Skip to main content
Top
Published in: BMC Infectious Diseases 1/2014

Open Access 01-12-2014 | Review

Use of rapid diagnostic techniques in ICU patients with infections

Published in: BMC Infectious Diseases | Issue 1/2014

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

Infection is a common complication seen in ICU patients. Given the correlation between infection and mortality in these patients, a rapid etiological diagnosis and the determination of antimicrobial resistance markers are of paramount importance, especially in view of today's globally spread of multi drug resistance microorganisms. This paper reviews some of the rapid diagnostic techniques available for ICU patients with infections.

Methods

A narrative review of recent peer-reviewed literature (published between 1995 and 2014) was performed using as the search terms: Intensive care medicine, Microbiological techniques, Clinical laboratory techniques, Diagnosis, and Rapid diagnosis, with no language restrictions.

Results

The most developed microbiology fields for a rapid diagnosis of infection in critically ill patients are those related to the diagnosis of bloodstream infection, pneumonia -both ventilator associated and non-ventilator associated-, urinary tract infection, skin and soft tissue infections, viral infections and tuberculosis.

Conclusions

New developments in the field of microbiology have served to shorten turnaround times and optimize the treatment of many types of infection. Although there are still some unresolved limitations of the use of molecular techniques for a rapid diagnosis of infection in the ICU patient, this approach holds much promise for the future.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Burgmann H, Hiesmayr JM, Savey A, Bauer P, Metnitz B, Metnitz PG: Impact of nosocomial infections on clinical outcome and resource consumption in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36: 1597-1601.PubMed Burgmann H, Hiesmayr JM, Savey A, Bauer P, Metnitz B, Metnitz PG: Impact of nosocomial infections on clinical outcome and resource consumption in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36: 1597-1601.PubMed
2.
go back to reference Cohen ER, Feinglass J, Barsuk JH, Barnard C, O'Donnell A, McGaghie WC, Wayne DB: Cost savings from reduced catheter-related bloodstream infection after simulation-based education for residents in a medical intensive care unit. Simul Healthc. 2010, 5: 98-102.PubMed Cohen ER, Feinglass J, Barsuk JH, Barnard C, O'Donnell A, McGaghie WC, Wayne DB: Cost savings from reduced catheter-related bloodstream infection after simulation-based education for residents in a medical intensive care unit. Simul Healthc. 2010, 5: 98-102.PubMed
3.
go back to reference Zarb P, Coignard B, Griskeviciene J, Muller A, Vankerckhoven V, Weist K, Goossens M, Vaerenberg S, Hopkins S, Catry B, Monnet D, Goossens H, Suetens C: The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) pilot point prevalence survey of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial use. Euro Surveill. 2012, 17: 20316-PubMed Zarb P, Coignard B, Griskeviciene J, Muller A, Vankerckhoven V, Weist K, Goossens M, Vaerenberg S, Hopkins S, Catry B, Monnet D, Goossens H, Suetens C: The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) pilot point prevalence survey of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial use. Euro Surveill. 2012, 17: 20316-PubMed
4.
go back to reference Olaechea PM, Palomar M, Alvarez-Lerma F, Otal JJ, Insausti J, Lopez-Pueyo MJ: Morbidity and mortality associated with primary and catheter-related bloodstream infections in critically ill patients. Rev Esp Quimioter. 2013, 26: 21-29.PubMed Olaechea PM, Palomar M, Alvarez-Lerma F, Otal JJ, Insausti J, Lopez-Pueyo MJ: Morbidity and mortality associated with primary and catheter-related bloodstream infections in critically ill patients. Rev Esp Quimioter. 2013, 26: 21-29.PubMed
5.
go back to reference Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J, Horan TC, Sievert DM, Pollock DA, Fridkin SK: NHSN annual update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: annual summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006-2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008, 29: 996-1011.PubMed Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J, Horan TC, Sievert DM, Pollock DA, Fridkin SK: NHSN annual update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: annual summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006-2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008, 29: 996-1011.PubMed
6.
go back to reference Brusselaers N, Vogelaers D, Blot S: The rising problem of antimicrobial resistance in the intensive care unit. Ann Intensive Care. 2011, 1: 47-PubMedPubMedCentral Brusselaers N, Vogelaers D, Blot S: The rising problem of antimicrobial resistance in the intensive care unit. Ann Intensive Care. 2011, 1: 47-PubMedPubMedCentral
7.
go back to reference Ibrahim EH, Sherman G, Ward S, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH: The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcomes in the ICU setting. Chest. 2000, 118: 146-155.PubMed Ibrahim EH, Sherman G, Ward S, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH: The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcomes in the ICU setting. Chest. 2000, 118: 146-155.PubMed
8.
go back to reference Muscedere JG, Shorr AF, Jiang X, Day A, Heyland DK: The adequacy of timely empiric antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia: an important determinant of outcome. J Crit Care. 2012, 27: 322-e327-314PubMed Muscedere JG, Shorr AF, Jiang X, Day A, Heyland DK: The adequacy of timely empiric antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia: an important determinant of outcome. J Crit Care. 2012, 27: 322-e327-314PubMed
9.
go back to reference Palmer HR, Palavecino EL, Johnson JW, Ohl CA, Williamson JC: Clinical and microbiological implications of time-to-positivity of blood cultures in patients with Gram-negative bacilli bacteremia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013, 32: 955-959.PubMed Palmer HR, Palavecino EL, Johnson JW, Ohl CA, Williamson JC: Clinical and microbiological implications of time-to-positivity of blood cultures in patients with Gram-negative bacilli bacteremia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013, 32: 955-959.PubMed
10.
go back to reference Raad I, Hanna H, Maki D: Intravascular catheter-related infections: advances in diagnosis, prevention, and management. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007, 7: 645-657.PubMed Raad I, Hanna H, Maki D: Intravascular catheter-related infections: advances in diagnosis, prevention, and management. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007, 7: 645-657.PubMed
11.
go back to reference Rello J, Coll P, Prats G: Evaluation of culture techniques for diagnosis of catheter-related sepsis in critically ill patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1992, 11: 1192-1193.PubMed Rello J, Coll P, Prats G: Evaluation of culture techniques for diagnosis of catheter-related sepsis in critically ill patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1992, 11: 1192-1193.PubMed
12.
go back to reference Benezra D, Kiehn TE, Gold JW, Brown AE, Turnbull AD, Armstrong D: Prospective study of infections in indwelling central venous catheters using quantitative blood cultures. Am J Med. 1988, 85: 495-498.PubMed Benezra D, Kiehn TE, Gold JW, Brown AE, Turnbull AD, Armstrong D: Prospective study of infections in indwelling central venous catheters using quantitative blood cultures. Am J Med. 1988, 85: 495-498.PubMed
13.
go back to reference Rijnders BJ, Peetermans WE, Verwaest C, Wilmer A, Van Wijngaerden E: Watchful waiting versus immediate catheter removal in ICU patients with suspected catheter-related infection: a randomized trial. Intensive Care Med. 2004, 30: 1073-1080.PubMed Rijnders BJ, Peetermans WE, Verwaest C, Wilmer A, Van Wijngaerden E: Watchful waiting versus immediate catheter removal in ICU patients with suspected catheter-related infection: a randomized trial. Intensive Care Med. 2004, 30: 1073-1080.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Fortun J, Grill F, Martin-Davila P, Blazquez J, Tato M, Sanchez-Corral J, Garcia-San Miguel L, Moreno S: Treatment of long-term intravascular catheter-related bacteraemia with antibiotic-lock therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006, 58: 816-821.PubMed Fortun J, Grill F, Martin-Davila P, Blazquez J, Tato M, Sanchez-Corral J, Garcia-San Miguel L, Moreno S: Treatment of long-term intravascular catheter-related bacteraemia with antibiotic-lock therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006, 58: 816-821.PubMed
15.
go back to reference Safdar N, Fine JP, Maki DG: Meta-analysis: methods for diagnosing intravascular device-related bloodstream infection. Ann Intern Med. 2005, 142: 451-466.PubMed Safdar N, Fine JP, Maki DG: Meta-analysis: methods for diagnosing intravascular device-related bloodstream infection. Ann Intern Med. 2005, 142: 451-466.PubMed
16.
