Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology
Published in: Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology 1/2018

Open Access 01-12-2018 | Review

Olfactory dysfunction revisited: a reappraisal of work-related olfactory dysfunction caused by chemicals

Authors: Sabine Werner, Eberhard Nies

Published in: Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology | Issue 1/2018

Login to get access

Abstract

Occupational exposure to numerous individual chemicals has been associated with olfactory dysfunction, mainly in individual case descriptions. Comprehensive epidemiological investigations into the olfactotoxic effect of working substances show that the human sense of smell may be impaired by exposure to metal compounds involving cadmium, chromium and nickel, and to formaldehyde. This conclusion is supported by the results of animal experiments. The level of evidence for a relationship between olfactory dysfunction and workplace exposure to other substances is relatively weak.
Literature
1.
2.
Muttray A, Konietzko J. Störungen des Riechvermögens durch und für Arbeitsstoffe. Arbeitsmed Sozialmed Umweltmed. 1994;29:409–13.
3.
BMAS (Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs). Neufassung der Empfehlung des BMA zur Durchführung der Eignungsuntersuchung von Befähigungsscheinbewerbern für Begasungen gemäß Anhang V Nr. 5.2 Abs. 2 Ziffer 2 GefStoffV. BArbBl. 1995;12:41–4. berichtigt in BArbBl. 1996. 4:46.
4.
Doty RL. Neurotoxic exposure and impairment of the chemical senses of taste and smell. Handb Clin Neurol. 2015;131:299–324.CrossRefPubMed
5.
6.
Hummel T, Whitcroft KL, Andrews P, Altundag A, Cinghi C, Costanzo RM, et al. Position paper on olfactory dysfunction. Rhinol Suppl. 2017;54(26):1–30.PubMed
7.
Doty RL, Shaman P, Dann M. Development of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test: a standardized microencapsulated test of olfactory function. Physiol Behav. 1984;32(3):489–502.CrossRefPubMed
8.
Kobal G, Hummel T, Sekinger B, Barz S, Roscher S, Wolf S. "Sniffin' sticks": screening of olfactory performance. Rhinology. 1996;34(4):222–6.PubMed
9.
Hummel T, Sekinger B, Wolf SR, Pauli E, Kobal G. Sniffin' sticks': olfactory performance assessed by the combined testing of odor identification, odor discrimination and olfactory threshold. Chem Senses. 1997;22(1):39–52.CrossRefPubMed
10.
Hummel T, Welge-Lüssen A. Erfassung des Riech-und Schmeckvermögens. In: Hummel T, Welge-Lüssen A, editors. Riech-und Schmeckstörungen. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2009; p. 43–59.
11.
Stuck B, Beule A, Damm M, Gudziol H, Hüttenbrink KB, Landis B, et al. Positionspapier “Die chemosensorische Testung bei der gutachterlichen Abklärung von Riechstörungen”. Laryngo-Rhino-Otologie. 2014;93(05):327–9.
12.
Hummel T, Kobal G, Gudziol H, Mackay-Sim A. Normative data for the “Sniffin’ sticks” including tests of odor identification, odor discrimination, and olfactory thresholds: an upgrade based on a group of more than 3,000 subjects. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;264(3):237–43.CrossRefPubMed
13.
14.
Kuner T, Schaefer AT. Moleküle, Zellen und Netzwerke für die Verarbeitung von Geruchsreizen im Riechkolben der Maus. e-Neuroforum. 2011;17(3):102–9.
15.
Zou J, Wang W, Pan YW, Lu S, Xia Z. Methods to measure olfactory behavior in mice. Curr Protoc Toxicol. 2015;63:11 8 1–21.
16.
Hüttenbrink KB, Hummel T, Berg D, Gasser T, Hähner A. Riechstörungen: Häufig im Alter und wichtiges Frühsymptom neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2013;110:1–7.
17.
Croy I, Olgun S, Mueller L, Schmidt A, Muench M, Hummel C, et al. Peripheral adaptive filtering in human olfaction? Three studies on prevalence and effects of olfactory training in specific anosmia in more than 1600 participants. Cortex. 2015;73:180–7.CrossRefPubMed
18.
19.
Damm M, Temmel A, Welge-Lüssen A, Eckel H, Kreft MP, Klussmann J, et al. Riechstörungen HNO. 2004;52(2):112–20.
20.
Fonteyn S, Huart C, Deggouj N, Collet S, Eloy P, Rombaux P. Non-sinonasal-related olfactory dysfunction: a cohort of 496 patients. Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis. 2014;131(2):87–91.CrossRefPubMed
21.
