropathology and cognition in late life. Acta Neuropathol. 2014;127(1):137–50.CrossRefPubMed
29.
Letenneur L, Commenges D, Dartigues JF, Barberger-Gateau P. Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in elderly community residents of south-western France. Int J Epidemiol. 1994;23(6):1256–61.CrossRefPubMed
30.
Qiu C, Backman L, Winblad B, Aguero-Torres H, Fratiglioni L. The influence of education on clinically diagnosed dementia incidence and mortality data from the Kungsholmen Project. Arch Neurol. 2001;58(12):2034–9.CrossRefPubMed
31.
Anttila T, Helkala EL, Kivipelto M, Hallikainen M, Alhainen K, Heinonen H, Mannermaa A, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Nissinen A. Midlife income, occupation, APOE status, and dementia: a population-based study. Neurology. 2002;59(6):887–93.CrossRefPubMed
32.
Zhang MY, Katzman R, Salmon D, Jin H, Cai GJ, Wang ZY, Qu GY, Grant I, Yu E, Levy P, et al. The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Shanghai, China: impact of age, gender, and education. Ann Neurol. 1990;27(4):428–37.CrossRefPubMed
33.
Evans DA, Hebert LE, Beckett LA, Scherr PA, Albert MS, Chown MJ, Pilgrim DM, Taylor JO. Education and other measures of socioeconomic status and risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a defined population of older persons. Arch Neurol. 1997;54(11):1399–405.CrossRefPubMed
34.
Evans DA, Beckett LA, Albert MS, Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Funkenstein HH, Taylor JO. Level of education and change in cognitive function in a community population of older persons. Ann Epidemiol. 1993;3(1):71–7.CrossRefPubMed
35.
White L, Katzman R, Losonczy K, Salive M, Wallace R, Berkman L, Taylor J, Fillenbaum G, Havlik R. Association of education with incidence of cognitive impairment in three established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994;47(4):363–74.CrossRefPubMed
36.
Bennett DA, Wilson RS, Schneider JA, Evans DA, Mendes De Leon CF, Arnold SE, Barnes LL, Bienias JL. Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons. Neurology. 2003;60(12):1909–15.CrossRefPubMed
37.
Duncan GJ, Brooks-Gunn J, Klebanov PK. Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Dev. 1994;65(2 Spec No):296–318.
38.
Sacker A, Schoon I, Bartley M. Social inequality in educational achievement and psychosocial adjustment throughout childhood: magnitude and mechanisms. Soc Sci Med. 2002;55(5):863–80.CrossRefPubMed
39.
McKeown T, Record RG. Relationship between childhood infections and measured intelligence. Br J Prev Soc Med. 1976;30(2):101–6.PubMedPubMedCentral
40.
Manly JJ, Touradji P, Tang MX, Stern Y. Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. J Clin Exper Neuropsychol. 2003;25(5):680–90.CrossRef
41.
Seifan A, Schelke M, Obeng-Aduasare Y, Isaacson R. Early life epidemiology of alzheimer's disease--a critical review. Neuroepidemiology. 2015;45(4):237–54.CrossRefPubMed
42.
Snowdon DA, Kemper SJ, Mortimer JA, Greiner LH, Wekstein DR, Markesbery WR. Linguistic ability in early life and cognitive function and Alzheimer's disease in late life. Findings from the Nun Study. JAMA. 1996;275(7):528–32.CrossRefPubMed
43.
Richards M, Sacker A. Lifetime antecedents of cognitive reserve. J Clin Exper Neuropsychol. 2003;25(5):614–24.CrossRef
44.
Starr JM, Deary IJ, Inch S, Cross S, MacLennan WJ. Blood pressure and cognitive decline in healthy old people. J Hum Hypertens. 1997;11(12):777–81.CrossRefPubMed
45.
Whalley LJ, Starr JM, Athawes R, Hunter D, Pattie A, Deary IJ. Childhood mental ability and dementia. Neurology. 2000;55(10):1455–9.CrossRefPubMed
46.
Schmand B, Smit JH, Geerlings MI, Lindeboom J. The effects of intelligence and education on the development of dementia. A test of the brain reserve hypothesis. Psychological Med. 1997;27(6):1337–44.CrossRef
47.
Chertkow H, Whitehead V, Phillips N, Wolfson C, Atherton J, Bergman H. Multilingualism (but not always bilingualism) delays the onset of Alzheimer disease: evidence from a bilingual community. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2010;24(2):118–25.CrossRefPubMed
48.
Craik FI, Bialystok E, Freedman M. Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology. 2010;75(19):1726–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
49.
Schweizer TA, Ware J, Fischer CE, Craik FI, Bialystok E. Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer's disease. Cortex. 2012;48(8):991–6.CrossRefPubMed
50.
