Top

Published in:

01-06-2009 | Review

Neuropsychological Functioning and Antiretroviral Treatment in HIV/AIDS: A Review

Authors: Lucette A. Cysique, Bruce J. Brew

Published in: Neuropsychology Review | Issue 2/2009

Abstract

This article presents a review of studies that have investigated the neuropsychological effects of antiretroviral treatment (ART) for HIV-1 infection. It provides a brief overview of the era of monotherapy, dual-therapy, and an extended overview of the current era of combination antiretroviral therapy (CART). This review highlights that while CART has had a dramatic effect on the incidence and the severity of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), HAND, in its mild form, still remains prevalent. New causes of this sustained prevalence are poor CNS penetration of some antiretroviral agents, drug resistance, poor adherence, potential neurotoxicity, co-morbidities such as the long-term CART side effects in relation to cardio-vascular disease, and chronic HIV brain infection that may facilitate the expression of new forms of neurodegenerative processes. The review emphasizes the need to address methodological limitations of published studies and the need for large and representative cross-disciplinary longitudinal investigations across the HIV illness span.

American Academy of Neurology, & Dana Consortium. (1996). Clinical confirmation of the American academy of neurology algorithm for HIV-1-associated cognitive/motor disorder (Dana Consortium on therapy for HIV dementia and related cognitive disorders). Neurology, 47, 1247–1253.

Antinori, A., Arendt, G., Becker, J. T., Brew, B. J., Byrd, D. A., Cherner, M., et al. (2007). Updated research nosology for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neurology, 69(18), 1789–1799.CrossRefPubMed

Arendt, G., von Giesen, H.-J., Hefter, H., & Theisen, A. (2001). Therapeutic effects of nucleoside analogues on psychomotor slowing in HIV infection. AIDS, 15, 493–500.CrossRefPubMed

Ayers, M., Abrams, D., Newell, T., & Frieddrich, F. (1987). Performance of individuals with AIDS on the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery. The International Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 9(3), 101–104.

Baldeweg, T., Catalan, J., Lovett, E., Gruzelier, J., Riccio, M., & Hawkins, D. (1995). Long-term Zidovudine reduces neurocognitive deficits in HIV-1 infection. AIDS, 9, 589–596.CrossRefPubMed

Bangsberg, D. R. (2008). Preventing HIV antiretroviral resistance through better monitoring of treatment adherence. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 197(Suppl 3), S272–278.CrossRefPubMed

Bangsberg, D. R., Kroetz, D. L., & Deeks, S. G. (2007). Adherence-resistance relationships to combination HIV antiretroviral therapy. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 4(2), 65–72.CrossRefPubMed

Berger, J. R., & Avison, M. (2004). The blood brain barrier in HIV infection. Frontiers Biosciences, 9, 2680–2685.CrossRef

Bhaskaran, K., Mussini, C., Antinori, A., Walker, A. S., Dorrucci, M., Sabin, C., et al. (2008). Changes in the incidence and predictors of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-associated Dementia in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Annals of Neurology, 63(2), 213–221.CrossRefPubMed

Brew, B. J. (2001). Markers of AIDS Dementia Complex: The role of cerebrospinal fluid assays. AIDS, 15(14), 1883–1884.CrossRefPubMed

Brew, B. J. (2004). Evidence for a change in AIDS dementia complex in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy and the possibility of new forms of AIDS Dementia Complex. AIDS, 18(suppl 1), S75–S78.PubMed

Brew, B. J. (2007). Lost in translation: again, another failed neuroprotection trial. Neurology, 69(13), 1308–1309.CrossRefPubMed

Brew, B. J., Halman, M., Catalan, J., Sacktor, N., Price, R. W., Brown, S., et al. (2007). Factors in AIDS dementia complex trial design: Results and lessons from the abacavir trial. PLoS Clinical Trials, 2(3), e13.CrossRefPubMed

Brew, B., Crowe, S. M., Landay, A., Cysique, L., & Guillemin, G. (2008). Neurodegeneration and Ageing in the HAART Era. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 6, 6.