Gobba F. Olfactory toxicity: long-term effects of occupational exposures. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2006;79(4):322–31.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Dalton P. Olfactory toxicity in humans and experimental animals. In: Morris JBSD, editor. Toxicology of the nose and upper airways. New York: Informa Healthcare; 2010. p. 215–41.
23.
Herberhold C. Funktionsprüfungen und Störungen des Geruchssinnes. Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1975;210(1):67–164.CrossRefPubMed
24.
Dalton PH, Opiekun RE, Gould M, McDermott R, Wilson T, Maute C, et al. Chemosensory loss: functional consequences of the world trade center disaster. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118(9):1251–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
25.
Klimek L, Muttray A, Moll B, Konietzko J, Mann W. Riechstörungen durch inhalative Schadstoffexposition. Laryngo-Rhino-Otologie. 1999;78(11):620–6.CrossRefPubMed
26.
Muttray A, Haxel B, Mann W, Letzel S. Anosmie und Rhinitis durch eine berufliche Lösungsmittelexposition. HNO. 2006;54(11):883–7.CrossRefPubMed
27.
Amoore J. Effects of chemical exposure on olfaction in humans. In: Barrow CS, editor. Toxicology of the nasal passages. New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corp; 1986. p. 155–90.
28.
Sunderman FW Jr. Nasal toxicity, carcinogenicity, and olfactory uptake of metals. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2001;31(1):3–24.PubMed
29.
Friberg L. Health hazards in the manufacture of alkaline accumulators with special reference to chronic cadmium poisoning; a clinical and experimental study. Acta Med Scand Suppl. 1950;240:1–124.PubMed
30.
31.
Potts CL. Cadmium proteinuria - the health of battery workers exposed to cadmium oxide dust. Ann Occup Hyg. 1965;8:55–61.PubMed
32.
Liu YZ, Huang JX, Luo CM, Xu BH, Zhang CJ. Effects of cadmium on cadmium smelter workers. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1985;11(Suppl 4):29–32.PubMed
33.
34.
Rose CS, Heywood PG, Costanzo RM. Olfactory impairment after chronic occupational cadmium exposure. J Occup Med. 1992;34(6):600–5.PubMed
35.
Rydzewski B, Sulkowski W, Miarzynska M. Olfactory disorders induced by cadmium exposure: a clinical study. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 1998;11(3):235–45.PubMed
36.
Sulkowski WJ, Rydzewski B, Miarzynska M. Smell impairment in workers occupationally exposed to cadmium. Acta Otolaryngol. 2000;120(2):316–8.CrossRefPubMed
37.
Mascagni P, Consonni D, Bregante G, Chiappino G, Toffoletto F. Olfactory function in workers exposed to moderate airborne cadmium levels. Neurotoxicology. 2003;24(4–5):717–24.CrossRefPubMed
38.
Sun TJ, Miller ML, Hastings L. Effects of inhalation of cadmium on the rat olfactory system: behavior and morphology. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1996;18(1):89–98.CrossRefPubMed
39.
Bondier JR, Michel G, Propper A, Badot PM. Harmful effects of cadmium on olfactory system in mice. Inhal Toxicol. 2008;20(13):1169–77.CrossRefPubMed
40.
Czarnecki LA, Moberly AH, Rubinstein T, Turkel DJ, Pottackal J, McGann JP. In vivo visualization of olfactory pathophysiology induced by intranasal cadmium instillation in mice. Neurotoxicology. 2011;32(4):441–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
41.
Czarnecki LA, Moberly AH, Turkel DJ, Rubinstein T, Pottackal J, Rosenthal MC, et al. Functional rehabilitation of cadmium-induced neurotoxicity despite persistent peripheral pathophysiology in the olfactory system. Toxicol Sci. 2012;126(2):534–44.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
42.
Williams CR, Gallagher EP. Effects of cadmium on olfactory mediated behaviors and molecular biomarkers in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Aquat Toxicol. 2013;140-141:295–302.CrossRefPubMed
43.
National Toxicology Program. NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of nickel subsulfide (CAS No. 12035–72-2) in F344 rats and B6C3F1 mice (Inhalation Studies). Natl Toxicol Program Tech Rep Ser. 1996;453:1–365.
44.
National Toxicology Program. NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of nickel sulfate hexahydrate (CAS No. 10101–97-0) in F344 rats and B6C3F1 mice (Inhalation Studies). Natl Toxicol Program Tech Rep Ser. 1996;454:1–380.
45.