go back to reference Cercenado E, Ena J, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Romero I, Bouza E: A conservative procedure for the diagnosis of catheter-related infections. Arch Intern Med. 1990, 150: 1417-1420.PubMed Cercenado E, Ena J, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Romero I, Bouza E: A conservative procedure for the diagnosis of catheter-related infections. Arch Intern Med. 1990, 150: 1417-1420.PubMed
17.
go back to reference Fortun J, Perez-Molina JA, Asensio A, Calderon C, Casado JL, Mir N, Moreno A, Guerrero A: Semiquantitative culture of subcutaneous segment for conservative diagnosis of intravascular catheter-related infection. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2000, 24: 210-214.PubMed Fortun J, Perez-Molina JA, Asensio A, Calderon C, Casado JL, Mir N, Moreno A, Guerrero A: Semiquantitative culture of subcutaneous segment for conservative diagnosis of intravascular catheter-related infection. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2000, 24: 210-214.PubMed
18.
go back to reference Bouza E, Munoz P, Burillo A, Lopez-Rodriguez J, Fernandez-Perez C, Perez MJ, Rincon C: The challenge of anticipating catheter tip colonization in major heart surgery patients in the intensive care unit: are surface cultures useful?. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33: 1953-1960.PubMed Bouza E, Munoz P, Burillo A, Lopez-Rodriguez J, Fernandez-Perez C, Perez MJ, Rincon C: The challenge of anticipating catheter tip colonization in major heart surgery patients in the intensive care unit: are surface cultures useful?. Crit Care Med. 2005, 33: 1953-1960.PubMed
19.
go back to reference Blot F: Diagnosis of catheter-related infections. Catheter-Related Infections. Edited by: Seifert H, Jansen B, Farr B. 2005, Marcel Dekker, New York, 37-76. Blot F: Diagnosis of catheter-related infections. Catheter-Related Infections. Edited by: Seifert H, Jansen B, Farr B. 2005, Marcel Dekker, New York, 37-76.
20.
go back to reference Guembe M, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Sanchez-Carrillo C, Perez-Parra A, Martin-Rabadan P, Bouza E: How many lumens should be cultured in the conservative diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infections?. Clin Infect Dis. 2010, 50: 1575-1579.PubMed Guembe M, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Sanchez-Carrillo C, Perez-Parra A, Martin-Rabadan P, Bouza E: How many lumens should be cultured in the conservative diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infections?. Clin Infect Dis. 2010, 50: 1575-1579.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Hamilton DJ, Amos D, Schwartz RW, Dent CM, Counts GW: Effect of delay in processing on lysis-centrifugation blood culture results from marrow transplant patients. J Clin Microbiol. 1989, 27: 1588-1593.PubMedPubMedCentral Hamilton DJ, Amos D, Schwartz RW, Dent CM, Counts GW: Effect of delay in processing on lysis-centrifugation blood culture results from marrow transplant patients. J Clin Microbiol. 1989, 27: 1588-1593.PubMedPubMedCentral
22.
go back to reference Raad I, Hanna HA, Alakech B, Chatzinikolaou I, Johnson MM, Tarrand J: Differential time to positivity: a useful method for diagnosing catheter-related bloodstream infections. Ann Intern Med. 2004, 140: 18-25.PubMed Raad I, Hanna HA, Alakech B, Chatzinikolaou I, Johnson MM, Tarrand J: Differential time to positivity: a useful method for diagnosing catheter-related bloodstream infections. Ann Intern Med. 2004, 140: 18-25.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Sabatier C, Garcia X, Ferrer R, Duarte M, Colomina M, Alcaraz D, Fontanals D, Valles J: Blood culture differential time to positivity enables safe catheter retention in suspected catheter-related bloodstream infection: a randomized controlled trial. Med Intensiva 2014, in press., Sabatier C, Garcia X, Ferrer R, Duarte M, Colomina M, Alcaraz D, Fontanals D, Valles J: Blood culture differential time to positivity enables safe catheter retention in suspected catheter-related bloodstream infection: a randomized controlled trial. Med Intensiva 2014, in press.,
24.
go back to reference Blot F, Nitenberg G, Chachaty E, Raynard B, Germann N, Antoun S, Laplanche A, Brun-Buisson C, Tancrede C: Diagnosis of catheter-related bacteraemia: a prospective comparison of the time to positivity of hub-blood versus peripheral-blood cultures. Lancet. 1999, 354: 1071-1077.PubMed Blot F, Nitenberg G, Chachaty E, Raynard B, Germann N, Antoun S, Laplanche A, Brun-Buisson C, Tancrede C: Diagnosis of catheter-related bacteraemia: a prospective comparison of the time to positivity of hub-blood versus peripheral-blood cultures. Lancet. 1999, 354: 1071-1077.PubMed
25.
go back to reference Abdelkefi A, Achour W, Ben Othman T, Torjman L, Ladeb S, Lakhal A, Hsairi M, Kammoun L, Ben Hassen A, Ben Abdeladhim A: Difference in time to positivity is useful for the diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2005, 35: 397-401.PubMed Abdelkefi A, Achour W, Ben Othman T, Torjman L, Ladeb S, Lakhal A, Hsairi M, Kammoun L, Ben Hassen A, Ben Abdeladhim A: Difference in time to positivity is useful for the diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2005, 35: 397-401.PubMed
26.
go back to reference Kaasch AJ, Rieg S, Hellmich M, Kern WV, Seifert H: Differential time to positivity is not predictive for central line-related Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection in routine clinical care. J Infect. 2014, 68: 58-61.PubMed Kaasch AJ, Rieg S, Hellmich M, Kern WV, Seifert H: Differential time to positivity is not predictive for central line-related Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection in routine clinical care. J Infect. 2014, 68: 58-61.PubMed
27.
go back to reference Schwetz I, Hinrichs G, Reisinger EC, Krejs GJ, Olschewski H, Krause R: Delayed processing of blood samples influences time to positivity of blood cultures and results of Gram stain-acridine orange leukocyte Cytospin test. J Clin Microbiol. 2007, 45: 2691-2694.PubMedPubMedCentral Schwetz I, Hinrichs G, Reisinger EC, Krejs GJ, Olschewski H, Krause R: Delayed processing of blood samples influences time to positivity of blood cultures and results of Gram stain-acridine orange leukocyte Cytospin test. J Clin Microbiol. 2007, 45: 2691-2694.PubMedPubMedCentral
28.
go back to reference Kaasch AJ, Rieg S, Hellmich M, Kern WV, Seifert H: Reply to Krause et al. J Infect. 2014, 69: 294-295.PubMed Kaasch AJ, Rieg S, Hellmich M, Kern WV, Seifert H: Reply to Krause et al. J Infect. 2014, 69: 294-295.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Bouza E, Alcala L, Munoz P, Martin-Rabadan P, Guembe M, Rodriguez-Creixems M: Can microbiologists help to assess catheter involvement in candidaemic patients before removal?. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013, 19: E129-E135.PubMed Bouza E, Alcala L, Munoz P, Martin-Rabadan P, Guembe M, Rodriguez-Creixems M: Can microbiologists help to assess catheter involvement in candidaemic patients before removal?. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013, 19: E129-E135.PubMed
30.
go back to reference Leon M, Garcia M, Herranz MA, Gonzalez V, Martinez A, Castillo F, Andres E, Leon C, Huet J: Diagnostic value of Gram staining of peri-catheter skin and the connection in the prediction of intravascular-catheter-related bacteremia. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 1998, 16: 214-218.PubMed Leon M, Garcia M, Herranz MA, Gonzalez V, Martinez A, Castillo F, Andres E, Leon C, Huet J: Diagnostic value of Gram staining of peri-catheter skin and the connection in the prediction of intravascular-catheter-related bacteremia. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 1998, 16: 214-218.PubMed
31.
go back to reference Bouza E, Alvarado N, Alcala L, Perez MJ, Rincon C, Munoz P: A randomized and prospective study of 3 procedures for the diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infection without catheter withdrawal. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 44: 820-826.PubMed Bouza E, Alvarado N, Alcala L, Perez MJ, Rincon C, Munoz P: A randomized and prospective study of 3 procedures for the diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infection without catheter withdrawal. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 44: 820-826.PubMed
32.
