Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

A round-up of the ONWARDS phase 3 clinical trials evaluating the novel weekly insulin icodec in people with diabetes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Malaria Journal
Published in: Malaria Journal 1/2017

Open Access 01-12-2017 | Research

Engaging the private sector in malaria surveillance: a review of strategies and recommendations for elimination settings

Authors: Adam Bennett, Anton L. V. Avanceña, Jennifer Wegbreit, Chris Cotter, Kathryn Roberts, Roly Gosling

Published in: Malaria Journal | Issue 1/2017

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

In malaria elimination settings, all malaria cases must be identified, documented and investigated. To facilitate complete and timely reporting of all malaria cases and effective case management and follow-up, engagement with private providers is essential, particularly in settings where the private sector is a major source of healthcare. However, research on the role and performance of the private sector in malaria diagnosis, case management and reporting in malaria elimination settings is limited. Moreover, the most effective strategies for private sector engagement in malaria elimination settings remain unclear.

Methods

Twenty-five experts in malaria elimination, disease surveillance and private sector engagement were purposively sampled and interviewed. An extensive review of grey and peer-reviewed literature on private sector testing, treatment, and reporting for malaria was performed. Additional in-depth literature review was conducted for six case studies on eliminating and neighbouring countries in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa.

Results

The private health sector can be categorized based on their commercial orientation or business model (for-profit versus nonprofit) and their regulation status within a country (formal vs informal). A number of potentially effective strategies exist for engaging the private sector. Conducting a baseline assessment of the private sector is critical to understanding its composition, size, geographical distribution and quality of services provided. Facilitating reporting, referral and training linkages between the public and private sectors and making malaria a notifiable disease are important strategies to improve private sector involvement in malaria surveillance. Financial incentives for uptake of rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy should be combined with training and community awareness campaigns for improving uptake. Private sector providers can also be organized and better engaged through social franchising, effective regulation, professional organizations and government outreach.