Evans JE, Miller ML, Andringa A, Hastings L. Behavioral, histological, and neurochemical effects of nickel (II) on the rat olfactory system. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1995;130(2):209–20.CrossRefPubMed
46.
Miller ML, Andringa A, Evans JE, Hastings L. Microvillar cells of the olfactory epithelium: morphology and regeneration following exposure to toxic compounds. Brain Res. 1995;669(1):1–9.CrossRefPubMed
47.
Lewis J, Hahn F, Dahl A. Transport of inhaled toxicants to the central nervous system. Characteristics of a nose-brain barrier. The vulnerable brain and environmental risks. 1994;3:77–103.
48.
Henriksson J, Tallkvist J, Tjälve H. Uptake of nickel into the brain via olfactory neurons in rats. Toxicol Lett. 1997;91(2):153–62.CrossRefPubMed
49.
Tallkvist J, Henriksson J, d'Argy R, Tjalve H. Transport and subcellular distribution of nickel in the olfactory system of pikes and rats. Toxicol Sci. 1998;43(2):196–203.CrossRefPubMed
50.
Jia C, Roman C, Hegg CC. Nickel sulfate induces location-dependent atrophy of mouse olfactory epithelium: protective and proliferative role of purinergic receptor activation. Toxicol Sci. 2010;115(2):547–56.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
51.
Zhao J, Bowman L, Zhang X, Shi X, Jiang B, Castranova V, et al. Metallic nickel nano- and fine particles induce JB6 cell apoptosis through a caspase-8/AIF mediated cytochrome c-independent pathway. J Nanobiotechnology. 2009;7:2.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
52.
Gautam SH, Otsuguro KI, Ito S, Saito T, Habara Y. T-type Ca2+ channels mediate propagation of odor-induced Ca2+ transients in rat olfactory receptor neurons. Neuroscience. 2007;144(2):702–13.CrossRefPubMed
53.
Seeber H, Fikentscher R, Roseburg B. Geruchs- und Geschmacksstörungen bei Chromfarbenarbeitern. Z Gesamte Hyg. 1976;22(11):820–2.PubMed
54.
Seeber H, Fikentscher R. Schäden der Nasenschleimhaut und Riechstörungen durch berufliche Chromstaubexposition. Z Gesamte Hyg. 1980;26(7):506–8.PubMed
55.
Watanabe S, Fukuchi Y. Occupational impairment of the olfactory sense of chromate producing workers (in Japanese). Sangyo Igaku. 1981;23(6):606–11.CrossRefPubMed
56.
Kitamura F, Yokoyama K, Araki S, Nishikitani M, Choi JW, Yum YT, et al. Increase of olfactory threshold in plating factory workers exposed to chromium in Korea. Ind Health. 2003;41(3):279–85.CrossRefPubMed
57.
Aiyer RG, Kumar G. Nasal manifestations in chromium industry workers. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;55(2):71–3.PubMedPubMedCentral
58.
Lucchini R, Bergamaschi E, Smargiassi A, Festa D, Apostoli P. Motor function, olfactory threshold, and hematological indices in manganese-exposed ferroalloy workers. Environ Res. 1997;73(1–2):175–80.CrossRefPubMed
59.
Mergler D, Huel G, Bowler R, Iregren A, Belanger S, Baldwin M, et al. Nervous system dysfunction among workers with long-term exposure to manganese. Environ Res. 1994;64(2):151–80.CrossRefPubMed
60.
Antunes MB, Bowler R, Doty RL. San Francisco/Oakland Bay bridge welder study: olfactory function. Neurology. 2007;69(12):1278–84.CrossRefPubMed
61.
Bowler RM, Roels HA, Nakagawa S, Drezgic M, Diamond E, Park R, et al. Dose-effect relationships between manganese exposure and neurological, neuropsychological and pulmonary function in confined space bridge welders. Occup Environ Med. 2007;64(3):167–77.CrossRefPubMed
62.
Bowler RM, Gocheva V, Harris M, Ngo L, Abdelouahab N, Wilkinson J, et al. Prospective study on neurotoxic effects in manganese-exposed bridge construction welders. Neurotoxicology. 2011;32(5):596–605.CrossRefPubMed
63.
Sen S, Flynn MR, Du G, Troster AI, An H, Huang X. Manganese accumulation in the olfactory bulbs and other brain regions of "asymptomatic" welders. Toxicol Sci. 2011;121(1):160–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
64.
Guarneros M, Ortiz-Romo N, Alcaraz-Zubeldia M, Drucker-Colín R, Hudson R. Nonoccupational environmental exposure to manganese is linked to deficits in peripheral and central olfactory function. Chemical senses. 2013;38(9):783–91.CrossRefPubMed
65.
Lucchini RG, Guazzetti S, Zoni S, Donna F, Peter S, Zacco A, et al. Tremor, olfactory and motor changes in Italian adolescents exposed to historical ferro-manganese emission. Neurotoxicology. 2012;33(4):687–96.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
66.