go back to reference Castellanos-Ortega A, Suberviola B, Garcia-Astudillo LA, Holanda MS, Ortiz F, Llorca J, Delgado-Rodriguez M: Impact of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign protocols on hospital length of stay and mortality in septic shock patients: results of a three-year follow-up quasi-experimental study. Crit Care Med. 2010, 38: 1036-1043.PubMed Castellanos-Ortega A, Suberviola B, Garcia-Astudillo LA, Holanda MS, Ortiz F, Llorca J, Delgado-Rodriguez M: Impact of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign protocols on hospital length of stay and mortality in septic shock patients: results of a three-year follow-up quasi-experimental study. Crit Care Med. 2010, 38: 1036-1043.PubMed
33.
go back to reference Fenollar F, Raoult D: Molecular diagnosis of bloodstream infections caused by non-cultivable bacteria. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2007, 30 (Suppl 1): S7-S15.PubMed Fenollar F, Raoult D: Molecular diagnosis of bloodstream infections caused by non-cultivable bacteria. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2007, 30 (Suppl 1): S7-S15.PubMed
34.
go back to reference Afshari A, Schrenzel J, Ieven M, Harbarth S: Bench-to-bedside review: rapid molecular diagnostics for bloodstream infection - a new frontier?. Crit Care. 2012, 16: 222-PubMedPubMedCentral Afshari A, Schrenzel J, Ieven M, Harbarth S: Bench-to-bedside review: rapid molecular diagnostics for bloodstream infection - a new frontier?. Crit Care. 2012, 16: 222-PubMedPubMedCentral
35.
go back to reference Liesenfeld O, Lehman L, Hunfeld KP, Kost G: Molecular diagnosis of sepsis: New aspects and recent developments. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp). 2014, 4: 1-25. Liesenfeld O, Lehman L, Hunfeld KP, Kost G: Molecular diagnosis of sepsis: New aspects and recent developments. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp). 2014, 4: 1-25.
36.
go back to reference Murray PR, Masur H: Current approaches to the diagnosis of bacterial and fungal bloodstream infections in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2012, 40: 3277-3282.PubMedPubMedCentral Murray PR, Masur H: Current approaches to the diagnosis of bacterial and fungal bloodstream infections in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2012, 40: 3277-3282.PubMedPubMedCentral
37.
go back to reference Chang SS, Hsieh WH, Liu TS, Lee SH, Wang CH, Chou HC, Yeo YH, Tseng CP, Lee CC: Multiplex PCR system for rapid detection of pathogens in patients with presumed sepsis - a systemic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013, 8: e62323-PubMedPubMedCentral Chang SS, Hsieh WH, Liu TS, Lee SH, Wang CH, Chou HC, Yeo YH, Tseng CP, Lee CC: Multiplex PCR system for rapid detection of pathogens in patients with presumed sepsis - a systemic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013, 8: e62323-PubMedPubMedCentral
38.
go back to reference Wallet F, Loiez C, Herwegh S, Courcol RJ: Usefulness of real-time PCR for the diagnosis of sepsis in ICU-acquired infections. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2011, 11: 348-353.PubMed Wallet F, Loiez C, Herwegh S, Courcol RJ: Usefulness of real-time PCR for the diagnosis of sepsis in ICU-acquired infections. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2011, 11: 348-353.PubMed
40.
go back to reference Dierkes C, Ehrenstein B, Siebig S, Linde HJ, Reischl U, Salzberger B: Clinical impact of a commercially available multiplex PCR system for rapid detection of pathogens in patients with presumed sepsis. BMC Infect Dis. 2009, 9: 126-PubMedPubMedCentral Dierkes C, Ehrenstein B, Siebig S, Linde HJ, Reischl U, Salzberger B: Clinical impact of a commercially available multiplex PCR system for rapid detection of pathogens in patients with presumed sepsis. BMC Infect Dis. 2009, 9: 126-PubMedPubMedCentral
41.
go back to reference Fernandez-Cruz A, Marin M, Kestler M, Alcala L, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Bouza E: The value of combining blood culture and SeptiFast data for predicting complicated bloodstream infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria or Candida species. J Clin Microbiol. 2013, 51: 1130-1136.PubMedPubMedCentral Fernandez-Cruz A, Marin M, Kestler M, Alcala L, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Bouza E: The value of combining blood culture and SeptiFast data for predicting complicated bloodstream infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria or Candida species. J Clin Microbiol. 2013, 51: 1130-1136.PubMedPubMedCentral
42.
go back to reference Lehmann LE, Herpichboehm B, Kost GJ, Kollef MH, Stuber F: Cost and mortality prediction using polymerase chain reaction pathogen detection in sepsis: evidence from three observational trials. Crit Care. 2010, 14: R186-PubMedPubMedCentral Lehmann LE, Herpichboehm B, Kost GJ, Kollef MH, Stuber F: Cost and mortality prediction using polymerase chain reaction pathogen detection in sepsis: evidence from three observational trials. Crit Care. 2010, 14: R186-PubMedPubMedCentral
43.
go back to reference Ho YP, Reddy PM: Advances in mass spectrometry for the identification of pathogens. Mass Spectrom Rev. 2011, 30: 1203-1224.PubMed Ho YP, Reddy PM: Advances in mass spectrometry for the identification of pathogens. Mass Spectrom Rev. 2011, 30: 1203-1224.PubMed
44.
go back to reference Cherkaoui A, Hibbs J, Emonet S, Tangomo M, Girard M, Francois P, Schrenzel J: Comparison of two matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry methods with conventional phenotypic identification for routine identification of bacteria to the species level. J Clin Microbiol. 2010, 48: 1169-1175.PubMedPubMedCentral Cherkaoui A, Hibbs J, Emonet S, Tangomo M, Girard M, Francois P, Schrenzel J: Comparison of two matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry methods with conventional phenotypic identification for routine identification of bacteria to the species level. J Clin Microbiol. 2010, 48: 1169-1175.PubMedPubMedCentral
45.
go back to reference Spanu T, Posteraro B, Fiori B, D'Inzeo T, Campoli S, Ruggeri A, Tumbarello M, Canu G, Trecarichi EM, Parisi G, Tronci M, Sanguinetti M, Fadda G: Direct maldi-tof mass spectrometry assay of blood culture broths for rapid identification of Candida species causing bloodstream infections: an observational study in two large microbiology laboratories. J Clin Microbiol. 2012, 50: 176-179.PubMedPubMedCentral Spanu T, Posteraro B, Fiori B, D'Inzeo T, Campoli S, Ruggeri A, Tumbarello M, Canu G, Trecarichi EM, Parisi G, Tronci M, Sanguinetti M, Fadda G: Direct maldi-tof mass spectrometry assay of blood culture broths for rapid identification of Candida species causing bloodstream infections: an observational study in two large microbiology laboratories. J Clin Microbiol. 2012, 50: 176-179.PubMedPubMedCentral
46.
go back to reference Juiz PM, Almela M, Melcion C, Campo I, Esteban C, Pitart C, Marco F, Vila J: A comparative study of two different methods of sample preparation for positive blood cultures for the rapid identification of bacteria using MALDI-TOF MS. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 31: 1353-1358.PubMed Juiz PM, Almela M, Melcion C, Campo I, Esteban C, Pitart C, Marco F, Vila J: A comparative study of two different methods of sample preparation for positive blood cultures for the rapid identification of bacteria using MALDI-TOF MS. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 31: 1353-1358.PubMed
47.
go back to reference Leli C, Cenci E, Cardaccia A, Moretti A, D'Alo F, Pagliochini R, Barcaccia M, Farinelli S, Vento S, Bistoni F, Mencacci A: Rapid identification of bacterial and fungal pathogens from positive blood cultures by MALDI-TOF MS. Int J Med Microbiol. 2013, 303: 205-209.PubMed Leli C, Cenci E, Cardaccia A, Moretti A, D'Alo F, Pagliochini R, Barcaccia M, Farinelli S, Vento S, Bistoni F, Mencacci A: Rapid identification of bacterial and fungal pathogens from positive blood cultures by MALDI-TOF MS. Int J Med Microbiol. 2013, 303: 205-209.PubMed
48.