Conclusion

This review highlights the importance of engaging private sector stakeholders early and often in the development of malaria elimination strategies.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Snow RW, Peshu N, Forster D, Mwenesi H, Marsh K. The role of shops in the treatment and prevention of childhood malaria on the coast of Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1992;86:237–9.PubMedCrossRef
2.
Berman P, Rose L. The role of private providers in maternal and child health and family planning services in developing countries. Health Policy Plan. 1996;11:142–55.PubMedCrossRef
3.
Hanson K, Berman P. Private health care provision in developing countries: a preliminary analysis of levels and composition. Health Policy Plan. 1998;13:195–211.PubMedCrossRef
4.
5.
Bustreo F, Harding A, Axelsson H. Can developing countries achieve adequate improvements in child health outcomes without engaging the private sector? Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81:886–95.PubMed
6.
Ager A. Patterns of health service utilization and perceptions of needs and services in rural Orissa. Health Policy Plan. 2005;20:176–84.PubMedCrossRef
7.
8.
Waters HR, Hatt LE, Black RE. The role of private providers in treating child diarrhoea in Latin America. Health Econ. 2008;17:21–9.PubMedCrossRef
9.
10.
11.
Shaikh BT, Hatcher J. Health seeking behaviour and health service utilization in Pakistan: challenging the policy makers. J Public Health. 2005;27:49–54.CrossRef
12.
Chaturvedi HK, Mahanta J, Pandey A. Treatment-seeking for febrile illness in north-east India: an epidemiological study in the malaria endemic zone. Malar J. 2009;8:301.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
13.
Nonaka D, Vongseththa K, Kobayashi J, Bounyadeth S, Kano S, Phompida S, et al. Public and private sector treatment of malaria in Lao PDR. Acta Trop. 2009;112:283–7.PubMedCrossRef
14.
Rutebemberwa E, Pariyo G, Peterson S, Tomson G, Kallander K. Utilization of public or private health care providers by febrile children after user fee removal in Uganda. Malar J. 2009;8:45.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
15.
Awor P, Wamani H, Bwire G, Jagoe G, Peterson S. Private sector drug shops in integrated community case management of malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhea in children in Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012;87:92–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
16.
Cohen JM, Woolsey AM, Sabot OJ, Gething PW, Tatem AJ, Moonen B. Optimizing investments in malaria treatment and diagnosis. Science. 2012;338:610–2.CrossRef
17.
Brugha R, Zwi A. Improving the quality of private sector delivery of public health services: challenges and strategies. Health Policy Plan. 1998;13:107–20.PubMedCrossRef
18.
Brugha R, Chandramohan D, Zwi A. Viewpoint: management of malaria—working with the private sector. Trop Med Int Health. 1999;4:402–6.PubMedCrossRef
19.
Rutebemberwa E, Nsabagasani X, Pariyo G, Tomson G, Peterson S, Kallander K. Use of drugs, perceived drug efficacy and preferred providers for febrile children: implications for home management of fever. Malar J. 2009;8:131.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
20.
Rowa Y, Abuya TO, Mutemi WK, Ochola S, Molyneux S, Marsh V. Factors influencing implementation of the Ministry of Health-led private medicine retailer programmes on malaria in Kenya. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:93.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
21.
22.
23.
Rao VB, Schellenberg D, Ghani AC. Overcoming health systems barriers to successful malaria treatment. Trends Parasitol. 2013;29:164–80.PubMedCrossRef
24.
Levey IR, Wang W. Unravelling the quality of HIV counselling and testing services in the private and public sectors in Zambia. Health Policy Plan. 2014;29:i30–7.CrossRef
25.
Bloom G, Standing H, Lucas H, Bhuiya A, Oladepo O, Peters DH. Making health markets work better for poor people: the case of informal providers. Health Policy Plan. 2011;26:i45–52.PubMedCrossRef
26.
Gautham M, Shyamprasad KM, Singh R, Zachariah A, Singh R, Bloom G. Informal rural healthcare providers in North and South India. Health Policy Plan. 2014;29:i20–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
27.
28.
Goodman C, Kachur SP, Abdulla S, Mwageni E, Nyoni J, Schellenberg JA, et al. Retail supply of malaria-related drugs in rural Tanzania: risks and opportunities. Trop Med Int Health. 2004;9:655–63.PubMedCrossRef
29.
Kachur PS, Schulden J, Goodman CA, Kassala H, Elling BF, Khatib RA, et al. Prevalence of malaria parasitemia among clients seeking treatment for fever or malaria at drug stores in rural Tanzania 2004. Trop Med Int Health. 2006;11:441–51.CrossRef
30.
WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. Partnerships for malaria control: engaging the formal and informal private sector: a review. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006.
31.
WHO. Strengthening the capacity of governments to constructively engage the private sector in providing essential health-care services. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
32.
Fernando D, de Silva NL, Ackers I, Abeyasinghe R, Wijeyaratne P, Rajapakse S. Patient satisfaction and uptake of private-sector run malaria diagnosis clinics in a post-conflict district in Sri Lanka. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:641.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
33.
Chico RM, Dellicour S, Roman E, Mangiaterra V, Coleman J, Menendez C, et al. Global Call to Action: maximize the public health impact of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa. Malar J. 2015;14:207.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
34.
35.
WHO. Malaria elimination a field manual for low and moderate endemic countries. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
36.
37.
World Health Organization, Roll Back Malaria Partnership. Disease surveillance for malaria elimination: an operational manual. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012.
38.
Sturrock HJW, Novotny JM, Kunene S, Dlamini S, Zulu Z, Cohen JM, et al. Reactive case detection for malaria elimination: real-life experience from an ongoing program in Swaziland. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e63830.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