Iannilli E, Gasparotti R, Hummel T, Zoni S, Benedetti C, Fedrighi C, et al. Effects of manganese exposure on olfactory functions in teenagers: a pilot study. PLoS One. 2016;11(1):e0144783.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
67.
Casjens S, Pesch B, Robens S, Kendzia B, Behrens T, Weiss T, et al. Associations between former exposure to manganese and olfaction in an elderly population: results from the Heinz Nixdorf recall study. Neurotoxicology. 2017;58:58–65.CrossRefPubMed
68.
Tjalve H, Henriksson J. Uptake of metals in the brain via olfactory pathways. Neurotoxicology. 1999;20(2–3):181–95.PubMed
69.
Tjalve H, Henriksson J, Tallkvist J, Larsson BS, Lindquist NG. Uptake of manganese and cadmium from the nasal mucosa into the central nervous system via olfactory pathways in rats. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1996;79(6):347–56.CrossRefPubMed
70.
Tjalve H, Mejare C, Borg-Neczak K. Uptake and transport of manganese in primary and secondary olfactory neurones in pike. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1995;77(1):23–31.CrossRefPubMed
71.
Foster ML, Rao DB, Francher T, Traver S, Dorman DC. Olfactory toxicity in rats following manganese chloride nasal instillation: a pilot study. Neurotoxicology. 2018;64:284–90.CrossRefPubMed
72.
Thompson KJ, Molina RM, Donaghey T, Savaliya S, Schwob JE, Brain JD. Manganese uptake and distribution in the brain after methyl bromide-induced lesions in the olfactory epithelia. Toxicol Sci. 2011;120(1):163–72.CrossRefPubMed
73.
Pyatayev GE. The state of olfactory function in zinc production workers, in Russian. Zh Ushn Nos Gorl Bolezn. 1971;31:17–21.
74.
Anonymous. Zinc Sulphate spray for prevention of poliomyelitis. Br Med J. 1938;1(4034):953–4.CrossRef
75.
Tisdall F, Brown A, Defries R. Persistent anosmia following zinc sulfate nasal spraying. J Pediatr. 1938;13(1):60–2.CrossRef
76.
Davidson TM, Smith WM. The Bradford Hill criteria and zinc-induced anosmia: a causality analysis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2010;136(7):673–6.CrossRefPubMed
77.
Alexander TH, Davidson TM. Intranasal zinc and anosmia: the zinc-induced anosmia syndrome. Laryngoscope. 2006;116(2):217–20.CrossRefPubMed
78.
Jafek BW, Linschoten MR, Murrow BW. Anosmia after intranasal zinc gluconate use. Am J Rhinol. 2004;18(3):137–41.CrossRefPubMed
79.
Osmond-McLeod MJ, Osmond RI, Oytam Y, McCall MJ, Feltis B, Mackay-Sim A, et al. Surface coatings of ZnO nanoparticles mitigate differentially a host of transcriptional, protein and signalling responses in primary human olfactory cells. Part Fibre Toxicol. 2013;10(1):54.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
80.
81.
McBride K, Slotnick B, Margolis FL. Does intranasal application of zinc sulfate produce anosmia in the mouse? An olfactometric and anatomical study. Chem Senses. 2003;28(8):659–70.CrossRefPubMed
82.
Burd GD. Morphological study of the effects of intranasal zinc sulfate irrigation on the mouse olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb. Microsc Res Tech. 1993;24(3):195–213.CrossRefPubMed
83.
Cancalon P. Degeneration and regeneration of olfactory cells induced by ZnSO4 and other chemicals. Tissue Cell. 1982;14(4):717–33.CrossRefPubMed
84.
Harding JW, Getchell TV, Margolis FL. Denervation of the primary olfactory pathway in mice. V. Long-term effect of intranasal ZnSO4 irrigation on behavior, biochemistry and morphology. Brain Res. 1978;140(2):271–85.CrossRefPubMed
85.
Matulionis DH. Light and electron microscopic study of the degeneration and early regeneration of olfactory epithelium in the mouse. Am J Anat. 1976;145(1):79–99.CrossRefPubMed
86.
Smith CG. Changes in the olfactory mucosa and the olfactory nerves following intranasal treatment with one per cent zinc sulphate. Can Med Assoc J. 1938;39(2):138–40.PubMedPubMedCentral
87.
Benvenuti S, Gagliardo A. Homing behaviour of pigeons subjected to unilateral zinc sulphate treatment of their olfactory mucosa. J Exp Biol. 1996;199(11):2531–5.PubMed
88.
Hansen LF, Hammer M, Petersen SH, Nielsen GD. Effects of intranasal ZnSO4 irrigation on olfactory and trigeminal cues. Physiol Behav. 1994;55(4):699–704.CrossRefPubMed
89.
Mayer AD, Rosenblatt JS. Peripheral olfactory deafferentation of the primary olfactory system in rats using ZnSO4 nasal spray with special reference to maternal behavior. Physiology Behav. 1993;53(3):587–92.CrossRef