go back to reference Rodriguez-Sanchez B, Sanchez-Carrillo C, Ruiz A, Marin M, Cercenado E, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Bouza E: Direct identification of pathogens from positive blood cultures using matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Clin Microbiol Infec. 2013 Rodriguez-Sanchez B, Sanchez-Carrillo C, Ruiz A, Marin M, Cercenado E, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Bouza E: Direct identification of pathogens from positive blood cultures using matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Clin Microbiol Infec. 2013
49.
go back to reference Vlek AL, Bonten MJ, Boel CH: Direct matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry improves appropriateness of antibiotic treatment of bacteremia. PLoS One. 2012, 7: e32589-PubMedPubMedCentral Vlek AL, Bonten MJ, Boel CH: Direct matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry improves appropriateness of antibiotic treatment of bacteremia. PLoS One. 2012, 7: e32589-PubMedPubMedCentral
50.
go back to reference Reinhart K, Bauer M, Riedemann NC, Hartog CS: New approaches to sepsis: molecular diagnostics and biomarkers. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2012, 25: 609-634.PubMedPubMedCentral Reinhart K, Bauer M, Riedemann NC, Hartog CS: New approaches to sepsis: molecular diagnostics and biomarkers. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2012, 25: 609-634.PubMedPubMedCentral
52.
go back to reference Povoa P, Coelho L, Almeida E, Fernandes A, Mealha R, Moreira P, Sabino H: C-reactive protein as a marker of infection in critically ill patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005, 11: 101-108.PubMed Povoa P, Coelho L, Almeida E, Fernandes A, Mealha R, Moreira P, Sabino H: C-reactive protein as a marker of infection in critically ill patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005, 11: 101-108.PubMed
53.
go back to reference Povoa P, Coelho L, Almeida E, Fernandes A, Mealha R, Moreira P, Sabino H: Early identification of intensive care unit-acquired infections with daily monitoring of C-reactive protein: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2006, 10: R63-PubMedPubMedCentral Povoa P, Coelho L, Almeida E, Fernandes A, Mealha R, Moreira P, Sabino H: Early identification of intensive care unit-acquired infections with daily monitoring of C-reactive protein: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2006, 10: R63-PubMedPubMedCentral
54.
go back to reference Lobo SM, Lobo FR, Bota DP, Lopes-Ferreira F, Soliman HM, Melot C, Vincent JL: C-reactive protein levels correlate with mortality and organ failure in critically ill patients. Chest. 2003, 123: 2043-2049.PubMed Lobo SM, Lobo FR, Bota DP, Lopes-Ferreira F, Soliman HM, Melot C, Vincent JL: C-reactive protein levels correlate with mortality and organ failure in critically ill patients. Chest. 2003, 123: 2043-2049.PubMed
55.
go back to reference Garnacho-Montero J, Huici-Moreno MJ, Gutierrez-Pizarraya A, Lopez I, Marquez-Vacaro JA, Macher H, Guerrero JM, Puppo-Moreno A: Prognostic and diagnostic value of eosinopenia, C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, and circulating cell-free DNA in critically ill patients admitted with suspicion of sepsis. Crit Care. 2014, 18: R116-PubMedPubMedCentral Garnacho-Montero J, Huici-Moreno MJ, Gutierrez-Pizarraya A, Lopez I, Marquez-Vacaro JA, Macher H, Guerrero JM, Puppo-Moreno A: Prognostic and diagnostic value of eosinopenia, C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, and circulating cell-free DNA in critically ill patients admitted with suspicion of sepsis. Crit Care. 2014, 18: R116-PubMedPubMedCentral
56.
go back to reference Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Tsangaris I, Kanni T, Mouktaroudi M, Pantelidou I, Adamis G, Atmatzidis S, Chrisofos M, Evangelopoulou V, Frantzeskaki F, Giannopoulos P, Giannikopoulos G, Gialvalis D, Gourgoulis GM, Kotzampassi K, Katsifa K, Kofinas G, Kontopidou F, Koratzanis G, Koulouras V, Koutsikou A, Koupetori M, Kritselis I, Leonidou L, Mega A, Mylona V, Nikolaou H, Orfanos S, Panagopoulos P, Paramythiotou E, et al: Procalcitonin as an early indicator of outcome in sepsis: a prospective observational study. J Hosp Infect. 2011, 77: 58-63.PubMed Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Tsangaris I, Kanni T, Mouktaroudi M, Pantelidou I, Adamis G, Atmatzidis S, Chrisofos M, Evangelopoulou V, Frantzeskaki F, Giannopoulos P, Giannikopoulos G, Gialvalis D, Gourgoulis GM, Kotzampassi K, Katsifa K, Kofinas G, Kontopidou F, Koratzanis G, Koulouras V, Koutsikou A, Koupetori M, Kritselis I, Leonidou L, Mega A, Mylona V, Nikolaou H, Orfanos S, Panagopoulos P, Paramythiotou E, et al: Procalcitonin as an early indicator of outcome in sepsis: a prospective observational study. J Hosp Infect. 2011, 77: 58-63.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Karlsson S, Heikkinen M, Pettila V, Alila S, Vaisanen S, Pulkki K, Kolho E, Ruokonen E: Predictive value of procalcitonin decrease in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2010, 14: R205-PubMedPubMedCentral Karlsson S, Heikkinen M, Pettila V, Alila S, Vaisanen S, Pulkki K, Kolho E, Ruokonen E: Predictive value of procalcitonin decrease in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2010, 14: R205-PubMedPubMedCentral
58.
go back to reference Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, Annane D, Gerlach H, Opal SM, Sevransky JE, Sprung CL, Douglas IS, Jaeschke R, Osborn TM, Nunnally ME, Townsend SR, Reinhart K, Kleinpell RM, Angus DC, Deutschman CS, Machado FR, Rubenfeld GD, Webb SA, Beale RJ, Vincent JL, Moreno R: Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012. Crit Care Med. 2013, 41: 580-637.PubMed Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, Annane D, Gerlach H, Opal SM, Sevransky JE, Sprung CL, Douglas IS, Jaeschke R, Osborn TM, Nunnally ME, Townsend SR, Reinhart K, Kleinpell RM, Angus DC, Deutschman CS, Machado FR, Rubenfeld GD, Webb SA, Beale RJ, Vincent JL, Moreno R: Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012. Crit Care Med. 2013, 41: 580-637.PubMed
59.
go back to reference Rello J: Bench-to-bedside review: Therapeutic options and issues in the management of ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care. 2005, 9: 259-265.PubMed Rello J: Bench-to-bedside review: Therapeutic options and issues in the management of ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care. 2005, 9: 259-265.PubMed
60.
go back to reference Kollef MH: What is ventilator-associated pneumonia and why is it important?. Respir Care. 2005, 50: 714-724.PubMed Kollef MH: What is ventilator-associated pneumonia and why is it important?. Respir Care. 2005, 50: 714-724.PubMed
61.
go back to reference Chastre J: Conference summary: ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir Care. 2005, 50: 975-983.PubMed Chastre J: Conference summary: ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir Care. 2005, 50: 975-983.PubMed
62.
go back to reference Muscedere JG, Martin CM, Heyland DK: The impact of ventilator-associated pneumonia on the Canadian health care system. J Crit Care. 2008, 23: 5-10.PubMed Muscedere JG, Martin CM, Heyland DK: The impact of ventilator-associated pneumonia on the Canadian health care system. J Crit Care. 2008, 23: 5-10.PubMed
63.
go back to reference Hortal J, Munoz P, Cuerpo G, Litvan H, Rosseel PM, Bouza E: Ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients undergoing major heart surgery: an incidence study in Europe. Crit Care. 2009, 13: R80-PubMedPubMedCentral Hortal J, Munoz P, Cuerpo G, Litvan H, Rosseel PM, Bouza E: Ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients undergoing major heart surgery: an incidence study in Europe. Crit Care. 2009, 13: R80-PubMedPubMedCentral
64.
go back to reference Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH: Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2002, 122: 262-268.PubMed Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH: Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2002, 122: 262-268.PubMed
65.
go back to reference Kuti EL, Patel AA, Coleman CI: Impact of inappropriate antibiotic therapy on mortality in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia and blood stream infection: a meta-analysis. J Crit Care. 2008, 23: 91-100.PubMed Kuti EL, Patel AA, Coleman CI: Impact of inappropriate antibiotic therapy on mortality in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia and blood stream infection: a meta-analysis. J Crit Care. 2008, 23: 91-100.PubMed
66.