39.
Cao J, Sturrock HJW, Cotter C, Zhou S, Zhou H, Liu Y, et al. Communicating and monitoring surveillance and response activities for malaria elimination: China’s “1-3-7” strategy. PLoS Med. 2014;11:e1001642.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
40.
Wickremasinghe R, Fernando SD, Thillekaratne J, Wijeyaratne PM, Wickremasinghe AR. Importance of active case detection in a malaria elimination programme. Malar J. 2014;13:186.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
Bennett S. Promoting the private sector: a review of developing country trends. Health Policy Plan. 1992;7:97–110.CrossRef
46.
47.
Basu S, Andrews J, Kishore S, Panjabi R, Stuckler D. Comparative performance of private and public healthcare systems in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001244.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
48.
Albertini A, Djalle D, Faye B, Gamboa D, Luchavez J, Mationg ML, et al. Preliminary enquiry into the availability, price and quality of malaria rapid diagnostic tests in the private health sector of six malaria-endemic countries: malaria RDTs in the private health sector. Trop Med Int Health. 2012;17:147–52.PubMedCrossRef
49.
Onwujekwe O, Hanson K, Uzochukwu B, Ezeoke O, Eze S, Dike N. Geographic inequities in provision and utilization of malaria treatment services in southeast Nigeria: diagnosis, providers and drugs. Health Policy. 2010;94:144–9.PubMedCrossRef
50.
Sudhinaraset M, Ingram M, Lofthouse HK, Montagu D. What is the role of informal healthcare providers in developing countries? A systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54978.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
51.
52.
53.
54.
Beyeler N, Liu J, Sieverding M. A systematic review of the role of proprietary and patent medicine vendors in healthcare provision in Nigeria. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0117165.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
55.
56.
Treleaven E, Liu J, Prach LM, Isiguzo C. Management of paediatric illnesses by patent and proprietary medicine vendors in Nigeria. Malar J. 2015;14:232.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
Maı̈ga FI, Haddad S, Fournier P, Gauvin L. Public and private sector responses to essential drugs policies: a multilevel analysis of drug prescription and selling practices in Mali. Soc Sci Med. 2003;57:937–48.PubMedCrossRef
62.
Ogwal-Okeng JW, Obua C, Waako P, Aupont O, Ross-Degnan D. A comparison of prescribing practices between public and private sector physicians in Uganda. East Afr J Public Health. 2004;Suppl:S12–6.
63.
Vijaykadgat S, Cholpo S, Sitthimongko S, Pawaphutanan A, Pinyoratanachot A, Rojanawatsirivet C, et al. Strengthening of national capacity in implementation of antimalarial drug quality assurance in Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2006;37:5–10.
64.
65.
Malik M, Hassali MA, Shafie AA. Prescribing practices for the treatment of malaria among public and private healthcare facilities: a comparative cross sectional study from Pakistan. Healthmed. 2012;6:1147–54.
66.
Sarkar J, Shah NK, Murhekar MV. Incidence, management, and reporting of severe and fatal Plasmodium falciparum malaria in secondary and tertiary health facilities of Alipurduar, India in 2009. J Vector Borne Dis. 2012;49:157–63.PubMed
67.
De Costa A, Diwan V. “Where is the public health sector?” Public and private sector healthcare provision in Madhya Pradesh, India. Health Policy. 2007;84:269–76.PubMedCrossRef
68.
Jerene D, Fentie G, Teka M, Girma S, Chibsa S, Teka H, et al. The role of private health facilities in the provision of malaria case management and prevention services in four zones of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Int Health. 2012;4:70–3.PubMedCrossRef
69.
Slipicevic O, Malicbegovic A. Public and private sector in the health care system of the Federation Bosnia and Herzegovina: policy and strategy. Mater Sociomed. 2012;24:54–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
70.
Deressa W, Ali A, Hailemariam D. Malaria-related health-seeking behavior and challenges for care providers in rural Ethiopia: implications for control. J Biosoc Sci. 2008;40:115–35.PubMedCrossRef
71.
Kamat VR. Private practitioners and their role in the resurgence of malaria in Mumbai (Bombay) and Navi Mumbai (New Bombay), India: serving the affected or aiding an epidemic? Soc Sci Med. 2001;52:885–909.PubMedCrossRef
72.
73.
Jacobs B, Whitworth J, Kambugu F, Pool R. Sexually transmitted disease management in Uganda’s private-for-profit formal and informal sector and compliance with treatment. Sex Transm Dis. 2004;31:650–4.PubMedCrossRef
74.
Meremikwu M, Okomo U, Nwachukwu C, Oyo-Ita A, Eke-Njoku J, Okebe J, et al. Antimalarial drug prescribing practice in private and public health facilities in South-east Nigeria: a descriptive study. Malar J. 2007;6:55.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
75.
Mishra N, Anvikar AR, Shah NK, Kamal VK, Sharma SK, Srivastava HC, et al. Prescription practices and availability of artemisinin monotherapy in India: where do we stand. Malar J. 2011;10:360.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
76.
Bruxvoort K, Kalolella A, Cairns M, Festo C, Kenani M, Lyaruu P, et al. Are Tanzanian patients attending public facilities or private retailers more likely to adhere to artemisinin-based combination therapy? Malar J. 2015;14:87.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
77.
Goodman C, Kachur SP, Abdulla S, Bloland P, Mills A. Drug shop regulation and malaria treatment in Tanzania why do shops break the rules, and does it matter? Health Policy Plan. 2007;22:393–403.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
78.
Uzochukwu BS, Chiegboka LO, Enwereuzo C, Nwosu U, Okorafor D, Onwujekwe OE, et al. Examining appropriate diagnosis and treatment of malaria: availability and use of rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy in public and private health facilities in south east Nigeria. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:486.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
79.