90.
Winans SS, Powers JB. Olfactory and vomeronasal deafferentation of male hamsters: histological and behavioral analyses. Brain Res. 1977;126(2):325–44.CrossRefPubMed
91.
Alberts JR, Galef BG Jr. Acute anosmia in the rat: a behavioral test of a peripherally-induced olfactory deficit. Physiol Behav. 1971;6(5):619–21.CrossRefPubMed
92.
Duncan-Lewis CA, Lukman RL, Banks RK. Effects of zinc gluconate and 2 other divalent cationic compounds on olfactory function in mice. Comp Med. 2011;61(4):361–5.PubMedPubMedCentral
93.
Viswaprakash N, Dennis JC, Globa L, Pustovyy O, Josephson EM, Kanju P, et al. Enhancement of odorant-induced responses in olfactory receptor neurons by zinc nanoparticles. Chem Senses. 2009;34(7):547–57.CrossRefPubMed
94.
Gao L, Yang ST, Li S, Meng Y, Wang H, Lei H. Acute toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to the rat olfactory system after intranasal instillation. J Appl Toxicol. 2013;33(10):1079–88.CrossRefPubMed
95.
Sorokowska A, Schriever VA, Gudziol V, Hummel C, Hähner A, Iannilli E, et al. Changes of olfactory abilities in relation to age: odor identification in more than 1400 people aged 4 to 80 years. Europ Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2015;272(8):1937–44.CrossRef
96.
Muttray A, Moll B, Letzel S. Die sozialmedizinische Bedeutung von Riechstörungen am Beispiel einer Kasuistik. Arbeitsmed Sozialmed Umweltmed. 2003;38:428–34.
97.
Mossad SB. Effect of zincum gluconicum nasal gel on the duration and symptom severity of the common cold in otherwise healthy adults. QJM. 2003;96(1):35–43.CrossRefPubMed
98.
99.
Hamidovic A. Position on zinc delivery to olfactory nerves in intranasal insulin phase I-III clinical trials. Contemp Clin Trials. 2015;45(Pt B):277–80.CrossRefPubMed
100.
Brunner YF, Benedict C, Freiherr J. Intranasal insulin reduces olfactory sensitivity in normosmic humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(10):E1626–30.CrossRefPubMed
101.
Herranz Gonzalez-Botas J, Padin SA. Nasal gel and olfactory cleft. Acta Otorrinolaringol Esp. 2012;63(5):370–5.CrossRefPubMed
102.
Calvert GM, Mueller CA, Fajen JM, Chrislip DW, Russo J, Briggle T, et al. Health effects associated with sulfuryl fluoride and methyl bromide exposure among structural fumigation workers. Am J Public Health. 1998;88(12):1774–80.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
103.
DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft). Chlorpikrin [MAK Value Documentation in German language, 1974]. In: DFG, editor. The MAK-Collection for Occupational Health and Safety. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 1974.
104.
Quandt SA, Walker FO, Talton JW, Summers P, Chen H, McLeod DK, et al. Olfactory function in Latino farmworkers: subclinical neurological effects of pesticide exposure in a vulnerable population. J Occup Environ Med. 2016;58(3):248–53.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
105.
Shrestha S, Kamel F, Umbach DM, Beane Freeman LE, Koutros S, Alavanja M, et al. Nonmotor symptoms and Parkinson disease in United States farmers and spouses. PLoS One. 2017;12(9):e0185510.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
106.
Schwob JE, Youngentob SL, Mezza RC. Reconstitution of the rat olfactory epithelium after methyl bromide-induced lesion. J Comp Neurol. 1995;359(1):15–37.CrossRefPubMed
107.
Eisenbrandt DL, Nitschke KD. Inhalation toxicity of sulfuryl fluoride in rats and rabbits. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1989;12(3):540–57.CrossRefPubMed
108.
Mattsson JL, Albee RR, Eisenbrandt DL, Chang LW. Subchronic neurotoxicity in rats of the structural fumigant, sulfuryl fluoride. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1988;10(2):127–33.CrossRefPubMed
109.
110.
Lenhardt E, Rollin H. Berufsbedingte Riechstörungen. HNO. 1969;17:104–6.
111.
Holmström M, Wilhelmsson B. Respiratory symptoms and pathophysiological effects of occupational exposure to formaldehyde and wood dust. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1988;14(5):306–11.CrossRefPubMed
112.
Hisamitsu M, Okamoto Y, Chazono H, Yonekura S, Sakurai D, Horiguchi S, et al. The influence of environmental exposure to formaldehyde in nasal mucosa of medical students during cadaver dissection. Allergol Int. 2011;60(3):373–9.CrossRefPubMed