go back to reference Blot S: Limiting the attributable mortality of nosocomial infection and multidrug resistance in intensive care units. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008, 14 (1): 5-13.PubMed Blot S: Limiting the attributable mortality of nosocomial infection and multidrug resistance in intensive care units. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008, 14 (1): 5-13.PubMed
67.
go back to reference Bogaerts P, Hamels S, de Mendonca R, Huang TD, Roisin S, Remacle J, Markine-Goriaynoff N, de Longueville F, Pluster W, Denis O, Glupczynski Y: Analytical validation of a novel high multiplexing real-time PCR array for the identification of key pathogens causative of bacterial ventilator-associated pneumonia and their associated resistance genes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013, 68: 340-347.PubMed Bogaerts P, Hamels S, de Mendonca R, Huang TD, Roisin S, Remacle J, Markine-Goriaynoff N, de Longueville F, Pluster W, Denis O, Glupczynski Y: Analytical validation of a novel high multiplexing real-time PCR array for the identification of key pathogens causative of bacterial ventilator-associated pneumonia and their associated resistance genes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013, 68: 340-347.PubMed
68.
go back to reference Hogardt M, Trebesius K, Geiger AM, Hornef M, Rosenecker J, Heesemann J: Specific and rapid detection by fluorescent in situ hybridization of bacteria in clinical samples obtained from cystic fibrosis patients. J Clin Microbiol. 2000, 38: 818-825.PubMedPubMedCentral Hogardt M, Trebesius K, Geiger AM, Hornef M, Rosenecker J, Heesemann J: Specific and rapid detection by fluorescent in situ hybridization of bacteria in clinical samples obtained from cystic fibrosis patients. J Clin Microbiol. 2000, 38: 818-825.PubMedPubMedCentral
69.
go back to reference Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005, 171: 388-416. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005, 171: 388-416.
70.
go back to reference de Jaeger A, Litalien C, Lacroix J, Guertin MC, Infante-Rivard C: Protected specimen brush or bronchoalveolar lavage to diagnose bacterial nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated adults: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 1999, 27: 2548-2560.PubMed de Jaeger A, Litalien C, Lacroix J, Guertin MC, Infante-Rivard C: Protected specimen brush or bronchoalveolar lavage to diagnose bacterial nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated adults: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 1999, 27: 2548-2560.PubMed
71.
go back to reference Torres A, El-Ebiary M: Bronchoscopic BAL in the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2000, 117 (4 Suppl 2): 198S-202S.PubMed Torres A, El-Ebiary M: Bronchoscopic BAL in the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2000, 117 (4 Suppl 2): 198S-202S.PubMed
72.
go back to reference Berton DC, Kalil AC, Teixeira PJZ: Quantitative versus qualitative cultures of respiratory secretions for clinical outcomes in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, (10):CD006482. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD006482.pub4., Berton DC, Kalil AC, Teixeira PJZ: Quantitative versus qualitative cultures of respiratory secretions for clinical outcomes in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, (10):CD006482. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD006482.pub4.,
73.
go back to reference Baselski VS, El-Torky M, Coalson JJ, Griffin JP: The standardization of criteria for processing and interpreting laboratory specimens in patients with suspected ventilator- associated pneumonia. Chest. 1992, 102 (5 Suppl 1): 571S-579S.PubMed Baselski VS, El-Torky M, Coalson JJ, Griffin JP: The standardization of criteria for processing and interpreting laboratory specimens in patients with suspected ventilator- associated pneumonia. Chest. 1992, 102 (5 Suppl 1): 571S-579S.PubMed
74.
go back to reference Wunderink RG: Surrogate markers and microbiologic end points. Clin Infect Dis. 2010, 51 (Suppl 1): S126-S130.PubMed Wunderink RG: Surrogate markers and microbiologic end points. Clin Infect Dis. 2010, 51 (Suppl 1): S126-S130.PubMed
75.
go back to reference Georges H, Santre C, Leroy O, Roussel-Delvallez M, Caillaux M, Beuscart C, Guery B, Vandenbussche C, Beaucaire G: Reliability of quantitative cultures of protected specimen brush after freezing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996, 153: 855-857.PubMed Georges H, Santre C, Leroy O, Roussel-Delvallez M, Caillaux M, Beuscart C, Guery B, Vandenbussche C, Beaucaire G: Reliability of quantitative cultures of protected specimen brush after freezing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996, 153: 855-857.PubMed
76.
go back to reference de Lassence A, Joly-Guillou ML, Martin-Lefevre L, Le Miere E, Lasry S, Morelot C, Coste F, Dreyfuss D: Accuracy of delayed cultures of plugged telescoping catheter samples for diagnosing bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2001, 29: 1311-1317.PubMed de Lassence A, Joly-Guillou ML, Martin-Lefevre L, Le Miere E, Lasry S, Morelot C, Coste F, Dreyfuss D: Accuracy of delayed cultures of plugged telescoping catheter samples for diagnosing bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2001, 29: 1311-1317.PubMed
77.
go back to reference de Lassence A, Joly-Guillou ML, Salah A, Martin-Lefevre L, Hidri N, Ricard JD, Bouvry D, de Castro N, Dreyfuss D: Accuracy of delayed (24 hours) processing of bronchoalveolar lavage for diagnosing bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 680-685.PubMed de Lassence A, Joly-Guillou ML, Salah A, Martin-Lefevre L, Hidri N, Ricard JD, Bouvry D, de Castro N, Dreyfuss D: Accuracy of delayed (24 hours) processing of bronchoalveolar lavage for diagnosing bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2004, 32: 680-685.PubMed
78.
go back to reference Maillet JM, Fitoussi F, Penaud D, Dennewald G, Brodaty D: Concordance of antibiotic prophylaxis, direct Gram staining and protected brush specimen culture results for postoperative patients with suspected pneumonia. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2006, 23: 563-567.PubMed Maillet JM, Fitoussi F, Penaud D, Dennewald G, Brodaty D: Concordance of antibiotic prophylaxis, direct Gram staining and protected brush specimen culture results for postoperative patients with suspected pneumonia. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2006, 23: 563-567.PubMed
79.
go back to reference Davis KA, Eckert MJ, Reed RL, Esposito TJ, Santaniello JM, Poulakidas S, Luchette FA: Ventilator-associated pneumonia in injured patients: do you trust your Gram's stain?. J Trauma. 2005, 58: 462-466.PubMed Davis KA, Eckert MJ, Reed RL, Esposito TJ, Santaniello JM, Poulakidas S, Luchette FA: Ventilator-associated pneumonia in injured patients: do you trust your Gram's stain?. J Trauma. 2005, 58: 462-466.PubMed
80.
go back to reference Blot F, Raynard B, Chachaty E, Tancrede C, Antoun S, Nitenberg G: Value of gram stain examination of lower respiratory tract secretions for early diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000, 162: 1731-1737.PubMed Blot F, Raynard B, Chachaty E, Tancrede C, Antoun S, Nitenberg G: Value of gram stain examination of lower respiratory tract secretions for early diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000, 162: 1731-1737.PubMed
81.
go back to reference Croce MA, Fabian TC, Waddle-Smith L, Melton SM, Minard G, Kudsk KA, Pritchard FE: Utility of Gram's stain and efficacy of quantitative cultures for posttraumatic pneumonia: a prospective study. Ann Surg. 1998, 227: 743-751.PubMedPubMedCentral Croce MA, Fabian TC, Waddle-Smith L, Melton SM, Minard G, Kudsk KA, Pritchard FE: Utility of Gram's stain and efficacy of quantitative cultures for posttraumatic pneumonia: a prospective study. Ann Surg. 1998, 227: 743-751.PubMedPubMedCentral
82.
go back to reference Prekates A, Nanas S, Argyropoulou A, Margariti G, Kyprianou T, Papagalos E, Paniara O, Roussos C: The diagnostic value of gram stain of bronchoalveolar lavage samples in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis. 1998, 30: 43-47.PubMed Prekates A, Nanas S, Argyropoulou A, Margariti G, Kyprianou T, Papagalos E, Paniara O, Roussos C: The diagnostic value of gram stain of bronchoalveolar lavage samples in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis. 1998, 30: 43-47.PubMed
83.