Poyer S, Shewchuk T, Tougher S, Ye Y, The ACTwatch Group, Mann AG, et al. Availability and price of malaria rapid diagnostic tests in the public and private health sectors in 2011: results from 10 nationally representative cross-sectional retail surveys. Trop Med Int Health. 2015;20:744–56.PubMedCrossRef
80.
Amuasi JH, Diap G, Blay-Nguah S, Boakye I, Karikari PE, Dismas B, et al. Access to artesunate-amodiaquine, quinine and other anti-malarials: policy and markets in Burundi. Malar J. 2011;10:21.CrossRef
81.
Malisa AL, Kiriba D. Artemisinin combination therapies price disparity between government and private health sectors and its implication on antimalarial drug consumption pattern in Morogoro Urban District, Tanzania. BMC Res Notes. 2012;5:165.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
82.
Watsierah CA, Ouma C. Access to artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) and quinine in malaria holoendemic regions of western Kenya. Malar J. 2014;13:290.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
83.
Lon CT, Tsuyuoka R, Phanouvong S, Nivanna N, Socheat D, Sokhan C, et al. Counterfeit and substandard antimalarial drugs in Cambodia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2006;100:1019–24.PubMedCrossRef
84.
Hetzel MW, Dillip A, Lengeler C, Obrist B, Msechu JJ, Makemba AM, et al. Malaria treatment in the retail sector: knowledge and practices of drug sellers in rural Tanzania. BMC Public Health. 2008;8:157.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
85.
Batwala V, Magnussen P, Nuwaha F. Challenges to implementation of artemisinin combination therapy policy in Uganda. Int Health. 2010;2:262–8.PubMedCrossRef
86.
O’Connell KA, Gatakaa H, Poyer S, Njogu J, Evance I, Munroe E, et al. Got ACTs? Availability, price, market share and provider knowledge of anti-malarial medicines in public and private sector outlets in six malaria-endemic countries. Malar J. 2011;10:326.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
87.
Evans L, Coignez V, Barojas A, Bempong D, Bradby S, Dijiba Y, et al. Quality of anti-malarials collected in the private and informal sectors in Guyana and Suriname. Malar J. 2012;11:203.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
88.
Wafula FN, Miriti EM, Goodman CA. Examining characteristics, knowledge and regulatory practices of specialized drug shops in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of the literature. BMC Health Serv Res. 2012;12:223.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
89.
Palafox B, Patouillard E, Tougher S, Goodman C, Hanson K, Kleinschmidt I, et al. Understanding private sector antimalarial distribution chains: a cross-sectional mixed methods study in six malaria-endemic countries. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e93763.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
90.
Patouillard E, Hanson K, Kleinschmidt I, Palafox B, Tougher S, Pok S, et al. Determinants of price setting decisions on anti-malarial drugs at retail shops in Cambodia. Malar J. 2015;14:244.CrossRef
91.
Renschler JP, Walters KM, Newton PN, Laxminarayan R. Estimated under-five deaths associated with poor-quality antimalarials in Sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2015;92:119–26.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
92.
Chandler CIR, Hall-Clifford R, Asaph T, Pascal M, Clarke S, Mbonye AK. Introducing malaria rapid diagnostic tests at registered drug shops in Uganda: limitations of diagnostic testing in the reality of diagnosis. Soc Sci Med. 2011;72:937–44.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
93.
Kagashe GAB, Minzi O, Matowe L. An assessment of dispensing practices in private pharmacies in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania: dispensing practices in Tanzania. Int J Pharm Pract. 2011;19:30–5.PubMedCrossRef
94.
Diap G, Amuasi J, Boakye I, Sevcsik A-M, Pecoul B. Anti-malarial market and policy surveys in sub-Saharan Africa. Malar J. 2010;9(Suppl 1):S1.PubMedCrossRef
95.
Thakor HG, Sonal GS, Dhariwal AC, Arora P, Das Gupta RK. Challenges and role of the private sector in the control of malaria. J Indian Med Assoc. 2010;108:849–53.PubMed
96.
Adsul BB, Laad PS, Howal PV, Chaturvedi RM. Health problems among migrant construction workers: a unique public-private partnership project. Indian J Occup Environ Med. 2011;15:29–32.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
97.
98.
Ndyomugyenyi R, Magnussen P, Clarke S. Malaria treatment-seeking behaviour and drug prescription practices in an area of low transmission in Uganda: implications for prevention and control. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2007;101:209–15.PubMedCrossRef
99.
Gbotosho GO, Happi CT, Ganiyu A, Ogundahunsi OA, Sowunmi A, Oduola AM. Potential contribution of prescription practices to the emergence and spread of chloroquine resistance in south–west Nigeria: caution in the use of artemisinin combination therapy. Malar J. 2009;8:313.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
100.
Waako PJ, Ogwal-Okeng J, Kiguba R, Ross-Degnan D, Aupont O. Immediate responses by private and public hospitals to national malaria treatment policy change pronouncements in Uganda. Int J Trop Med. 2010;5:1–5.CrossRef
101.
Masanja IM, Lutambi AM, Khatib RA. Do health workers’ preferences influence their practices? Assessment of providers’ attitude and personal use of new treatment recommendations for management of uncomplicated malaria, Tanzania. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:956.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
102.
Hetzel MW, Msechu JJ, Goodman C, Lengeler C, Obrist B, Kachur SP, et al. Decreased availability of antimalarials in the private sector following the policy change from chloroquine to sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania. Malar J. 2006;5:109.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
103.
Minzi OMS, Haule AF. Poor knowledge on new malaria treatment guidelines among drug dispensers in private pharmacies in Tanzania: the need for involving the private sector in policy preparations and implementation. East Afr J Public Health. 2008;5:117–21.PubMed
104.