Mukadam N, Sommerlad A, Livingston G. The relationship of bilingualism compared to monolingualism to the risk of cognitive decline or dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;58(1):45–54.CrossRefPubMed
51.
Salthouse T. Theoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging. Hillsdale: L. Erlbaum Associates; 1991.
52.
Hultsch DF, Hertzog C, Small BJ, Dixon RA. Use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychol Aging. 1999;14(2):245–63.CrossRefPubMed
53.
Bickel H, Cooper B. Incidence and relative risk of dementia in an urban elderly population: findings of a prospective field study. Psychol Med. 1994;24(1):179–92.CrossRefPubMed
54.
Qiu C, Karp A, von Strauss E, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L, Bellander T. Lifetime principal occupation and risk of Alzheimer's disease in the Kungsholmen project. Am J Ind Med. 2003;43(2):204–11.CrossRefPubMed
55.
Valenzuela MJ, Matthews FE, Brayne C, Ince P, Halliday G, Kril JJ, Dalton MA, Richardson K, Forster G, Sachdev PS, et al. Multiple biological pathways link cognitive lifestyle to protection from dementia. Biological Psychiatry. 2012;71(9):783–91.CrossRefPubMed
56.
Schooler C, Mulatu MS. The reciprocal effects of leisure time activities and intellectual functioning in older people: a longitudinal analysis. Psychol Aging. 2001;16(3):466–82.CrossRefPubMed
57.
Gold DP, Andres D, Etezadi J, Arbuckle T, Schwartzman A, Chaikelson J. Structural equation model of intellectual change and continuity and predictors of intelligence in older men [published erratum appears in Psychol Aging 1998 Sep;13(3):434]. Psychol Aging. 1995;10(2):294–303.CrossRefPubMed
58.
Schaie K. Midlife influences upon intellectual functioning in old age. Int J Behav Develop. 1984;7:463–78.CrossRef
59.
Schaie KW. Intellectual Development in Adulthood: The Seattle Longitudinal Study. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1996.
60.
Arbuckle TY, Gold DP, Andres D, Schwartzman A, Chaikelson J. The role of psychosocial context, age, and intelligence in memory performance of older men. Psychol Aging. 1992;7(1):25–36.CrossRefPubMed
61.
Wilson RS, Bennett DA, Bienias JL, Mendes De Leon CF, Morris MC, Evans DA. Cognitive activity and cognitive decline in a biracial community population. Neurology. 2003;61(6):812–6.CrossRefPubMed
62.
Crowe M, Andel R, Pedersen NL, Johansson B, Gatz M. Does participation in leisure activities lead to reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease? A prospective study of Swedish twins. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2003;58(5):P249–55.CrossRefPubMed
63.
Carlson MC, Helms MJ, Steffens DC, Burke JR, Potter GG, Plassman BL. Midlife activity predicts risk of dementia in older male twin pairs. Alzheimers Dement. 2008;4(5):324–31.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
64.
Fabrigoule C, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Zarrouk M, Commenges D, Barberger-Gateau P. Social and leisure activities and risk of dementia: a prospective longitudinal study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1995;43(5):485–90.CrossRefPubMed
65.
Zhang X, Li C, Zhang M. Psychosocial risk factors of Alzheimer's disease. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. 1999;79(5):335–8.PubMed
66.
Fratiglioni L, Wang HX, Ericsson K, Maytan M, Winblad B. Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: a community-based longitudinal study. Lancet. 2000;355(9212):1315–9.CrossRefPubMed
67.
Wang H-X, Karp A, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. Late-life engagement in social and leisure activities is associated with a decreased risk of dementia: a longitudinal study from the Kungsholmen Project. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155(12):1081–7.CrossRefPubMed
68.
Sofi F, Valecchi D, Bacci D, Abbate R, Gensini GF, Casini A, Macchi C. Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Intern Med. 2011;269(1):107–17.CrossRefPubMed
69.
Carmelli D, Swan GE, LaRue A, Eslinger PJ. Correlates of change in cognitive function in survivors from the Western Collaborative Group Study. Neuroepidemiology. 1997;16(6):285–95.CrossRefPubMed
70.
Albert MS, Jones K, Savage CR, Berkman L, Seeman T, Blazer D, Rowe JW. Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Psychol Aging. 1995;10(4):578–89.CrossRefPubMed
71.
Schuit AJ, Feskens EJ, Launer LJ, Kromhout D. Physical activity and cognitive decline, the role of the apolipoprotein e4 allele. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(5):772–7.CrossRefPubMed
72.
Dik M, Deeg DJ, Visser M, Jonker C. Early life physical activity and cognition at old age. J Clin Exper Neuropsychol. 2003;25(5):643–53.CrossRef
73.