go back to reference Marquette CH, Wallet F, Neviere R, Copin MC, Saulnier F, Drault JN, Mehdaoui H, Mathieu D, Ramon P: Diagnostic value of direct examination of the protected specimen brush in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 1994, 7: 105-113.PubMed Marquette CH, Wallet F, Neviere R, Copin MC, Saulnier F, Drault JN, Mehdaoui H, Mathieu D, Ramon P: Diagnostic value of direct examination of the protected specimen brush in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 1994, 7: 105-113.PubMed
84.
go back to reference dos Santos RP, Deutschendorf C, Nagel F, Konkewicz L, Lisboa T: Antimicrobial stewardship lessons: know when to say no to vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis. 2013, 56: 616-617.PubMed dos Santos RP, Deutschendorf C, Nagel F, Konkewicz L, Lisboa T: Antimicrobial stewardship lessons: know when to say no to vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis. 2013, 56: 616-617.PubMed
85.
go back to reference Torres M, Radice C, Sánchez C, Martín-Rabadán P, Muñoz P, Bouza E: [Performance of Gram stain in lower respiratory tract (LRT) samples in ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP): a prospective study]. (Abstract). In: XII Congress of the Spanish Society of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology. Valencia, Spain; 2006. Torres M, Radice C, Sánchez C, Martín-Rabadán P, Muñoz P, Bouza E: [Performance of Gram stain in lower respiratory tract (LRT) samples in ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP): a prospective study]. (Abstract). In: XII Congress of the Spanish Society of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology. Valencia, Spain; 2006.
86.
go back to reference Sirvent JM, Vidaur L, Gonzalez S, Castro P, de Batlle J, Castro A, Bonet A: Microscopic examination of intracellular organisms in protected bronchoalveolar mini-lavage fluid for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2003, 123: 518-523.PubMed Sirvent JM, Vidaur L, Gonzalez S, Castro P, de Batlle J, Castro A, Bonet A: Microscopic examination of intracellular organisms in protected bronchoalveolar mini-lavage fluid for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2003, 123: 518-523.PubMed
87.
go back to reference Timsit JF, Cheval C, Gachot B, Bruneel F, Wolff M, Carlet J, Regnier B: Usefulness of a strategy based on bronchoscopy with direct examination of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in the initial antibiotic therapy of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27: 640-647.PubMed Timsit JF, Cheval C, Gachot B, Bruneel F, Wolff M, Carlet J, Regnier B: Usefulness of a strategy based on bronchoscopy with direct examination of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in the initial antibiotic therapy of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27: 640-647.PubMed
88.
go back to reference Mentec H, May-Michelangeli L, Rabbat A, Varon E, Le Turdu F, Bleichner G: Blind and bronchoscopic sampling methods in suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. A multicentre prospective study. Intensive Care Med. 2004, 30: 1319-1326.PubMed Mentec H, May-Michelangeli L, Rabbat A, Varon E, Le Turdu F, Bleichner G: Blind and bronchoscopic sampling methods in suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. A multicentre prospective study. Intensive Care Med. 2004, 30: 1319-1326.PubMed
89.
go back to reference Masterton RG, Galloway A, French G, Street M, Armstrong J, Brown E, Cleverley J, Dilworth P, Fry C, Gascoigne AD, Knox A, Nathwani D, Spencer R, Wilcox M: Guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia in the UK: report of the working party on hospital-acquired pneumonia of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008, 62: 5-34.PubMed Masterton RG, Galloway A, French G, Street M, Armstrong J, Brown E, Cleverley J, Dilworth P, Fry C, Gascoigne AD, Knox A, Nathwani D, Spencer R, Wilcox M: Guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia in the UK: report of the working party on hospital-acquired pneumonia of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008, 62: 5-34.PubMed
90.
go back to reference Linssen CF, Jacobs JA, Schouten JS, van Mook WN, Ramsay G, Drent M: Influence of antibiotic therapy on the cytological diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2008, 34: 865-872.PubMed Linssen CF, Jacobs JA, Schouten JS, van Mook WN, Ramsay G, Drent M: Influence of antibiotic therapy on the cytological diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2008, 34: 865-872.PubMed
91.
go back to reference Rello J, Chastre J, Cornaglia G, Masterton R: A European care bundle for management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Crit Care. 2011, 26: 3-10.PubMed Rello J, Chastre J, Cornaglia G, Masterton R: A European care bundle for management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Crit Care. 2011, 26: 3-10.PubMed
92.
go back to reference Coffin SE, Klompas M, Classen D, Arias KM, Podgorny K, Anderson DJ, Burstin H, Calfee DP, Dubberke ER, Fraser V, Gerding DN, Griffin FA, Gross P, Kaye KS, Lo E, Marschall J, Mermel LA, Nicolle L, Pegues DA, Perl TM, Saint S, Salgado CD, Weinstein RA, Wise R, Yokoe DS: Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008, 29 (Suppl 1): S31-S40.PubMed Coffin SE, Klompas M, Classen D, Arias KM, Podgorny K, Anderson DJ, Burstin H, Calfee DP, Dubberke ER, Fraser V, Gerding DN, Griffin FA, Gross P, Kaye KS, Lo E, Marschall J, Mermel LA, Nicolle L, Pegues DA, Perl TM, Saint S, Salgado CD, Weinstein RA, Wise R, Yokoe DS: Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008, 29 (Suppl 1): S31-S40.PubMed
93.
go back to reference Vidaur L, Planas K, Sierra R, Dimopoulos G, Ramirez A, Lisboa T, Rello J: Ventilator-associated pneumonia: impact of organisms on clinical resolution and medical resources utilization. Chest. 2008, 133: 625-632.PubMed Vidaur L, Planas K, Sierra R, Dimopoulos G, Ramirez A, Lisboa T, Rello J: Ventilator-associated pneumonia: impact of organisms on clinical resolution and medical resources utilization. Chest. 2008, 133: 625-632.PubMed
94.
go back to reference Bahrani-Mougeot FK, Paster BJ, Coleman S, Barbuto S, Brennan MT, Noll J, Kennedy T, Fox PC, Lockhart PB: Molecular analysis of oral and respiratory bacterial species associated with ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol. 2007, 45: 1588-1593.PubMedPubMedCentral Bahrani-Mougeot FK, Paster BJ, Coleman S, Barbuto S, Brennan MT, Noll J, Kennedy T, Fox PC, Lockhart PB: Molecular analysis of oral and respiratory bacterial species associated with ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol. 2007, 45: 1588-1593.PubMedPubMedCentral
95.
go back to reference Cercenado E, Marin M, Burillo A, Martin-Rabadan P, Rivera M, Bouza E: Rapid detection of Staphylococcus aureus in lower respiratory tract secretions from patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia: evaluation of the Cepheid Xpert MRSA/SA SSTI assay. J Clin Microbiol. 2012, 50: 4095-4097.PubMedPubMedCentral Cercenado E, Marin M, Burillo A, Martin-Rabadan P, Rivera M, Bouza E: Rapid detection of Staphylococcus aureus in lower respiratory tract secretions from patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia: evaluation of the Cepheid Xpert MRSA/SA SSTI assay. J Clin Microbiol. 2012, 50: 4095-4097.PubMedPubMedCentral
96.
go back to reference Leone M, Malavieille F, Papazian L, Meyssignac B, Cassir N, Textoris J, Antonini F, La Scola B, Martin C, Allaouchiche B, Hraiech S: Routine use of Staphylococcus aureus rapid diagnostic test in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care. 2013, 17: R170-PubMedPubMedCentral Leone M, Malavieille F, Papazian L, Meyssignac B, Cassir N, Textoris J, Antonini F, La Scola B, Martin C, Allaouchiche B, Hraiech S: Routine use of Staphylococcus aureus rapid diagnostic test in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care. 2013, 17: R170-PubMedPubMedCentral
97.
go back to reference Oh AC, Lee JK, Lee HN, Hong YJ, Chang YH, Hong SI, Kim DH: Clinical utility of the Xpert MRSA assay for early detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . Mol Med Rep. 2013, 7: 11-15.PubMed Oh AC, Lee JK, Lee HN, Hong YJ, Chang YH, Hong SI, Kim DH: Clinical utility of the Xpert MRSA assay for early detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . Mol Med Rep. 2013, 7: 11-15.PubMed
98.
go back to reference Tenover FC: Developing molecular amplification methods for rapid diagnosis of respiratory tract infections caused by bacterial pathogens. Clin Infect Dis. 2011, 52 (Suppl 4): S338-S345.PubMed Tenover FC: Developing molecular amplification methods for rapid diagnosis of respiratory tract infections caused by bacterial pathogens. Clin Infect Dis. 2011, 52 (Suppl 4): S338-S345.PubMed
99.
go back to reference Bolmström A, Arvidson S, Ericsson M, Karlsson A: A novel technique for direct quantification of antimicrobial susceptibility of microorganisms. In 28th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; Los Angeles, (US); 1988. Bolmström A, Arvidson S, Ericsson M, Karlsson A: A novel technique for direct quantification of antimicrobial susceptibility of microorganisms. In 28th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; Los Angeles, (US); 1988.