Watsierah CA, Onyango RO, Ombaka JH. Abong’o BO, Ouma C. Provider knowledge of treatment policy and dosing regimen with artemether-lumefantrine and quinine in malaria-endemic areas of western Kenya. Malar J. 2012;11:436.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
105.
Sanders KC, Rundi C, Jelip J, Rashman Y, Smith Gueye C, Gosling RD. Eliminating malaria in Malaysia: the role of partnerships between the public and commercial sectors in Sabah. Malar J. 2014;13:24.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
106.
Hanson K, Gilson L, Goodman C, Mills A, Smith R, Feachem R, et al. Is private health care the answer to the health problems of the world’s poor? PLoS Med. 2008;5:e233.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
107.
108.
Tavrow P, Shabahang J, Makama S. Vendor-to-vendor education to improve malaria treatment by private drug outlets in Bungoma District, Kenya. Malar J. 2003;2:10.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
109.
Millar KR, McCutcheon J, Coakley EH, Brieger W, Ibrahim MA, Mohammed Z, et al. Patterns and predictors of malaria care-seeking, diagnostic testing, and artemisinin-based combination therapy for children under five with fever in Northern Nigeria: a cross-sectional study. Malar J. 2014;13:447.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
110.
Phalkey RK, Kroll M, Dutta S, Shukla S, Butsch C, Bharucha E, et al. Knowledge, attitude, and practices with respect to disease surveillance among urban private practitioners in Pune, India. Glob Health Action. 2015;8:28413.CrossRef
111.
Ahmadi A, Nedjat S, Gholami J, Majdzadeh R. Disease surveillance and private sector in the metropolitans: a troublesome collaboration. Int J Prev Med. 2013;4:1036–44.PubMedPubMedCentral
112.
Smith LA, Jones C, Meek S, Webster J. Provider practice and user behavior interventions to improve prompt and effective treatment of malaria: do we know what works? Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;80:326–35.PubMed
113.
Palmer N. The use of private-sector contracts for primary health care: theory, evidence and lessons for low-income and middle-income countries. Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78:821–9.PubMedPubMedCentral
114.
Marasini B, Chaulagai C, Taylor J. Strengthening state/non-state service delivery partnerships in the health sector in Nepal. Int Health. 2015;7:228–38.PubMedCrossRef
115.
Marek T, Diallo I, Ndiaye B, Rakotosalama J. Successful contracting of prevention services: fighting malnutrition in Senegal and Madagascar. Health Policy Plan. 1999;14:382–9.PubMedCrossRef
116.
117.
118.
Hiwat H, Hardjopawiro LS, Takken W, Villegas L. Novel strategies lead to pre-elimination of malaria in previously high-risk areas in Suriname, South America. Malar J. 2012;11:10.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
119.
Loevinsohn B, Harding A. Buying results? Contracting for health service delivery in developing countries. Lancet. 2005;366:676–81.PubMedCrossRef
120.
Jayasinghe S. Contracts to devolve health services in fragile states and developing countries: do ethics matter? J Med Ethics. 2009;35:552–7.PubMedCrossRef
121.
122.
Liu X, Hotchkiss DR, Bose S. The effectiveness of contracting-out primary health care services in developing countries: a review of the evidence. Health Policy Plan. 2007;23:1–13.PubMedCrossRef
123.
Kedenge SV, Kangwana BP, Waweru EW, Nyandigisi AJ, Pandit J, Brooker SJ, et al. Understanding the impact of subsidizing artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) in the retail sector—results from focus group discussions in rural Kenya. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e54371.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
124.
125.
Laxminarayan R, Gelband H. A global subsidy: key to affordable drugs for malaria? Health Aff (Millwood). 2009;28:949–61.CrossRef
126.
127.
Laxminarayan R, Arrow K, Jamison D, Bloom BR. From financing to fevers: lessons of an antimalarial subsidy program. Science. 2012;338:615–6.PubMedCrossRef
128.
Tougher S, ACTwatch Group, Ye Y, Amuasi JH, Kourgueni I, Thomson R, et al. Effect of the Affordable Medicines Facility—malaria (AMFm) on the availability, price, and market share of quality-assured artemisinin-based combination therapies in seven countries: a before-and-after analysis of outlet survey data. Lancet. 2012;380:1916–26.PubMedCrossRef
129.
Smith N, Obala A, Simiyu C, Menya D, Khwa-Otsyula B, O’Meara WP. Accessibility, availability and affordability of anti-malarials in a rural district in Kenya after implementation of a national subsidy scheme. Malar J. 2011;10:316.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
130.
131.
Davis B, Ladner J, Sams K, Tekinturhan E, de Korte D, Saba J. Artemisinin-based combination therapy availability and use in the private sector of five AMFm phase 1 countries. Malar J. 2013;12:135.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
132.
Larson PS, Yadav P, Alphs S, Arkedis J, Massaga J, Sabot O, et al. Diffusion of subsidized ACTs in accredited drug shops in Tanzania: determinants of stocking and characteristics of early and late adopters. BMC Health Serv Res. 2013;13:526.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
133.
Malm KL, Segbaya S, Forson I, Gakpey KD, Sampong LB, Adjei EA, et al. Implementation of the Affordable Medicines for Malaria Facility (AMFm) in Ghana: processes, challenges and achievements. J Public Health Policy. 2013;34:302–14.PubMedCrossRef
134.
Ezenduka CC, Ogbonna BO, Ekwunife OI, Okonta MJ, Esimone CO. Drugs use pattern for uncomplicated malaria in medicine retail outlets in Enugu urban, southeast Nigeria: implications for malaria treatment policy. Malar J. 2014;13:243.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
135.
Fink G, Dickens WT, Jordan M, Cohen JL. Access to subsidized ACT and malaria treatment—evidence from the first year of the AMFm program in six districts in Uganda. Health Policy Plan. 2014;29:517–27.PubMedCrossRef
136.
Thomson R, Festo C, Johanes B, Kalolella A, Bruxvoort K, Nchimbi H, et al. Has Tanzania embraced the green leaf? Results from outlet and household surveys before and after implementation of the Affordable Medicines Facility—malaria. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e95607.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
137.