Brouwers, P., Hendricks, M., Lietzau, J. A., Pluda, J. M., Mitsuya, H., Broder, S., et al. (1997). Effect of combination therapy with zidovudine and didanosine on neuropsychological functionning in patients with symptomatic HIV disease: A comparison of simultaneous and alternating regimens. AIDS, 11, 59–66.CrossRefPubMed

Center for Diseases Control [CDC]. (1993). 1993 Revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report, 41, No. RR-17.

Cherry, C. L., Lala, L., & Wesselingh, S. L. (2005). Mitochondrial toxicity of nucleoside analogues: mechanism, monitoring and management. Sexual Health, 2(1), 1–11.CrossRefPubMed

Chesney, M. (2003). Adherence to HAART regimens. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 17(4), 169–177.CrossRefPubMed

Childers, M. E., Woods, S. P., Letendre, S., McCutchan, J. A., Rosario, D., Grant, I., et al. (2008). Cognitive functioning during highly active antiretroviral therapy interruption in Human Immunodeficiency Virus type-1 infection. Journal of Neurovirology, 18, 1–8.

Clifford, D. B., McArthur, J. C., Schifitto, G., Kieburtz, K., McDermott, M. P., Letendre, S., et al. (2002). A randomized clinical trial of CPI-1189 for HIV-associated cognitive-motor impairment. Neurology, 59(10), 1568–1573.PubMed

Cohen, R., Boland, R., Paul, R., Tashima, K. T., Schoenbaum, E. E., Celentano, D. D., et al. (2001). Neurocognitive performance enhanced by highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected women. AIDS, 15, 341–345.CrossRefPubMed

Cole, M. A., Margolick, J. B., Cox, C., Li, X., Selnes, O. A., Martin, E. M., et al. (2007). Longitudinally preserved psychomotor performance in long-term asymptomatic HIV-infected individuals. Neurology, 69(24), 2213–2220.CrossRefPubMed

Cunningham, P., Smith, D., Satchell, C., Cooper, D. A., & Brew, B. (2000). Evidence for independent development of resistance to HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors in the cerebrospinal fluid. AIDS, 14, 1949–1954.CrossRefPubMed

Cysique, L., & Brew, B. (2009). The assessment of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders: New challenges in the HAART era. In R. Paul, N. Sacktor, V. Valcour & K. Tashima (Eds.), HIV and the Brain: New Challenges in the Modern Era. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc.

Cysique, L., Maruff, P., & Brew, B. (2004a). Antiretroviral therapy in HIV infection: are neurologically active drugs important? Archives of Neurology, 61(11), 1699–1704.CrossRefPubMed

Cysique, L., Maruff, P., & Brew, B. (2004b). Prevalence and pattern of neuropsychological impairment in HIV/AIDS-infection across pre and post- Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy eras: a combined study of 2 cohorts. Journal of Neurovirology, 10, 350–357.CrossRefPubMed

Cysique, L., Maruff, P., & Brew, B. (2006a). The neuropsychological profile of symptomatic, AIDS and ADC patients in the pre-HAART era: a meta-analysis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 1–15.CrossRef

Cysique, L. A., Maruff, P., & Brew, B. J. (2006b). Variable benefit in neuropsychological function in HIV-infected HAART-treated patients. Neurology, 66(9), 1447–1450.CrossRefPubMed

Cysique, L., Vaida, F., Letendre, S., Gibson, S., Woods, S., Cherner, M., et al. (in press). Dynamics of cognitive change in impaired HIV + individuals initiating antiretroviral therapy. Neurology.

Deeks, S. G., Wrin, T., Liegler, T., Hoh, R., Hayden, M., Barbour, J. D., et al. (2001). Virologic and immunologic consequences of discontinuing combination antiretroviral-drug therapy in HIV-infected patients with detectable viremia. New England Journal of Medicine, 344(7), 472–480.CrossRefPubMed

Dore, G. J., McDonald, A., Li, Y., Kaldo, J. M., & Brew, B. J. (2003). Marked improvement in survival following AIDS Dementia Complex in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 17, 1539–1545.CrossRefPubMed

El-Sadr, W. M., Lundgren, J. D., Neaton, J. D., Gordin, F., Abrams, D., Arduino, R. C., et al. (2006). CD4 + count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. New England Journal of Medicine, 355(22), 2283–2296.CrossRefPubMed