Yaffe K, Barnes D, Nevitt M, Lui LY, Covinsky K. A prospective study of physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly women: women who walk. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161(14):1703–8.CrossRefPubMed
74.
Li G, Shen YC, Chen CH, Zhau YW, Li SR, Lu M. A three-year follow-up study of age-related dementia in an urban area of Beijing. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1991;83(2):99–104.CrossRefPubMed
75.
Yoshitake T, Kiyohara Y, Kato I, Ohmura T, Iwamoto H, Nakayama K, Ohmori S, Nomiyama K, Kawano H, Ueda K, et al. Incidence and risk factors of vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease in a defined elderly Japanese population: the Hisayama Study. Neurology. 1995;45(6):1161–8.CrossRefPubMed
76.
Laurin D, Verreault R, Lindsay J, MacPherson K, Rockwood K. Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons. Arch Neurol. 2001;58(3):498–504.CrossRefPubMed
77.
Palta P, Sharrett AR, Deal JA, Evenson KR, Gabriel KP, Folsom AR, Gross AL, Windham BG, Knopman D, Mosley TH, Heiss G. Leisure-time physical activity sustained since midlife and preservation of cognitive function: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Alzheimers Dement. 2019;15(2):273-81.
78.
Baker LD, Frank LL, Foster-Schubert K, Green PS, Wilkinson CW, McTiernan A, Plymate SR, Fishel MA, Watson GS, Cholerton BA, et al. Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: a controlled trial. Arch Neurol. 2010;67(1):71–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
79.
Baker LD, Bayer-Carter JL, Skinner J, Montine TJ, Cholerton BA, Callaghan M, Leverenz JB, Walter BK, Tsai E, Postupna N, et al. High-intensity physical activity modulates diet effects on cerebrospinal amyloid-beta levels in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;28(1):137–46.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
80.
Elbaz A, Vicente-Vytopilova P, Tavernier B, Sabia S, Dumurgier J, Mazoyer B, Singh-Manoux A, Tzourio C. Motor function in the elderly: evidence for the reserve hypothesis. Neurology. 2013;81(5):417–26.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
81.
Savage JE, Jansen PR, Stringer S, Watanabe K, Bryois J, de Leeuw CA, Nagel M, Awasthi S, Barr PB, Coleman JRI, et al. Genome-wide association meta-analysis in 269,867 individuals identifies new genetic and functional links to intelligence. Nat Genet. 2018;50(7):912–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
82.
Okbay A, Beauchamp JP, Fontana MA, Lee JJ, Pers TH, Rietveld CA, Turley P, Chen GB, Emilsson V, Meddens SF, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies 74 loci associated with educational attainment. Nature. 2016;533(7604):539–42.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
83.
Guo LH, Alexopoulos P, Wagenpfeil S, Kurz A, Perneczky R. Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Brain size and the compensation of Alzheimer's disease symptoms: a longitudinal cohort study. Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9(5):580–6.CrossRefPubMed
84.
Perneczky R, Alexopoulos P, Wagenpfeil S, Bickel H, Kurz A. Head circumference, apolipoprotein E genotype and cognition in the Bavarian School Sisters Study. Eur Psychiatry. 2012;27(3):219–22.CrossRefPubMed
85.
Perneczky R, Wagenpfeil S, Lunetta KL, Cupples LA, Green RC, Decarli C, Farrer LA, Kurz A, MIRAGE Study Group. Head circumference, atrophy, and cognition: implications for brain reserve in Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2010;75(2):137–42.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
86.
Adams HH, Hibar DP, Chouraki V, Stein JL, Nyquist PA, Renteria ME, Trompet S, Arias-Vasquez A, Seshadri S, Desrivieres S, et al. Novel genetic loci underlying human intracranial volume identified through genome-wide association. Nat Neurosci. 2016;19(12):1569–82.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
87.
Ikram MA, Fornage M, Smith AV, Seshadri S, Schmidt R, Debette S, Vrooman HA, Sigurdsson S, Ropele S, Taal HR, et al. Common variants at 6q22 and 17q21 are associated with intracranial volume. Nat Genet. 2012;44(5):539–44.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
88.
Davies G, Armstrong N, Bis JC, Bressler J, Chouraki V, Giddaluru S, Hofer E, Ibrahim-Verbaas CA, Kirin M, Lahti J, et al. Genetic contributions to variation in general cognitive function: a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies in the CHARGE consortium (N=53949). Mol Psychiatry. 2015;20(2):183–92.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
89.
Davies G, Lam M, Harris SE, Trampush JW, Luciano M, Hill WD, Hagenaars SP, Ritchie SJ, Marioni RE, Fawns-Ritchie C, et al. Study of 300,486 individuals identifies 148 independent genetic loci influencing general cognitive function. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):2098.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
90.