Willey BA, Tougher S, Ye Y, The ACTwatch Group, Mann AG, Thomson R, et al. Communicating the AMFm message: exploring the effect of communication and training interventions on private for-profit provider awareness and knowledge related to a multi-country anti-malarial subsidy intervention. Malar J. 2014;13:46.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
138.
Morris A, Ward A, Moonen B, Sabot O, Cohen JM. Price subsidies increase the use of private sector ACTs: evidence from a systematic review. Health Policy Plan. 2015;30:397–405.PubMedCrossRef
139.
140.
Sabot OJ, Mwita A, Cohen JM, Ipuge Y, Gordon M, Bishop D, et al. Piloting the global subsidy: the impact of subsidized artemisinin-based combination therapies distributed through private drug shops in rural Tanzania. PLoS ONE. 2009;4:e6857.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
141.
Talisuna A, Grewal P, Rwakimari JB, Mukasa S, Jagoe G, Banerji J. Cost is killing patients: subsidising effective antimalarials. Lancet. 2009;374:1224–6.PubMedCrossRef
142.
Talisuna AO, Daumerie PG, Balyeku A, Egan T, Piot B, Coghlan R, et al. Closing the access barrier for effective anti-malarials in the private sector in rural Uganda: consortium for ACT private sector subsidy (CAPSS) pilot study. Malar J. 2012;11:356.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
143.
Kangwana BP, Kedenge SV, Noor AM, Alegana VA, Nyandigisi AJ, Pandit J, et al. The impact of retail-sector delivery of artemether–lumefantrine on malaria treatment of children under five in Kenya: a cluster randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med. 2011;8:e1000437.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
144.
Kangwana BP, Kedenge SV, Noor AM, Alegana VA, Nyandigisi AJ, Pandit J, et al. The effect of an anti-malarial subsidy programme on the quality of service provision of artemisinin-based combination therapy in Kenya: a cluster-randomized, controlled trial. Malar J. 2013;12:81. doi:10.​1186/​1475-2875-12-81.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
145.
Yadav P, Cohen JL, Alphs S, Arkedis J, Larson PS, Massaga J, et al. Trends in availability and prices of subsidized ACT over the first year of the AMFm: evidence from remote regions of Tanzania. Malar J. 2012;11:299.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
146.
Ye Y, Arnold F, Noor A, Wamukoya M, Amuasi J, Blay S, et al. The Affordable Medicines Facility-malaria (AMFm): are remote areas benefiting from the intervention? Malar J. 2015;14:398.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
147.
Mushi AK. Targeted subsidy for malaria control with treated nets using a discount voucher system in Tanzania. Health Policy Plan. 2003;18:163–71.PubMedCrossRef
148.
Nathan R, Masanja H, Mshinda H, Schellenberg JA, Savigny D, Lengeler C, et al. Mosquito nets and the poor: can social marketing redress inequities in access? Trop Med Int Health. 2004;9:1121–6.PubMedCrossRef
149.
Cohen JM, Sabot O, Sabot K, Gordon M, Gross I, Bishop D, et al. A pharmacy too far? Equity and spatial distribution of outcomes in the delivery of subsidized artemisinin-based combination therapies through private drug shops. BMC Health Serv Res. 2010;10:S6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
150.
Simba D, Kakoko D. Access to subsidized artemether-lumefantrine from the private sector among febrile children in rural setting in Kilosa, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res. 2012;14:89–95.PubMedCrossRef
151.
Ikwuobe JO, Faragher BE, Alawode G, Lalloo DG. The impact of rapid malaria diagnostic tests upon anti-malarial sales in community pharmacies in Gwagwalada, Nigeria. Malar J. 2013;12:380.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
152.
Ansah EK, Narh-Bana S, Affran-Bonful H, Bart-Plange C, Cundill B, Gyapong M, et al. The impact of providing rapid diagnostic malaria tests on fever management in the private retail sector in Ghana: a cluster randomized trial. BMJ. 2015;350:h1019.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
153.
Cohen J, Fink G, Berg K, Aber F, Jordan M, Maloney K, et al. Feasibility of distributing rapid diagnostic tests for malaria in the retail sector: evidence from an implementation study in Uganda. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e48296.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
154.
Aung T, White C, Montagu D, McFarland W, Hlaing T, Khin H, et al. Improving uptake and use of malaria rapid diagnostic tests in the context of artemisinin drug resistance containment in eastern Myanmar: an evaluation of incentive schemes among informal private healthcare providers. Malar J. 2015;14:105.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
155.
Chen IT, Aung T, Thant H, Sudhinaraset M, Kahn JG. Cost-effectiveness analysis of malaria rapid diagnostic test incentive schemes for informal private healthcare providers in Myanmar. Malar J. 2015;14:55.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
156.
Hutchinson E, Chandler C, Clarke S, Lal S, Magnussen P, Kayendeke M, et al. “It puts life in us and we feel big”: shifts in the local health care system during the introduction of rapid diagnostic tests for malaria into drug shops in Uganda. Crit Public Health. 2015;25:48–62.PubMedCrossRef
157.
Lussiana C. Towards subsidized malaria rapid diagnostic tests. Lessons learned from the global subsidy of artemisinin-based combination therapies: a review. Health Policy Plan. 2016;31:928–39.PubMedCrossRef
158.
Mbonye AK, Magnussen P, Lal S, Hansen KS, Cundill B, Chandler C, et al. A cluster randomised trial introducing rapid diagnostic tests into registered drug shops in Uganda: impact on appropriate treatment of malaria. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0129545.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
159.
Montagu D. Franchising of health services in low-income countries. Health Policy Plan. 2002;17:121–30.PubMedCrossRef
160.
161.
O’Connell K, Hom M, Aung T, Theuss M, Huntington D. Using and Joining a franchised private sector provider network in Myanmar. PLoS ONE. 2011;6:e28364.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
162.
Huntington D, Mundy G, Hom NM, Li Q, Aung T. Physicians in private practice: reasons for being a social franchise member. Health Res Policy Syst. 2012;10:25.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