Enting, R., Hoetelmans, R., Lange, J., Burger, D. M., Beijnen, J. H., & Portegies, P. (1998). Antiretroviral drugs and the central nervous system. AIDS, 12, 1941–1953.CrossRefPubMed

Evans, S. R., Yeh, T. M., Sacktor, N., Clifford, D. B., Simpson, D., Miller, E. N., et al. (2007). Selegiline transdermal system (STS) for HIV-associated cognitive impairment: open-label report of ACTG 5090. HIV Clinical Trials, 8(6), 437–446.CrossRefPubMed

Ferrando, S., Van Gorp, W., McElhiney, M., Goggin, K., Sewell, M., & Rabkin, J. (1998). Highly active antiretroviral treatment in HIV infection: benefits for neuropsychological function. AIDS, 12(8), F65–F70.CrossRefPubMed

Ferrando, S. J., Rabkin, J. G., van Gorp, W. G., Lin, S.-H., & McElhiney, M. (2003). Longitudinal improvement in psychomotor processing is associated with potent antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infection. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 15(2), 208–214.PubMed

Gao, P., Ware, J. H., & Mehta, C. (2008). Sample size re-estimation for adaptive sequential design in clinical trials. Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics, 18(6), 1184–1196.CrossRefPubMed

Gimenez, F., Fernandez, C., & Mabondzo, A. (2004). Transport of HIV protease inhibitors through the blood-brain barrier and interactions with the efflux proteins, P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance proteins. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 36(2), 649–658.CrossRef

Gray, F., Bazille, C., Adle-Biassette, H., Mikol, J., Moulignier, A., & Scaravilli, F. (2005). Central nervous system immune reconstitution disease in Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome patients receiving highly active antiretroviral treatment. Journal of Neurovirology, 11(Suppl 3), 16–22.CrossRefPubMed

Heaton, R., Temkin, N., Dikmen, S., Avitable, N., Taylor, M., Marcotte, T., et al. (2001). Detecting change: A comparison of three neuropsychological methods, using normal and clinical samples. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 16(1), 75–91.PubMed

Heaton, R. K., Cysique, L. A., Jin, H., Shi, C., Yu, X., Letendre, S., et al. (2008). Neurobehavioral effects of human immunodeficiency virus infection among former plasma donors in rural China. Journal of Neurovirology, 7, 1–14.

Hedeker, D., & Gibbons, R. D. (2006). Longitudinal Data Analysis. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Hightower, G., Letendre, S., Cherner, M., Gibson, S., Ellis, R., Ignacio, C., et al. (2008). ART Resistance Influences CSF HIV RNA Levels and Neuropsychological Performance in HIV-infected Individuals Poster presented at the 15th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, February 3-6.

Hinkin, C. H., Castellon, S. A., Durvasula, R. S., Hardy, D. J., Lam, M. N., Mason, K. I., et al. (2002). Medication adherence among HIV + adults: Effects of cognitive dysfunction and regimen complexity. Neurology, 59(12), 1944–1950.PubMed

Hinkin, C. H., Hardy, D. J., Mason, K. I., Castellon, S. A., Durvasula, R. S., Lam, M. N., et al. (2004). Medication adherence in HIV-infected adults: effect of patient age, cognitive status and substance. AIDS, 18(suppl 1), S19–S25.PubMed

Lekakis, J., Tsiodras, S., Ikonomidis, I., Palios, J., Poulakou, G., Rallidis, L., et al. (2008). HIV positive patients treated with protease inhibitors have vascular changes resembling those observed in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Clinical Science (London, England), 5, 5.

Letendre, S., Marquie-Beck, J., Capparelli, E., Best, B., Clifford, D., Collier, A. C., et al. (2008). Validation of the CNS penetration-effectiveness rank for qualifying antiretroviral penetration into the central nervous system. Archives of Neurology, 65(1), 65–70.CrossRefPubMed

Letendre, S., McCutchan, J., Childers, M., Woods, S., Lazzaretto, D., Heaton, R., et al. (2004). Enhancing antiretroviral therapy for Human Immunodeficiency Virus cognitive disorders. Annals of Neurology, 56(3), 416–423.CrossRefPubMed

Lewis, W. (2005). Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, mitochondrial DNA and AIDS therapy. Antiviral Therapy, 10(Suppl 2), M13–27.PubMed