Brainstorm C, Anttila V, Bulik-Sullivan B, Finucane HK, Walters RK, Bras J, Duncan L, Escott-Price V, Falcone GJ, Gormley P, et al. Analysis of shared heritability in common disorders of the brain. Science. 2018;360(6395):1-15.
91.
Desikan RS, Schork AJ, Wang Y, Witoelar A, Sharma M, McEvoy LK, Holland D, Brewer JB, Chen CH, Thompson WK, et al. Genetic overlap between Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease at the MAPT locus. Mol Psychiatry. 2015;20(12):1588–95.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
92.
Dean DC 3rd, Jerskey BA, Chen K, Protas H, Thiyyagura P, Roontiva A, O'Muircheartaigh J, Dirks H, Waskiewicz N, Lehman K, et al. Brain differences in infants at differential genetic risk for late-onset Alzheimer disease: a cross-sectional imaging study. JAMA Neurol. 2014;71(1):11–22.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
93.
van den Bree MB, Eaves LJ, Dwyer JT. Genetic and environmental influences on eating patterns of twins aged >/=50 y. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70(4):456–65.CrossRefPubMed
94.
Koopmans JR, Slutske WS, Heath AC, Neale MC, Boomsma DI. The genetics of smoking initiation and quantity smoked in Dutch adolescent and young adult twins. Behav Genet. 1999;29(6):383–93.CrossRefPubMed
95.
Madden PA, Heath AC, Pedersen NL, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo MJ, Martin NG. The genetics of smoking persistence in men and women: a multicultural study. Behav Genet. 1999;29(6):423–31.CrossRefPubMed
96.
Beunen G, Thomis M. Genetic determinants of sports participation and daily physical activity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999;23(Suppl 3):S55–63.CrossRefPubMed
97.
Eaves L, Heath A, Martin N, Maes H, Neale M, Kendler K, Kirk K, Corey L. Comparing the biological and cultural inheritance of personality and social attitudes in the Virginia 30,000 study of twins and their relatives. Twin Res. 1999;2(2):62–80.CrossRefPubMed
98.
Bouchard TJ Jr, McGue M, Lykken D, Tellegen A. Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: genetic and environmental influences and personality correlates. Twin Res. 1999;2(2):88–98.CrossRefPubMed
99.
Hayden KM, Beavers DP, Steck SE, Hebert JR, Tabung FK, Shivappa N, Casanova R, Manson JE, Padula CB, Salmoirago-Blotcher E, et al. The association between an inflammatory diet and global cognitive function and incident dementia in older women: The Women's Health Initiative Memory Study. Alzheimers Dement. 2017;13(11):1187–96.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
100.
Skoog I, Borjesson-Hanson A, Kern S, Johansson L, Falk H, Sigstrom R, Ostling S. Decreasing prevalence of dementia in 85-year olds examined 22 years apart: the influence of education and stroke. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):6136.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
101.
Alladi S, Bak TH, Mekala S, Rajan A, Chaudhuri JR, Mioshi E, Krovvidi R, Surampudi B, Duggirala V, Kaul S. Impact of bilingualism on cognitive outcome after stroke. Stroke. 2016;47(1):258–61.CrossRefPubMed
102.
Zieren N, Duering M, Peters N, Reyes S, Jouvent E, Herve D, Gschwendtner A, Mewald Y, Opherk C, Chabriat H, et al. Education modifies the relation of vascular pathology to cognitive function: cognitive reserve in cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy. Neurobiol Aging. 2013;34(2):400–7.CrossRefPubMed
103.
Brickman AM, Siedlecki KL, Muraskin J, Manly JJ, Luchsinger JA, Yeung LK, Brown TR, DeCarli C, Stern Y. White matter hyperintensities and cognition: testing the reserve hypothesis. Neurobiol Aging. 2011;32(9):1588–98.CrossRefPubMed
104.
Perneczky R, Drzezga A, Diehl-Schmid J, Schmid G, Wohlschlager A, Kars S, Grimmer T, Wagenpfeil S, Monsch A, Kurz A. Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006;77(9):1060–3.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
105.
Morbelli S, Perneczky R, Drzezga A, Frisoni GB, Caroli A, van Berckel BN, Ossenkoppele R, Guedj E, Didic M, Brugnolo A, et al. Metabolic networks underlying cognitive reserve in prodromal Alzheimer disease: a European Alzheimer disease consortium project. J Nucl Med. 2013;54(6):894–902.CrossRefPubMed
106.
Perneczky R, Diehl-Schmid J, Drzezga A, Kurz A. Brain reserve capacity in frontotemporal dementia: a voxel-based 18F-FDG PET study. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007;34(7):1082–7.CrossRefPubMed
107.