163.
Beyeler N, York De La Cruz A, Montagu D. The impact of clinical social franchising on health services in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e60669.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
164.
165.
Goodman C, Brieger W, Unwin A, Mills A, Meek S, Greer G. Medicine sellers and malaria treatment in sub-Saharan Africa: what do they do and how can their practice be improved? Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77:203–18.PubMedPubMedCentral
166.
Alba S, Hetzel MW, Goodman C, Dillip A, Liana J, Mshinda H, et al. Improvements in access to malaria treatment in Tanzania after switch to artemisinin combination therapy and the introduction of accredited drug dispensing outlets- a provider perspective. Malar J. 2010;9:164.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
167.
168.
Alba S, Dillip A, Hetzel MW, Mayumana I, Mshana C, Makemba A, et al. Research Improvements in access to malaria treatment in Tanzania following community, retail sector and health facility interventions—a user perspective. Malar J. 2010;9:163.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
169.
Rutta E, Kibassa B, McKinnon B, Liana J, Mbwasi R, Mlaki W, et al. Increasing access to subsidized artemisinin-based combination therapy through accredited drug dispensing outlets in Tanzania. Health Res Policy Syst. 2011;9:22.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
170.
171.
Birungi H, Mugisha F, Nsabagasani X, Okuonzi S, Jeppsson A. The policy on public-private mix in the Ugandan health sector: catching up with reality. Health Policy Plan. 2001;16:80–7.PubMedCrossRef
172.
Kumaranayake L, Lake S, Mujinja P, Hongoro C, Mpembeni R. How do countries regulate the health sector? Evidence from Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Health Policy Plan. 2000;15:357–67.PubMedCrossRef
173.
Bin Ghouth AS. Availability and prescription practice of anti-malaria drugs in the private health sector in Yemen. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2013;7:404–12.PubMedCrossRef
174.
Nguyen DTK, Leung KK, McIntyre L, Ghali WA, Sauve R. Does Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) training improve the skills of health workers? A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e66030.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
175.
Mbacham WF, Mangham-Jefferies L, Cundill B, Achonduh OA, Chandler CI, Ambebila JN, et al. Basic or enhanced clinician training to improve adherence to malaria treatment guidelines: a cluster-randomised trial in two areas of Cameroon. Lancet Glob Health. 2014;2:e346–58.PubMedCrossRef
176.
Nsimba SE. Assessing the impact of educational intervention for improving management of malaria and other childhood illnesses in Kibaha District-Tanzania. East Afr J Public Health. 2007;4:5–11.PubMed
177.
Abuya TO, Fegan G, Amin AA, Akhwale WS, Noor AM, Snow RW, et al. Evaluating different dimensions of programme effectiveness for private medicine retailer malaria control interventions in Kenya. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e8937.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
178.
Chen IT, Aung T, Thant H, Sudhinaraset M, Kahn JG. Cost-effectiveness analysis of malaria rapid diagnostic test incentive schemes for informal private healthcare providers in Myanmar. Malar J. 2015;14:55.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
179.
180.
Sudhinaraset M, Briegleb C, Aung M, Khin H, Aung T. Motivation and challenges for use of malaria rapid diagnostic tests among informal providers in Myanmar: a qualitative study. Malar J. 2015;14:61.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
181.
Shah NM, Brieger WR, Peters DH. Can interventions improve health services from informal private providers in low and middle-income countries? A comprehensive review of the literature. Health Policy Plan. 2011;26:275–87.PubMedCrossRef
182.
Aung T, White C, Montagu D, McFarland W, Hlaing T, Khin H, et al. Improving uptake and use of malaria rapid diagnostic tests in the context of artemisinin drug resistance containment in eastern Myanmar: an evaluation of incentive schemes among informal private healthcare providers. Malar J. 2015;14:105.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
183.
Nsubuga P, White ME, Thacker SB, Anderson MA, Blount SB, Broome CV, et al. Public health surveillance: a tool for targeting and monitoring interventions. In: Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G, Claeson M, Evans DB, et al., editors. Dis control priorities in developing countries. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2006. p. 997–1018.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
National Malaria Control Programme, Clinton Health Access Initiative. An assessment of capacity, barriers, and incentives for engaging private health care providers in malaria elimination efforts in Swaziland. Kingdom of Swaziland Ministry of Health; 2013.
194.
195.
196.
Atun R, Weil DE, Eang MT, Mwakyusa D. Health-system strengthening and tuberculosis control. Lancet. 2010;375:2169–78.PubMedCrossRef
197.
198.
Doyle TJ, Glynn MK, Groseclose SL. Completeness of notifiable infectious disease reporting in the United States: an analytical literature review. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155:866–74.PubMedCrossRef
199.
Jajosky R, Rey A, Park M, Aranas A, Macdonald S, Ferland L. Findings from the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists’ 2008 assessment of state reportable and nationally notifiable conditions in the United States and considerations for the future. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2011;17:255–64.PubMedCrossRef
200.
Roush S, Birkhead G, Koo D, Cobb A, Fleming D. Mandatory reporting of diseases and conditions by health care professionals and laboratories. JAMA. 1999;282:164–70.PubMedCrossRef
201.
Silk BJ, Berkelman RL. A review of strategies for enhancing the completeness of notifiable disease reporting. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2005;11:191–200.PubMedCrossRef
202.
Brabazon ED, O’Farrell A, Murray CA, Carton MW, Finnegan P. Under-reporting of notifiable infectious disease hospitalizations in a health board region in Ireland: room for improvement? Epidemiol Infect. 2008;136:241–7.PubMedCrossRef