113.
Kilburn KH, Seidman BC, Warshaw R. Neurobehavioral and respiratory symptoms of formaldehyde and xylene exposure in histology technicians. Arch Environ Health. 1985;40(4):229–33.CrossRefPubMed
114.
Edling C, Hellquist H, Odkvist L. Occupational exposure to formaldehyde and histopathological changes in the nasal mucosa. Br J Ind Med. 1988;45(11):761–5.PubMedPubMedCentral
115.
Arts JH, Rennen MA, de Heer C. Inhaled formaldehyde: evaluation of sensory irritation in relation to carcinogenicity. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2006;44(2):144–60.CrossRefPubMed
116.
Cassee FR, Groten JP, Feron VJ. Changes in the nasal epithelium of rats exposed by inhalation to mixtures of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acrolein. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1996;29(2):208–18.CrossRefPubMed
117.
Li Y, Chen H, Yin Y, Han F, Ye X, Ling S. Formaldehyde inhalation may damage olfactory bulb and hippocampus in rats. Zhejiang da xue xue bao Yi xue ban Journal of Zhejiang University Medical Sciences. 2010;39(3):272–7.PubMed
118.
Zhang Q, Yan W, Bai Y, Zhu Y, Ma J. Repeated formaldehyde inhalation impaired olfactory function and changed SNAP25 proteins in olfactory bulb. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2014;20(4):308–12.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
119.
Schwartz BS, Doty RL, Monroe C, Frye R, Barker S. Olfactory function in chemical workers exposed to acrylate and methacrylate vapors. Am J Public Health. 1989;79(5):613–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
120.
Muttray A, Schmitt B, Klimek L. Effects of methyl methacrylate on the sense of smell. Cent Eur J Occup Environ Med. 1997;3:58–66.
121.
Muttray A, Gosepath J, Brieger J, Faldum A, Zagar C, Mayer-Popken O, et al. V17 Zur Wirkung von 50 ppm Methylmethacrylat auf die oberen Atemwege gesunder Probanden. Arbeitsmed Sozialmed Umweltmed. 2007;42(3):105.
122.
DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft). Methyl methacrylate [MAK Value Documentations, Vol. 26, 2010]. In: DFG, editor. The MAK-Collection for Occupational Health and Safety. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA; 2010.
123.
Cheng SF, Chen ML, Hung PC, Chen CJ, Mao IF. Olfactory loss in poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) plastic injection-moulding workers. Occup Med (Lond). 2004;54(7):469–74.CrossRef
124.
Dalton P, Cowart B, Dilks D, Gould M, Lees PS, Stefaniak A, et al. Olfactory function in workers exposed to styrene in the reinforced-plastics industry. Am J Ind Med. 2003;44(1):1–11.CrossRefPubMed
125.
Dalton P, Lees PS, Gould M, Dilks D, Stefaniak A, Bader M, et al. Evaluation of long-term occupational exposure to styrene vapor on olfactory function. Chem Senses. 2007;32(8):739–47.CrossRefPubMed
126.
Mücke W, Lemmen C. Duft und Geruch: Wirkungen und gesundheitliche Bedeutung von Geruchsstoffen. Heidelberg, München, Landsberg, Frechen, Hamburg: ecomed-Storck GmbH; 2010.
127.
Cruzan G, Cushman JR, Andrews LS, Granville GC, Miller RR, Hardy CJ, et al. Subchronic inhalation studies of styrene in CD rats and CD-1 mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1997;35(2):152–65.CrossRefPubMed
128.
Cruzan G, Cushman JR, Andrews LS, Granville GC, Johnson KA, Hardy CJ, et al. Chronic toxicity/oncogenicity study of styrene in CD rats by inhalation exposure for 104 weeks. Toxicol Sci. 1998;46(2):266–81.CrossRefPubMed
129.
Green T, Lee R, Toghill A, Meadowcroft S, Lund V, Foster J. The toxicity of styrene to the nasal epithelium of mice and rats: studies on the mode of action and relevance to humans. Chem Biol Interact. 2001;137(2):185–202.CrossRefPubMed
130.
Schwartz BS, Ford DP, Bolla KI, Agnew J, Rothman N, Bleecker ML. Solvent-associated decrements in olfactory function in paint manufacturing workers. Am J Ind Med. 1990;18(6):697–706.CrossRefPubMed
131.
Sandmark B, Broms I, Lofgren L, Ohlson CG. Olfactory function in painters exposed to organic solvents. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1989;15(1):60–3.CrossRefPubMed
132.
Ahlstrom R, Berglund B, Berglund U, Lindvall T, Wennberg A. Impaired odor perception in tank cleaners. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1986;12(6):574–81.CrossRefPubMed