Perneczky R, Diehl-Schmid J, Pohl C, Drzezga A, Kurz A. Non-fluent progressive aphasia: cerebral metabolic patterns and brain reserve. Brain Res. 2007;1133(1):178–85.CrossRefPubMed
108.
Perneczky R, Haussermann P, Diehl-Schmid J, Boecker H, Forstl H, Drzezga A, Kurz A. Metabolic correlates of brain reserve in dementia with Lewy bodies: an FDG PET study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2007;23(6):416–22.CrossRefPubMed
109.
Perneczky R, Drzezga A, Diehl-Schmid J, Li Y, Kurz A. Gender differences in brain reserve: an (18)F-FDG PET study in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol. 2007;254(10):1395–400.CrossRefPubMed
110.
Perneczky R, Diehl-Schmid J, Forstl H, Drzezga A, Kurz A. Male gender is associated with greater cerebral hypometabolism in frontotemporal dementia: evidence for sex-related cognitive reserve. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007;22(11):1135–40.CrossRefPubMed
111.
112.
Modica CM, Bergsland N, Dwyer MG, Ramasamy DP, Carl E, Zivadinov R, Benedict RH. Cognitive reserve moderates the impact of subcortical gray matter atrophy on neuropsychological status in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2016;22(1):36–42.CrossRefPubMed
113.
Roy S, Schwartz CE, Duberstein P, Dwyer MG, Zivadinov R, Bergsland N, Powell V, Weinstock-Guttman B, Benedict RH. Synergistic effects of reserve and adaptive personality in multiple sclerosis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2016;22(9):920–7.CrossRefPubMed
114.
de la Serna E, Andres-Perpina S, Puig O, Baeza I, Bombin I, Bartres-Faz D, Arango C, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Parellada M, Mayoral M, et al. Cognitive reserve as a predictor of two year neuropsychological performance in early onset first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2013;143(1):125–31.CrossRefPubMed
115.
Amoretti S, Bernardo M, Bonnin CM, Bioque M, Cabrera B, Mezquida G, Sole B, Vieta E, Torrent C. The impact of cognitive reserve in the outcome of first-episode psychoses: 2-year follow-up study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(10):1638–48.CrossRefPubMed
116.
Forcada I, Mur M, Mora E, Vieta E, Bartres-Faz D, Portella MJ. The influence of cognitive reserve on psychosocial and neuropsychological functioning in bipolar disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015;25(2):214–22.CrossRefPubMed
117.
Anaya C, Torrent C, Caballero FF, Vieta E, Bonnin Cdel M, Ayuso-Mateos JL, CIBERSAM Functional Remediation Group. Cognitive reserve in bipolar disorder: relation to cognition, psychosocial functioning and quality of life. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2016;133(5):386–98.CrossRefPubMed
118.
Mohammed AH, Zhu SW, Darmopil S, Hjerling-Leffler J, Ernfors P, Winblad B, Diamond MC, Eriksson PS, Bogdanovic N. Environmental enrichment and the brain. Prog Brain Res. 2002;138:109–33.CrossRefPubMed
119.
Nithianantharajah J, Hannan AJ. Enriched environments, experience-dependent plasticity and disorders of the nervous system. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2006;7(9):697–709.CrossRefPubMed
120.
Sale A, Berardi N, Maffei L. Enrich the environment to empower the brain. Trends Neurosci. 2009;32(4):233–9.CrossRefPubMed
121.
Sexton CE, Betts JF, Demnitz N, Dawes H, Ebmeier KP, Johansen-Berg H. A systematic review of MRI studies examining the relationship between physical fitness and activity and the white matter of the ageing brain. Neuroimage. 2016;131:81–90.CrossRefPubMed
122.
123.
Kempermann G. Cynefin as Reference framework to facilitate insight and decision-making in complex contexts of biomedical research. Front Neurosci. 2017;11:634.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
124.
Kempermann G. Adult neurogenesis: an evolutionary perspective. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2015;8(2):a018986.CrossRefPubMed
125.
126.
Garthe A, Behr J, Kempermann G. Adult-generated hippocampal neurons allow the flexible use of spatially precise learning strategies. PLoS One. 2009;4(5):e5464.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
127.
Kempermann G. The neurogenic reserve hypothesis: what is adult hippocampal neurogenesis good for? Trends Neurosci. 2008;31(4):163–9.CrossRefPubMed
128.
Marin-Burgin A, Mongiat LA, Pardi MB, Schinder AF. Unique processing during a period of high excitation/inhibition balance in adult-born neurons. Science. 2012;335(6073):1238–42.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
129.