203.
Brabazon ED, Sheridan A, Finnegan P, Carton MW, Bedford D. Under-reporting of notifiable infectious disease hospitalizations: significant improvements in the Irish context. Epidemiol Infect. 2014;143:1166–74.PubMedCrossRef
204.
Kelly TA, O’Lorcain P, Moran J, Garvey P, McKeown P, Connell J, et al. Underreporting of viral encephalitis and viral meningitis, Ireland, 2005–2008. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:1428–36.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
205.
Sickbert-Bennett EE, Weber DJ, Poole C, MacDonald PDM, Maillard J-M. Completeness of communicable disease reporting, North Carolina, USA, 1995–1997 and 2000–2006. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:23–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
206.
Keramarou M, Evans MR. Completeness of infectious disease notification in the United Kingdom: a systematic review. J Infect. 2012;64:555–64.PubMedCrossRef
207.
208.
Jajosky RA, Groseclose SL. Evaluation of reporting timeliness of public health surveillance systems for infectious diseases. BMC Public Health. 2004;4:29.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
209.
Konowitz PM, Petrossian GA, Rose DN. The underreporting of disease and physicians’ knowledge of reporting requirements. Public Health Rep. 1984;99:31.PubMedPubMedCentral
210.
Durrheim DN, Thomas J. General practice awareness of notifiable infectious diseases. Public Health. 1994;108:273–8.PubMedCrossRef
211.
Abdool Karim SS, Dilraj A. Reasons for under-reporting of notifiable conditions. SAMJ. 1996;86:834–6.PubMed
212.
Dinis J. Reporting communicable diseases: the point of view of Portuguese family doctors. Acta Médica Port. 2000;13:33–8.
213.
Al-Laham H, Bashour H. Reasons for underreporting of notifiable diseases by Syrian paediatricians. Rev Santé Méditerranée Orient. 2001;7:590–6.
214.
Bawa SB, Olumide EAA, Umar US. The knowledge, attitude and practices of the reporting of notifiable diseases among health workers in Yobe State, Nigeria. Afr J Med Med Sci. 2003;32:49–53.PubMed
215.
Ofili AN, Ugwu EN, Ziregbe A, Richards R, Salami S. Knowledge of disease notification among doctors in government hospitals in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. Public Health. 2003;117:214–7.PubMedCrossRef
216.
Nader F, Askarian M. How do Iranian physicians report notifiable diseases? The first report from Iran. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37:500–4.PubMedCrossRef
217.
Tan H-F, Yeh C-Y, Chang H-W, Chang C-K, Tseng H-F. Private doctors’ practices, knowledge, and attitude to reporting of communicable diseases: a national survey in Taiwan. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:11.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
218.
Maponga BA, Chirundu D, Shambira G, Gombe NT, Tshimanga M, Bangure D. Evaluation of the notifiable diseases surveillance system in sanyati district, Zimbabwe, 2010–2011. Pan Afr Med J. 2014;19:278.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
219.
Nagaraja SB, Achanta S, Kumar AMV, Satyanarayana S. Extending tuberculosis notification to the private sector in India: programmatic challenges? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2014;18:1353–6.PubMedCrossRef
220.
Ward M, Brandsema P, van Straten E, Bosman A. Electronic reporting improves timeliness and completeness of infectious disease notification, the Netherlands, 2003. Eurosurveillance. 2005;10:27–30.PubMed
221.
Chiang CY, Enarson D, Yang SL, Suo J, Lin TP, et al. The impact of national health insurance on the notification of tuberculosis in Taiwan. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2002;6:974–9.PubMed
222.
223.
Global Malaria Programme. World malaria report. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014.
224.
Ha NTH, Berman P, Larsen U. Household utilization and expenditure on private and public health services in Vietnam. Health Policy Plan. 2002;17:61–70.PubMedCrossRef
225.
226.
Anh Duc H, Sabin LL, Cuong LQ, Duc Thien D, Feeley R. Potential collaboration with the private sector for the provision of ambulatory care in the Mekong region, Vietnam. Glob Health Action. 2012;5:10126.CrossRef
227.
228.
229.
Risso-Gill I, McKee M, Coker R, Piot P, Legido-Quigley H. Health system strengthening in Myanmar during political reforms: perspectives from international agencies. Health Policy Plan. 2014;29:466–74.PubMedCrossRef
230.
231.
Metadata
Title
Engaging the private sector in malaria surveillance: a review of strategies and recommendations for elimination settings
Authors
Adam Bennett
Anton L. V. Avanceña
Jennifer Wegbreit
Chris Cotter
Kathryn Roberts
Roly Gosling
Publication date
01-12-2017
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Malaria Journal / Issue 1/2017
Electronic ISSN: 1475-2875
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-017-1901-1

Other articles of this Issue 1/2017

Malaria Journal 1/2017 Go to the issue

Research

Integrative analysis associates monocytes with insufficient erythropoiesis during acute Plasmodium cynomolgi malaria in rhesus macaques

Research

In vivo efficacy of top five surveyed Ghanaian herbal anti-malarial products

Research

Clinical and molecular surveillance of drug resistant vivax malaria in Myanmar (2009–2016)

Research

Anti-malarial landscape in Myanmar: results from a nationally representative survey among community health workers and the private sector outlets in 2015/2016

Commentary

Drug-based vector control: a potential new paradigm

Research

The role of grass volatiles on oviposition site selection by Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles coluzzii

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Heart Failure Video

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Watch now

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discuss last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

16-04-2024 Type 2 Diabetes News

Incentivised to exercise

11-04-2024 Lifestyle Modifications News

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

10-04-2024 Myocardial Infarction News

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page

Image Credits