100.
go back to reference Cercenado E, Rico MV, Vicente T, Bouza E: Rapid Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing in Patients with Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: Direct E-Test on Respiratory Samples. (Abstract: D-51). In 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy: 2002; San Diego (US); 2002. Cercenado E, Rico MV, Vicente T, Bouza E: Rapid Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing in Patients with Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: Direct E-Test on Respiratory Samples. (Abstract: D-51). In 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy: 2002; San Diego (US); 2002.
101.
go back to reference Bouza E, Torres MV, Radice C, Cercenado E, de Diego R, Sanchez-Carrillo C, Munoz P: Direct E-test (AB Biodisk) of respiratory samples improves antimicrobial use in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 44 (3): 382-387.PubMed Bouza E, Torres MV, Radice C, Cercenado E, de Diego R, Sanchez-Carrillo C, Munoz P: Direct E-test (AB Biodisk) of respiratory samples improves antimicrobial use in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 44 (3): 382-387.PubMed
102.
go back to reference Muñoz P, Cercenado E, Giannella M, Bouza E: Rapid detection of microorganism resistance in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Pulm Med. 2009, 16 (6): 302-308. Muñoz P, Cercenado E, Giannella M, Bouza E: Rapid detection of microorganism resistance in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Pulm Med. 2009, 16 (6): 302-308.
103.
go back to reference Cercenado E, Marin M, Insa R, Martin-Rabadan P, Rivera M, Bouza E: Evaluation of direct E-test on lower respiratory tract samples using a chromogenic agar medium: a rapid procedure for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. (Abstract P822). 19th Congress of the ESCMID: 2009. 2009, Helsinki, Finland Cercenado E, Marin M, Insa R, Martin-Rabadan P, Rivera M, Bouza E: Evaluation of direct E-test on lower respiratory tract samples using a chromogenic agar medium: a rapid procedure for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. (Abstract P822). 19th Congress of the ESCMID: 2009. 2009, Helsinki, Finland
104.
go back to reference Lisboa T, Seligman R, Diaz E, Rodriguez A, Teixeira PJ, Rello J: C-reactive protein correlates with bacterial load and appropriate antibiotic therapy in suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2008, 36: 166-171.PubMed Lisboa T, Seligman R, Diaz E, Rodriguez A, Teixeira PJ, Rello J: C-reactive protein correlates with bacterial load and appropriate antibiotic therapy in suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2008, 36: 166-171.PubMed
105.
go back to reference Jung B, Embriaco N, Roux F, Forel JM, Demory D, Allardet-Servent J, Jaber S, La Scola B, Papazian L: Microbiogical data, but not procalcitonin improve the accuracy of the clinical pulmonary infection score. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36: 790-798.PubMed Jung B, Embriaco N, Roux F, Forel JM, Demory D, Allardet-Servent J, Jaber S, La Scola B, Papazian L: Microbiogical data, but not procalcitonin improve the accuracy of the clinical pulmonary infection score. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36: 790-798.PubMed
106.
go back to reference Luyt CE, Guerin V, Combes A, Trouillet JL, Ayed SB, Bernard M, Gibert C, Chastre J: Procalcitonin kinetics as a prognostic marker of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005, 171: 48-53.PubMed Luyt CE, Guerin V, Combes A, Trouillet JL, Ayed SB, Bernard M, Gibert C, Chastre J: Procalcitonin kinetics as a prognostic marker of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005, 171: 48-53.PubMed
107.
go back to reference Seligman R, Meisner M, Lisboa TC, Hertz FT, Filippin TB, Fachel JM, Teixeira PJ: Decreases in procalcitonin and C-reactive protein are strong predictors of survival in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care. 2006, 10: R125-PubMedPubMedCentral Seligman R, Meisner M, Lisboa TC, Hertz FT, Filippin TB, Fachel JM, Teixeira PJ: Decreases in procalcitonin and C-reactive protein are strong predictors of survival in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care. 2006, 10: R125-PubMedPubMedCentral
108.
go back to reference Su LX, Meng K, Zhang X, Wang HJ, Yan P, Jia YH, Feng D, Xie LX: Diagnosing ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients with sepsis. Am J Crit Care. 2012, 21: e110-e119.PubMed Su LX, Meng K, Zhang X, Wang HJ, Yan P, Jia YH, Feng D, Xie LX: Diagnosing ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients with sepsis. Am J Crit Care. 2012, 21: e110-e119.PubMed
109.
go back to reference Nobre V, Harbarth S, Graf JD, Rohner P, Pugin J: Use of procalcitonin to shorten antibiotic treatment duration in septic patients: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008, 177: 498-505.PubMed Nobre V, Harbarth S, Graf JD, Rohner P, Pugin J: Use of procalcitonin to shorten antibiotic treatment duration in septic patients: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008, 177: 498-505.PubMed
110.
go back to reference Linssen CF, Bekers O, Drent M, Jacobs JA: C-reactive protein and procalcitonin concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid as a predictor of ventilator- associated pneumonia. Ann Clin Biochem. 2008, 45: 293-298.PubMed Linssen CF, Bekers O, Drent M, Jacobs JA: C-reactive protein and procalcitonin concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid as a predictor of ventilator- associated pneumonia. Ann Clin Biochem. 2008, 45: 293-298.PubMed
111.
go back to reference Hillas G, Vassilakopoulos T, Plantza P, Rasidakis A, Bakakos P: C-reactive protein and procalcitonin as predictors of survival and septic shock in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2010, 35: 805-811.PubMed Hillas G, Vassilakopoulos T, Plantza P, Rasidakis A, Bakakos P: C-reactive protein and procalcitonin as predictors of survival and septic shock in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2010, 35: 805-811.PubMed
112.
go back to reference Chastre J, Luyt CE, Trouillet JL, Combes A: New diagnostic and prognostic markers of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2006, 12: 446-451.PubMed Chastre J, Luyt CE, Trouillet JL, Combes A: New diagnostic and prognostic markers of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2006, 12: 446-451.PubMed
113.
go back to reference Conway Morris A, Kefala K, Wilkinson TS, Moncayo-Nieto OL, Dhaliwal K, Farrell L, Walsh TS, Mackenzie SJ, Swann DG, Andrews PJ, Anderson N, Govan JR, Laurenson IF, Reid H, Davidson DJ, Haslett C, Sallenave JM, Simpson AJ: Diagnostic importance of pulmonary interleukin-1beta and interleukin-8 in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Thorax. 2010, 65: 201-207.PubMedPubMedCentral Conway Morris A, Kefala K, Wilkinson TS, Moncayo-Nieto OL, Dhaliwal K, Farrell L, Walsh TS, Mackenzie SJ, Swann DG, Andrews PJ, Anderson N, Govan JR, Laurenson IF, Reid H, Davidson DJ, Haslett C, Sallenave JM, Simpson AJ: Diagnostic importance of pulmonary interleukin-1beta and interleukin-8 in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Thorax. 2010, 65: 201-207.PubMedPubMedCentral
114.
go back to reference Luyt CE, Combes A, Trouillet JL, Chastre J: Value of the serum procalcitonin level to guide antimicrobial therapy for patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2011, 32: 181-187.PubMed Luyt CE, Combes A, Trouillet JL, Chastre J: Value of the serum procalcitonin level to guide antimicrobial therapy for patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2011, 32: 181-187.PubMed
115.
go back to reference Pugh R, Grant C, Cooke RP, Dempsey G: Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011:CD007577. Pugh R, Grant C, Cooke RP, Dempsey G: Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011:CD007577.