133.
Muttray A, Klimek L, Jung D, Rose D, Mann W, Konietzko J. Die toxische Hyp- und Anosmie – eine “vergessene” Berufskrankheit. Zentralbl Arbeitsmed. 1998;48:66–71.
134.
Latkowski B, Zalewski P, Najwer K, Zbrzezny K, Czyzewski I. Evaluation of the senses of taste and smell in petroleum chemistry workers based on 3-year observations, in Polish. Med Pr. 1981;32(1):51–7.
135.
National Toxicology Program. NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of tetrahydrofuran (CAS No. 109–99-9) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Inhalation Studies). Natl Toxicol Program Tech Rep Ser. 1998;475:1–244.
136.
National Toxicology Program. NTP toxicity studies of cyclohexanone oxime administered by drinking water to B6C3F1 mice (CAS No. 100–64-1). NTP toxicity studies of cyclohexanone oxime administered by drinking water to B6C3F1 mice (CAS No 100–64-1). Toxic Rep Ser. 1996;50:1–E8.
137.
Miyake M, Ito Y, Sawada M, Sakai K, Suzuki H, Sakamoto T, et al. Subchronic inhalation exposure to 2-ethyl-1-hexanol impairs the mouse olfactory bulb via injury and subsequent repair of the nasal olfactory epithelium. Arch Toxicol. 2016;90(8):1949–58.CrossRefPubMed
138.
Hatt H. Geschmack und Geruch. In: Schmidt R, Lang F, Heckmann M, editors. Physiologie des Menschen. Heidelberg: Springer Medizin Verlag; 2010. p. 386–400.CrossRef
139.
140.
Witt M, Hansen A. Strukturelle und funktionelle Grundlagen des Riechens. In: WL HT, editor. Riech-und Schmeckstörungen. Stuttgart, New York: Thieme; 2009. p. 11–26.
141.
Muttray A, Klimek L, Letzel S. Toxische Hyposmie und Rhinitis eines Karosseriebauers und Lackierers. Ergo Med. 2003;27:106–11.
142.
Welge-Lüssen A, Hummel T. Riechstörungen postinfektiöser, posttraumatischer, medikamentöser, toxischer, postoperativer und anderer Ätiologien. In: Hummel T, Welge-Lüssen A, editors. Riech-und Schmeckstörungen. Stuttgart, New York: Thieme; 2009. p. 77–94.
143.
Feron VJ, Arts JH, Kuper CF, Slootweg PJ, Woutersen RA. Health risks associated with inhaled nasal toxicants. Crit Rev Toxicol. 2001;31(3):313–47.CrossRefPubMed
144.
Wardlaw SA, Nikula KJ, Kracko DA, Finch GL, Thornton-Manning JR, Dahl AR. Effect of cigarette smoke on CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP2B1/2 of nasal mucosae in F344 rats. Carcinogenesis. 1998;19(4):655–62.CrossRefPubMed
145.
Gebel S, Gerstmayer B, Bosio A, Haussmann HJ, Van Miert E, Muller T. Gene expression profiling in respiratory tissues from rats exposed to mainstream cigarette smoke. Carcinogenesis. 2004;25(2):169–78.CrossRefPubMed
146.
Baader EW. Chronic cadmium poisoning. Ind Med Surg. 1952;21(9):427–30.PubMed
147.
Dorman DC, Struve MF, Wong BA, Dye JA, Robertson ID. Correlation of brain magnetic resonance imaging changes with pallidal manganese concentrations in rhesus monkeys following subchronic manganese inhalation. Toxicol Sci. 2006;92(1):219–27.CrossRefPubMed
148.
Oberdörster G, Sharp Z, Atudorei V, Elder A, Gelein R, Kreyling W, et al. Translocation of inhaled ultrafine particles to the brain. Inhal Toxicol. 2004;16(6–7):437–45.CrossRefPubMed
149.
Hopkins LE, Patchin ES, Chiu PL, Brandenberger C, Smiley-Jewell S, Pinkerton KE. Nose-to-brain transport of aerosolised quantum dots following acute exposure. Nanotoxicology. 2014;8(8):885–93.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
150.
Shiga H, Taki J, Yamada M, Washiyama K, Amano R, Matsuura Y, et al. Evaluation of the olfactory nerve transport function by SPECT-MRI fusion image with nasal thallium-201 administration. Mol Imaging Biol. 2011;13(6):1262–6.CrossRefPubMed
151.
Shiga H, Taki J, Washiyama K, Yamamoto J, Kinase S, Okuda K, et al. Assessment of olfactory nerve by SPECT-MRI image with nasal thallium-201 administration in patients with olfactory impairments in comparison to healthy volunteers. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e57671.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
152.
Colin-Barenque L, Souza-Gallardo LM, Fortoul TI. Toxic effects of inhaled manganese on the olfactory bulb: an ultrastructural approach in mice. J Electron Microsc. 2011;60(1):73–8.CrossRef
153.
Moberly AH, Czarnecki LA, Pottackal J, Rubinstein T, Turkel DJ, Kass MD, et al. Intranasal exposure to manganese disrupts neurotransmitter release from glutamatergic synapses in the central nervous system in vivo. Neurotoxicology. 2012;33(5):996–1004.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