Llorente, A. M., van Gorp, W. G., Stern, M. J., George, L., Satz, P., Marcotte, T. D., et al. (2001). Long-term effects of high-dose zidovudine treatment on neuropsychological performance in mildly symptomatic HIV-positive patients: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled investigation. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 27–32.CrossRefPubMed

Marra, C. M., Lockhart, D., Zunt, J. R., Perrin, M., Coombs, R. W., & Collier, A. C. (2003). Changes in CSF and plasma HIV-1 RNA and cognition after starting potent antiretroviral therapy. Neurology, 60, 1388–1390.PubMed

May, S., Letendre, S., Haubrich, R., McCutchan, J. A., Heaton, R., Capparelli, E., et al. (2007). Meeting practical challenges of a trial involving a multitude of treatment regimens: an example of a multi-center randomized controlled clinical trial in neuroAIDS. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 2(1), 97–104.CrossRefPubMed

McCutchan, J. A., Wu, J. W., Robertson, K., Koletar, S. L., Ellis, R. J., Cohn, S., et al. (2007). HIV suppression by HAART preserves cognitive function in advanced, immune-reconstituted AIDS patients. AIDS, 21(9), 1109–1117.CrossRefPubMed

Miller, V., & Larder, B. A. (2001). Mutational patterns in the HIV genome and cross-resistance following nucleoside and nucleotide analogue drug exposure. Antiviral Therapy, 6(Suppl 3), 25–44.PubMed

Mollica, C., Maruff, P., & Vance, A. (2004). Development of a statistical approach to classifying treatment response in individual children with ADHD. Human Psychopharmacology, 19(7), 445–456.CrossRefPubMed

Pialoux, G., Fournier, S., Moulignier, A., Poveda, J., Clavel, F., & Dupont, B. (1997). Central nervous system as a sanctuary for HIV-1 infection despite treatment with zidovudine, lamivudine and indinavir. AIDS, 11(10), 1302–1303.PubMed

Piccinini, M., Rinaudo, M. T., Anselmino, A., Buccinna, B., Ramondetti, C., Dematteis, A., et al. (2005). The HIV protease inhibitors nelfinavir and saquinavir, but not a variety of HIV reverse transcriptase inhibitors, adversely affect human proteasome function. Antiviral Therapy, 10(2), 215–223.PubMed

Rabbitt, P., Diggle, P., Holland, F., & McInnes, L. (2004). Practice and drop-out effects during a 17-year longitudinal study of cognitive aging. Journal of Gerontology Psychological Sciences, 59B(2), 84–97.

Reinvang, I., Froland, S., Karlsen, N., & Lundervold, A. (1991). Only temporary improvement in impaired neuropsychological function in AIDS patients treated with zidovudine. AIDS, 5(2), 228–229.CrossRefPubMed

Riedel, D. J., Pardo, C. A., McArthur, J., & Nath, A. (2006). Therapy Insight: CNS manifestations of HIV-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Nature Clinical Practice Neurology, 2(10), 557–565.CrossRefPubMed

Roberston, K., Roberston, T. W., Ford, S., Watson, D., Fiscus, S., Harp, A. G., et al. (2004). Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy improves neurocognitive functioning. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 36(1), 562–566.CrossRef

Robertson, K. R., Smurzynski, M., Parsons, T. D., Wu, K., Bosch, R. J., Wu, J., et al. (2007a). The prevalence and incidence of neurocognitive impairment in the HAART era. AIDS, 21(14), 1915–1921.CrossRef

Roberston, K., Su, Z., Krambrink, A., Evans, S. R., Havlir, D., Margolis, D., et al. (2007b). This Is Your Brain off Drugs: Neurocognitive Function before and after ART Discontinuation in Patients with High CD4 Nadir (ACTG A5170). Paper presented at the 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections February 25 -February 28.