Scarmeas N, Anastasiou CA, Yannakoulia M. Nutrition and prevention of cognitive impairment. Lancet Neurol. 2018;17(11):1006–15.CrossRefPubMed
130.
Kivipelto M, Mangialasche F, Ngandu T. Lifestyle interventions to prevent cognitive impairment, dementia and Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(11):653–66.CrossRefPubMed
131.
Forbes D, Forbes SC, Blake CM, Thiessen EJ, Forbes S. Exercise programs for people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;4:CD006489.
132.
Woods B, Aguirre E, Spector AE, Orrell M. Cognitive stimulation to improve cognitive functioning in people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;2:CD005562.
133.
Farina N, Llewellyn D, Isaac M, Tabet N. Vitamin E for Alzheimer's dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;4:CD002854.PubMed
134.
Ngandu T, Lehtisalo J, Solomon A, Levalahti E, Ahtiluoto S, Antikainen R, Backman L, Hanninen T, Jula A, Laatikainen T, et al. A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;385(9984):2255–63.CrossRefPubMed
135.
Chhetri JK, de Souto BP, Cantet C, Pothier K, Cesari M, Andrieu S, Coley N, Vellas B. Effects of a 3-year multi-domain intervention with or without omega-3 supplementation on cognitive functions in older subjects with increased CAIDE Dementia Scores. J Alzheimers Dis. 2018;64(1):71–8.CrossRefPubMed
136.
van Middelaar T, Hoevenaar-Blom MP, van Gool WA, Moll van Charante EP, van Dalen JW, Deckers K, Kohler S, Richard E. Modifiable dementia risk score to study heterogeneity in treatment effect of a dementia prevention trial: a post hoc analysis in the preDIVA trial using the LIBRA index. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2018;10(1):62.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
137.
Soininen H, Solomon A, Visser PJ, Hendrix SB, Blennow K, Kivipelto M, Hartmann T. LipiDiDiet Clinical Study Group. 24-month intervention with a specific multinutrient in people with prodromal Alzheimer's disease (LipiDiDiet): a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(12):965–75.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
138.
Wilson RS, Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF, Aggarwal NT, Schneider JS, Bach J, Pilat J, Beckett LA, Arnold SE, Evans DA, et al. Depressive symptoms, cognitive decline, and risk of AD in older persons. Neurology. 2002;59(3):364–70.CrossRefPubMed
139.
Ricci S, Fuso A, Ippoliti F, Businaro R. Stress-induced cytokines and neuronal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;28(1):11–24.CrossRefPubMed
140.
Marchant NL, Reed BR, DeCarli CS, Madison CM, Weiner MW, Chui HC, Jagust WJ. Cerebrovascular disease, beta-amyloid, and cognition in aging. Neurobiol Aging. 2012;33(5):1006 e25–36.CrossRefPubMed
141.
Zufferey V, Donati A, Popp J, Meuli R, Rossier J, Frackowiak R, Draganski B, von Gunten A, Kherif F. Neuroticism, depression, and anxiety traits exacerbate the state of cognitive impairment and hippocampal vulnerability to Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2017;7:107–14.
142.
Berk L, van Boxtel M, van Os J. Can mindfulness-based interventions influence cognitive functioning in older adults? A review and considerations for future research. Aging Ment Health. 2017;21(11):1113–20.CrossRefPubMed
143.
Gard T, Holzel BK, Lazar SW. The potential effects of meditation on age-related cognitive decline: a systematic review. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2014;1307:89–103.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
144.
Fox KC, Nijeboer S, Dixon ML, Floman JL, Ellamil M, Rumak SP, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K. Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;43:48–73.CrossRefPubMed
145.
Fox KC, Dixon ML, Nijeboer S, Girn M, Floman JL, Lifshitz M, Ellamil M, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K. Functional neuroanatomy of meditation: A review and meta-analysis of 78 functional neuroimaging investigations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;65:208–28.CrossRefPubMed
146.
Rosano C, Aizenstein HJ, Newman AB, Venkatraman V, Harris T, Ding J, Satterfield S, Yaffe K, Health ABC. Study. Neuroimaging differences between older adults with maintained versus declining cognition over a 10-year period. Neuroimage. 2012;62(1):307–13.CrossRefPubMed
147.
Gefen T, Peterson M, Papastefan ST, Martersteck A, Whitney K, Rademaker A, Bigio EH, Weintraub S, Rogalski E, Mesulam MM, et al. Morphometric and histologic substrates of cingulate integrity in elders with exceptional memory capacity. J Neurosci. 2015;35(4):1781–91.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
148.
Harrison TM, Weintraub S, Mesulam MM, Rogalski E. Superior memory and higher cortical volumes in unusually successful cognitive aging. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2012;18(6):1081–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
149.