154.
Guilarte TR, Burton NC, McGlothan JL, Verina T, Zhou Y, Alexander M, et al. Impairment of nigrostriatal dopamine neurotransmission by manganese is mediated by pre-synaptic mechanism(s): implications to manganese-induced parkinsonism. J Neurochem. 2008;107(5):1236–47.
155.
Hoffman HJ, Rawal S, Li CM, Duffy VB. New chemosensory component in the U.S. National Health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES): first-year results for measured olfactory dysfunction. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2016;17(2):221–40.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
156.
Liu G, Zong G, Doty RL, Sun Q. Prevalence and risk factors of taste and smell impairment in a nationwide representative sample of the US population: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2016;6(11):e013246.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
157.
Bello G, Dumancas G. Association of 2,4-dichlorophenol urinary concentrations and olfactory dysfunction in a national sample of middle-aged and older U.S. adults. Int J Environ Health Res. 2017;27(6):498–508.CrossRefPubMed
158.
Noel J, Habib AR, Thamboo A, Patel ZM. Variables associated with olfactory disorders in adults: a U.S. population-based analysis. World J Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017;3(1):9–16.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
159.
The German National Cohort. Aims, study design and organization. Eur J Epidemiol. 2014;29(5):371–82.
160.
Sorokowska A, Sorokowski P, Frackowiak T. Determinants of human olfactory performance: a cross-cultural study. Sci Total Environ. 2015;506-507:196–200.CrossRefPubMed
161.
Greenberg MI, Curtis JA, Vearrier D. The perception of odor is not a surrogate marker for chemical exposure: a review of factors influencing human odor perception. Clin Toxicol. 2013;51(2):70–6.CrossRef
162.
163.
Altman KW, Desai SC, Moline J, de la Hoz RE, Herbert R, Gannon PJ, et al. Odor identification ability and self-reported upper respiratory symptoms in workers at the post-9/11 world trade center site. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2011;84(2):131–7.CrossRefPubMed
164.
Dżaman K, Wojdas A, Rapiejko P, Jurkiewicz D. Taste and smell perception among sewage treatment and landfill workers. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2009;22(3):227–34.CrossRefPubMed
165.
Green T, Toghill A, Foster JR. The role of cytochromes P-450 in styrene induced pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenicity. Toxicology. 2001;169(2):107–17.CrossRefPubMed
166.
TRGS 522 - technical rule for hazardous substances. Raumdesinfektionen mit Formaldehyd GMBl. 2013;15(1):298–320.
167.
Glück U. Macht der Gerüche - krank machend oder belästigend. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1996;126:958–66.PubMed
168.
Haehner A, Hummel T, Reichmann H. Olfactory dysfunction as a diagnostic marker for Parkinson’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9(12):1773–9.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Olfactory dysfunction revisited: a reappraisal of work-related olfactory dysfunction caused by chemicals
Authors
Sabine Werner
Eberhard Nies
Publication date
01-12-2018
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology / Issue 1/2018
Electronic ISSN: 1745-6673
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12995-018-0209-6

Other articles of this Issue 1/2018

Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology 1/2018 Go to the issue

Research

Indoor concentrations of VOCs in beauty salons; association with cosmetic practices and health risk assessment

Review

Work related injuries in Qatar: a framework for prevention and control

Research

Application of the ICF based Norwegian function assessment scale to employees in Germany

Methodology

The office work and stretch training (OST) study: an individualized and standardized approach for reducing musculoskeletal disorders in office workers

Research

Prevalence of hidden carbon monoxide poisoning in auto service workers; a prospective cohort study

Research

Sulfur dioxide exposure reduces the quantity of CD19+ cells and causes nasal epithelial injury in rats