Sacktor, N. C., Bacellar, H., Hoover, D. R., Nance-Sproson, T. E., Selnes, O. A., Miller, E. N., et al. (1996). Psychomotor slowing in HIV infection: a predictor of dementia, AIDS and death. Journal of Neurovirology, 2, 404–410.CrossRefPubMed

Sacktor, N. C., Lyles, R. H., Skolasky, R. L., Anderson, D. E., McArthur, J. C., McFarlane, G., et al. (1999). Combination antiretroviral therapy improves psychomotor speed performance in HIV-seropositive homosexual men. Neurology, 52, 1640–1647.PubMed

Sacktor, N., McDermott, M., Marder, K., Schifitto, G., Selnes, O. A., McArthur, J. C., et al. (2002). HIV-associated cognitive impairment before and after the advent of combination therapy. Journal of Neurovirology, 8, 136–142.CrossRefPubMed

Sacktor, N., Skolasky, R. L., Tarwater, P. M., McArthur, J. C., Selnes, O. A., Becker, J., et al. (2003). Response to systemic HIV viral load suppression correlates with psychomotor speed performance. Neurology, 61, 567–569.PubMed

Sacktor, N., Nakasujja, N., Skolasky, R., Robertson, K., Wong, M., Musisi, S., et al. (2006). Antiretroviral therapy improves cognitive impairment in HIV + individuals in sub-Saharan Africa. Neurology, 67(2), 311–314.CrossRefPubMed

Schaie, K. W., & Hofer, S. M. (2001). Handbook of the Psychology of Aging. In K. W. Schaie & J. E. Birren (Eds.), Longitudinal studies in aging research (5th ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.

Schifitto, G., Navia, B. A., Yiannoutsos, C. T., Marra, C. M., Chang, L., Ernst, T., et al. (2007a). Memantine and HIV-associated cognitive impairment: a neuropsychological and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. AIDS, 21(14), 1877–1886.CrossRef

Schifitto, G., Zhang, J., Evans, S. R., Sacktor, N., Simpson, D., Millar, L. L., et al. (2007b). A multicenter trial of selegiline transdermal system for HIV-associated cognitive impairment. Neurology, 69(13), 1314–1321.CrossRef

Schmitt, F. A., Bigley, J. W., McKinnis, R., Logue, P. E., Evans, R. W., Drucker, J. L., et al. (1988). Neuropsychological outcome of Zidovudine (AZT) treatment fo patients with AIDS and AIDS related-complex. New England Journal of Medicine, 319, 1573–1578.PubMedCrossRef

Schweinsburg, B. C., Taylor, M. J., Alhassoon, O. M., Gonzalez, R., Brown, G. G., Ellis, R. J., et al. (2005). Brain mitochondrial injury in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-seropositive (HIV+) individuals taking nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. J Neurovirol, 11(4), 356–364.CrossRefPubMed

Sidtis, J. J., Gatsonis, C., Price, R. W., Singer, E. J., Collier, A. C., Richman, D. D., et al. (1993). Zidovudine treatment of the AIDS Dementia Complex: results of a placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Neurology, 33, 343–349.CrossRefPubMed

Simoni, J. M., Kurth, A. E., Pearson, C. R., Pantalone, D. W., Merrill, J. O., & Frick, P. A. (2006). Self-report measures of antiretroviral therapy adherence: A review with recommendations for HIV research and clinical management. AIDS and Behavior, 10(3), 227–245.CrossRefPubMed

Smit, T. K., Brew, B. J., Tourtellotte, W., Morgello, S., Gelman, B. B., & Saksena, N. K. (2004). Independent evolution of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) drug resistance mutations in diverse areas of the brain in HIV-infected patients, with and without dementia, on antiretroviral treatment. Journal of Virology, 78(18), 10133–10148.CrossRefPubMed

Strain, M. C., Letendre, S., Pillai, S. K., Russell, T., Ignacio, C. C., Gunthard, H. F., et al. (2005). Genetic composition of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type-1 in cerebrospinal fluid and blood without treatment and during failing antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Virology, 79(3), 1772–1788.CrossRefPubMed

Suarez, S., Baril, L., Stankoff, B., Khellaf, M., Dubois, B., Lubetski, C., et al. (2001). Outcome of patients with HIV-1 related cognitive impairment on highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 15, 192–200.CrossRef

Sullivan, E. V., Adalsteinsson, E., Spielman, D. M., Hurd, R. E., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2001). N-acetylaspartate–a marker of neuronal integrity. Annals of Neurology, 50(6), 823.CrossRefPubMed