Rogalski EJ, Gefen T, Shi J, Samimi M, Bigio E, Weintraub S, Geula C, Mesulam MM. Youthful memory capacity in old brains: anatomic and genetic clues from the Northwestern SuperAging Project. J Cogn Neurosci. 2013;25(1):29–36.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
150.
Luders E. Exploring age-related brain degeneration in meditation practitioners. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2014;1307:82–8.CrossRefPubMed
151.
Chetelat G, Mezenge F, Tomadesso C, Landeau B, Arenaza-Urquijo E, Rauchs G, Andre C, de Flores R, Egret S, Gonneaud J, et al. Reduced age-associated brain changes in expert meditators: a multimodal neuroimaging pilot study. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):10160.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
152.
Stern Y, Habeck C, Moeller J, Scarmeas N, Anderson KE, Hilton HJ, Flynn J, Sackeim H, van Heertum R. Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults. Cereb Cortex. 2005;15(4):394–402.CrossRefPubMed
153.
154.
Gregory S, Long JD, Kloppel S, Razi A, Scheller E, Minkova L, Papoutsi M, Mills JA, Durr A, Leavitt BR, et al. Operationalizing compensation over time in neurodegenerative disease. Brain. 2017;140(4):1158–65.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
155.
Kloppel S, Gregory S, Scheller E, Minkova L, Razi A, Durr A, Roos RA, Leavitt BR, Papoutsi M, Landwehrmeyer GB, et al. Compensation in preclinical Huntington's disease: evidence from the Track-On HD study. EBioMedicine. 2015;2(10):1420–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
156.
Tabrizi SJ, Scahill RI, Durr A, Roos RA, Leavitt BR, Jones R, Landwehrmeyer GB, Fox NC, Johnson H, Hicks SL, et al. Biological and clinical changes in premanifest and early stage Huntington's disease in the TRACK-HD study: the 12-month longitudinal analysis. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(1):31–42.CrossRefPubMed
157.
Gregory S, Long JD, Kloppel S, Razi A, Scheller E, Minkova L, Johnson EB, Durr A, Roos RAC, Leavitt BR, et al. Testing a longitudinal compensation model in premanifest Huntington's disease. Brain. 2018;141(7):2156–66.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
158.
Arenaza-Urquijo EM, Landeau B, La Joie R, Mevel K, Mezenge F, Perrotin A, Desgranges B, Bartres-Faz D, Eustache F, Chetelat G. Relationships between years of education and gray matter volume, metabolism and functional connectivity in healthy elders. Neuroimage. 2013;83:450–7.CrossRefPubMed
159.
160.
Cole MW, Yarkoni T, Repovs G, Anticevic A, Braver TS. Global connectivity of prefrontal cortex predicts cognitive control and intelligence. J Neurosci. 2012;32(26):8988–99.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
161.
Cole MW, Reynolds JR, Power JD, Repovs G, Anticevic A, Braver TS. Multi-task connectivity reveals flexible hubs for adaptive task control. Nat Neurosci. 2013;16(9):1348–55.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
162.
Franzmeier N, Duering M, Weiner M, Dichgans M, Ewers M. Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Left frontal cortex connectivity underlies cognitive reserve in prodromal Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2017;88(11):1054–61.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
163.
Franzmeier N, Gottler J, Grimmer T, Drzezga A, Araque-Caballero MA, Simon-Vermot L, Taylor ANW, Burger K, Catak C, Janowitz D, et al. Resting-state connectivity of the left frontal cortex to the default mode and dorsal attention network supports reserve in mild cognitive impairment. Frontiers Aging Neurosci. 2017;9:264.CrossRef
164.
Franzmeier N, Hartmann J, Taylor ANW, Araque-Caballero MA, Simon-Vermot L, Kambeitz-Ilankovic L, Burger K, Catak C, Janowitz D, Muller C, et al. The left frontal cortex supports reserve in aging by enhancing functional network efficiency. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2018;10(1):28.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
165.
Franzmeier N, Hartmann JC, Taylor ANW, Araque Caballero MA, Simon-Vermot L, Buerger K, Kambeitz-Ilankovic LM, Ertl-Wagner B, Mueller C, Catak C, et al. Left frontal hub connectivity during memory performance supports reserve in aging and mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;59(4):1381–92.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
166.
Ewers M, Insel PS, Stern Y, Weiner MW. Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). Cognitive reserve associated with FDG-PET in preclinical Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2013;80(13):1194–201.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
167.
Franzmeier N, Duzel E, Jessen F, Buerger K, Levin J, Duering M, Dichgans M, Haass C, Suarez-Calvet M, Fagan AM, et al. Left frontal hub connectivity delays cognitive impairment in autosomal-dominant and sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Brain. 2018;141(4):1186–200.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
168.
