Smoking and the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus: an updated systematic review and cumulative meta-analysis

Published articles reported controversial results about the association of smoking with the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). A meta-analysis was performed to assess the aforementioned association and arrive at a more precise estimate of effect. A comprehensive search was performed to identify case–control or cohort studies (from 1990 to 2015) of the aforementioned association. The I ² statistic was used to examine between-study heterogeneity. Fixed or random effect model was selected based on heterogeneity test among studies. Publication bias was estimated using Egger’s regression asymmetry test. A total of 12 published articles with 13 studies were finally included in our meta-analysis. Results showed that the pooled odds ratio (OR) for SLE risk was 1.56 (95 % confidence interval (CI) = 1.26–1.95) among current smokers compared with nonsmokers. For ex-smokers versus nonsmokers, the pooled OR for SLE risk was 1.23 (95 % CI = 0.93–1.63). Subgroup analysis by geographic location and cumulative meta-analysis were also analyzed. In conclusion, our meta-analysis suggested that smoking increased the risk of SLE. Further studies are needed to confirm this result.