Tozzi, V., Narciso, P., & Calgani, S. (1993). Effects of Zidovudine in 30 patients with mild to end-stage AIDS Dementia Complex. AIDS, 7, 638–692.CrossRef

Tozzi, V., Balestra, P., Galgani, S., Narciso, P., Ferri, F., Sebastiani, G., et al. (1999). Positive and sustained effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy on HIV-1 associated neurocognitive impairment. AIDS, 13, 1889–1897.CrossRefPubMed

Tozzi, V., Balestra, P., Bellagamba, R., Corpolongo, A., Salvatori, M. F., Visco-Comandini, U., et al. (2007). Persistence of neuropsychological deficits despite long-term highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-related neurocognitive impairment: prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 45(2), 174–182.CrossRef

U.S. Food and Drug Administration [FDA]. (2008). Drugs Used in the Treatment of HIV Infection. Retrieved November 2008 <http://www.fda.gov/oashi/aids/virals.html >

Valcour, V., & Paul, R. (2006). HIV infection and dementia in older adults. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 42(10), 1449–1454.CrossRefPubMed

Valcour, V., Yee, P., Williams, A. E., Shiramizu, B., Watters, M., Selnes, O., et al. (2006a). Lowest ever CD4 lymphocyte count (CD4 nadir) as a predictor of current cognitive and neurological status in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection–The Hawaii Aging with HIV Cohort. Journal of Neurovirology, 12(5), 387–391.CrossRef

Valcour, V. G., Sacktor, N. C., Paul, R. H., Watters, M. R., Selnes, O. A., Shiramizu, B. T., et al. (2006b). Insulin resistance is associated with cognition among HIV-1-infected patients: the Hawaii Aging with HIV cohort. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 43(4), 405–410.CrossRef

Venkataramana, A., Pardo, C. A., McArthur, J. C., Kerr, D. A., Irani, D. N., Griffin, J. W., et al. (2006). Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in the CNS of HIV-infected patients. Neurology, 67(3), 383–388.CrossRefPubMed

Venturi, G., Catucci, M., Romano, L., Corsi, P., Leoncini, F., Valensin, P. E., et al. (2000). Antiretroviral resistance mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase and protease from paired cerebrospinal fluid and plasma samples. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 181, 740–745.CrossRefPubMed

Verbiest, W., Brown, S., Cohen, C., Conant, M., Henry, K., Hunt, S., et al. (2001). Prevalence of HIV-1 drug resistance in antiretroviral-naive patients: a prospective study. AIDS, 15(5), 647–650.CrossRefPubMed

White, D. A., Heaton, R., & Monsch, A. U. (1995). Neuropsychological studies of asymptomatic Human Immunodeficiency Virus-type-1 infected individuals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 1, 304–315.CrossRefPubMed

Woods, S. P., Moran, L. M., Carey, C. L., Dawson, M. S., Iudicello, J. E., Gibson, S., et al. (2008). Prospective memory in HIV infection: is "remembering to remember" a unique predictor of self-reported medication management? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23(3), 257–270.CrossRefPubMed

Wright, E., Brew, B., Arayawichanont, A., Robertson, K., Samintharapanya, K., Kongsaengdao, S., et al. (2008). Neurologic disorders are prevalent in HIV-positive outpatients in the Asia-Pacific region. Neurology, 71(1), 50–56.CrossRefPubMed

Title: Neuropsychological Functioning and Antiretroviral Treatment in HIV/AIDS: A Review
Authors: Lucette A. Cysique
Bruce J. Brew
Publication date: 01-06-2009
Publisher: Springer US
Published in: Neuropsychology Review / Issue 2/2009
Print ISSN: 1040-7308
Electronic ISSN: 1573-6660
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-009-9092-3

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Neuropsychological Functioning and Antiretroviral Treatment in HIV/AIDS: A Review

Abstract

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 2/2009

Autism is a Portmanteau Syndrome

Autism Overflows with Syntheses

Cognitive Neuropsychology of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders

Drug Abuse and Hepatitis C Infection as Comorbid Features of HIV Associated Neurocognitive Disorder: Neurocognitive and Neuroimaging Features

Race-Norming of Neuropsychological Tests

Functional Consequences of HIV-Associated Neuropsychological Impairment