Stern Y, Gazes Y, Razlighi Q, Steffener J, Habeck C. A task-invariant cognitive reserve network. Neuroimage. 2018;178:36–45.CrossRefPubMed
169.
Jack CR Jr, Bennett DA, Blennow K, Carrillo MC, Dunn B, Haeberlein SB, Holtzman DM, Jagust W, Jessen F, Karlawish J, et al. NIA-AA Research Framework: toward a biological definition of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2018;14(4):535–62.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
170.
Imhof A, Kovari E, von Gunten A, Gold G, Rivara CB, Herrmann FR, Hof PR, Bouras C, Giannakopoulos P. Morphological substrates of cognitive decline in nonagenarians and centenarians: a new paradigm? J Neurol Sci. 2007;257(1-2):72–9.CrossRefPubMed
171.
172.
Qiu C, Kivipelto M, von Strauss E. Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease: occurrence, determinants, and strategies toward intervention. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2009;11(2):111–28.PubMedPubMedCentral
173.
Matthews FE, Arthur A, Barnes LE, Bond J, Jagger C, Robinson L, Brayne C, Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Collaboration. A two-decade comparison of prevalence of dementia in individuals aged 65 years and older from three geographical areas of England: results of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study I and II. Lancet. 2013;382(9902):1405–12.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
174.
Qiu C, von Strauss E, Backman L, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. Twenty-year changes in dementia occurrence suggest decreasing incidence in central Stockholm. Sweden. Neurology. 2013;80(20):1888–94.CrossRefPubMed
175.
Chan KY, Wang W, Wu JJ, Liu L, Theodoratou E, Car J, Middleton L, Russ TC, Deary IJ, Campbell H, et al. Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia in China, 1990-2010: a systematic review and analysis. Lancet. 2013;381(9882):2016–23.CrossRefPubMed
176.
Korczyn AD. Mixed dementia--the most common cause of dementia. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002;977:129–34.CrossRefPubMed
177.
Kivimaki M, Singh-Manoux A. Prevention of dementia by targeting risk factors. Lancet. 2018;391(10130):1574–5.CrossRefPubMed
178.
Warren JD, Bamiou DE. Prevention of dementia by targeting risk factors. Lancet. 2018;391(10130):1575.CrossRefPubMed
179.
Smith BJ, Ali S, Quach H. Public knowledge and beliefs about dementia risk reduction: a national survey of Australians. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:661.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
180.
O'Donnell CA, Manera V, Kohler S, Irving K. Promoting modifiable risk factors for dementia: is there a role for general practice? Br J Gen Pract. 2015;65(640):567–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
181.
Sumowski JF, Rocca MA, Leavitt VM, Riccitelli G, Comi G, DeLuca J, Filippi M. Brain reserve and cognitive reserve in multiple sclerosis: what you've got and how you use it. Neurology. 2013;80(24):2186–93.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
182.
Cabeza R, Albert M, Belleville S, Craik FIM, Duarte A, Grady CL, Lindenberger U, Nyberg L, Park DC, Reuter-Lorenz PA, et al. Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2018;19(11):701–10.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
183.
Drummond E, Wisniewski T. Alzheimer's disease: experimental models and reality. Acta Neuropathol. 2017;133(2):155–75.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Translational research on reserve against neurodegenerative disease: consensus report of the International Conference on Cognitive Reserve in the Dementias and the Alzheimer’s Association Reserve, Resilience and Protective Factors Professional Interest Area working groups
Authors
Robert Perneczky
Gerd Kempermann
Amos D. Korczyn
Fiona E. Matthews
M. Arfan Ikram
Nikolaos Scarmeas
Gael Chetelat
Yaakov Stern
Michael Ewers
Publication date
01-12-2019
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
BMC Medicine / Issue 1/2019
Electronic ISSN: 1741-7015
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1283-z

Other articles of this Issue 1/2019

BMC Medicine 1/2019 Go to the issue

Research article

What to do with diabetes therapies when HbA1c lowering is inadequate: add, switch, or continue? A MASTERMIND study

Commentary

The TABLET trial: limitations and implications

Research article

Profiling the best-performing community medicine distributors for mass drug administration: a comprehensive, data-driven analysis of treatment for schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, and soil-transmitted helminths in Uganda

Commentary

Response to ‘The implications of three major new trials for the effect of water, sanitation and hygiene on childhood diarrhea and stunting: a consensus statement’ by Cumming et al.

Research article

From high to low malaria transmission in Zanzibar—challenges and opportunities to achieve elimination

Research article

The XN-30 hematology analyzer for rapid sensitive detection of malaria: a diagnostic accuracy study