116.
go back to reference Goulden BE: Assessment of the usefulness of the examination of a gram smear of fresh uncentrifuged urine in the determination of significant bacteriuria in dogs. N Z Vet J. 1968, 16: 1-2.PubMed Goulden BE: Assessment of the usefulness of the examination of a gram smear of fresh uncentrifuged urine in the determination of significant bacteriuria in dogs. N Z Vet J. 1968, 16: 1-2.PubMed
117.
go back to reference Jorgensen JH, Jones PM: Comparative evaluation of the Limulus assay and the direct Gram stain for detection of significant bacteriuria. Am J Clin Pathol. 1975, 63: 142-148.PubMed Jorgensen JH, Jones PM: Comparative evaluation of the Limulus assay and the direct Gram stain for detection of significant bacteriuria. Am J Clin Pathol. 1975, 63: 142-148.PubMed
118.
go back to reference Robins DG, Rogers KB, White RH, Osman MS: Urine microscopy as an aid to detection of bacteriuria. Lancet. 1975, 1: 476-478.PubMed Robins DG, Rogers KB, White RH, Osman MS: Urine microscopy as an aid to detection of bacteriuria. Lancet. 1975, 1: 476-478.PubMed
119.
go back to reference Crout FV, Tilton RC: Rapid screening of urine for significant bacteriuria by Gram stain, acridine orange stain, and the Autobac MTS system. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1984, 2: 179-186.PubMed Crout FV, Tilton RC: Rapid screening of urine for significant bacteriuria by Gram stain, acridine orange stain, and the Autobac MTS system. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1984, 2: 179-186.PubMed
120.
go back to reference Tilton RE, Tilton RC: Automated direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing of microscopically screened urine cultures. J Clin Microbiol. 1980, 11: 157-161.PubMedPubMedCentral Tilton RE, Tilton RC: Automated direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing of microscopically screened urine cultures. J Clin Microbiol. 1980, 11: 157-161.PubMedPubMedCentral
121.
go back to reference Wilson ML, Gaido L: Laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infections in adult patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004, 38: 1150-1158.PubMed Wilson ML, Gaido L: Laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infections in adult patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004, 38: 1150-1158.PubMed
122.
go back to reference Wiwanitkit V, Udomsantisuk N, Boonchalermvichian C: Diagnostic value and cost utility analysis for urine Gram stain and urine microscopic examination as screening tests for urinary tract infection. Urol Res. 2005, 33: 220-222.PubMed Wiwanitkit V, Udomsantisuk N, Boonchalermvichian C: Diagnostic value and cost utility analysis for urine Gram stain and urine microscopic examination as screening tests for urinary tract infection. Urol Res. 2005, 33: 220-222.PubMed
123.
go back to reference Williams GJ, Macaskill P, Chan SF, Turner RM, Hodson E, Craig JC: Absolute and relative accuracy of rapid urine tests for urinary tract infection in children: a meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010, 10: 240-250.PubMed Williams GJ, Macaskill P, Chan SF, Turner RM, Hodson E, Craig JC: Absolute and relative accuracy of rapid urine tests for urinary tract infection in children: a meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010, 10: 240-250.PubMed
124.
go back to reference Lewis JF, Alexander J: Microscopy of stained urine smears to determine the need for quantitative culture. J Clin Microbiol. 1976, 4: 372-374.PubMedPubMedCentral Lewis JF, Alexander J: Microscopy of stained urine smears to determine the need for quantitative culture. J Clin Microbiol. 1976, 4: 372-374.PubMedPubMedCentral
125.
go back to reference La Scola B, Raoult D: Direct identification of bacteria in positive blood culture bottles by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry. PLoS One. 2009, 4: e8041-PubMedPubMedCentral La Scola B, Raoult D: Direct identification of bacteria in positive blood culture bottles by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry. PLoS One. 2009, 4: e8041-PubMedPubMedCentral
126.
go back to reference Ferroni A, Suarez S, Beretti JL, Dauphin B, Bille E, Meyer J, Bougnoux ME, Alanio A, Berche P, Nassif X: Real-time identification of bacteria and Candida species in positive blood culture broths by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol. 2010, 48: 1542-1548.PubMedPubMedCentral Ferroni A, Suarez S, Beretti JL, Dauphin B, Bille E, Meyer J, Bougnoux ME, Alanio A, Berche P, Nassif X: Real-time identification of bacteria and Candida species in positive blood culture broths by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol. 2010, 48: 1542-1548.PubMedPubMedCentral
127.
go back to reference Ferreira L, Sanchez-Juanes F, Gonzalez-Avila M, Cembrero-Fucinos D, Herrero-Hernandez A, Gonzalez-Buitrago JM, Munoz-Bellido JL: Direct identification of urinary tract pathogens from urine samples by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol. 2010, 48: 2110-2115.PubMedPubMedCentral Ferreira L, Sanchez-Juanes F, Gonzalez-Avila M, Cembrero-Fucinos D, Herrero-Hernandez A, Gonzalez-Buitrago JM, Munoz-Bellido JL: Direct identification of urinary tract pathogens from urine samples by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol. 2010, 48: 2110-2115.PubMedPubMedCentral
128.
go back to reference Wang XH, Zhang G, Fan YY, Yang X, Sui WJ, Lu XX: Direct identification of bacteria causing urinary tract infections by combining matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry with UF-1000i urine flow cytometry. J Microbiol Methods. 2013, 92: 231-235.PubMed Wang XH, Zhang G, Fan YY, Yang X, Sui WJ, Lu XX: Direct identification of bacteria causing urinary tract infections by combining matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry with UF-1000i urine flow cytometry. J Microbiol Methods. 2013, 92: 231-235.PubMed
129.
go back to reference Burillo A, Rodriguez-Sanchez B, Ramiro A, Cercenado E, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Bouza E: Gram-stain plus MALDI-TOF MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry) for a rapid diagnosis of urinary tract infection. PLoS One. 2014, 9: e86915-PubMedPubMedCentral Burillo A, Rodriguez-Sanchez B, Ramiro A, Cercenado E, Rodriguez-Creixems M, Bouza E: Gram-stain plus MALDI-TOF MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry) for a rapid diagnosis of urinary tract infection. PLoS One. 2014, 9: e86915-PubMedPubMedCentral
130.
go back to reference Oakes AR, Badger R, Grove DI: Comparison of direct and standardized testing of infected urine for antimicrobial susceptibilities by disk diffusion. J Clin Microbiol. 1994, 32: 40-45.PubMedPubMedCentral Oakes AR, Badger R, Grove DI: Comparison of direct and standardized testing of infected urine for antimicrobial susceptibilities by disk diffusion. J Clin Microbiol. 1994, 32: 40-45.PubMedPubMedCentral
131.
go back to reference Kallenius G, Dornbusch K, Hallander HO, Jakobsson K: Comparison of direct and standardized antibiotic susceptibility testing in bacteriuria. Chemother. 1981, 27: 99-105. Kallenius G, Dornbusch K, Hallander HO, Jakobsson K: Comparison of direct and standardized antibiotic susceptibility testing in bacteriuria. Chemother. 1981, 27: 99-105.
132.
go back to reference Dupeyron CM, Guillemin GA, Leluan GJ: Rapid diagnosis of gram negative urinary infections: identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing in 24 hours. J Clin Pathol. 1986, 39: 208-211.PubMedPubMedCentral Dupeyron CM, Guillemin GA, Leluan GJ: Rapid diagnosis of gram negative urinary infections: identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing in 24 hours. J Clin Pathol. 1986, 39: 208-211.PubMedPubMedCentral
133.
go back to reference Johnson JR, Tiu FS, Stamm WE: Direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing for acute urinary tract infections in women. J Clin Microbiol. 1995, 33: 2316-2323.PubMedPubMedCentral Johnson JR, Tiu FS, Stamm WE: Direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing for acute urinary tract infections in women. J Clin Microbiol. 1995, 33: 2316-2323.PubMedPubMedCentral
134.
go back to reference Gillenwater JY, Clark MM: Tentative direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing in urine. J Urol. 1996, 156: 149-153.PubMed Gillenwater JY, Clark MM: Tentative direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing in urine. J Urol. 1996, 156: 149-153.PubMed
135.
go back to reference Bronnestam R: Direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing in bacteriuria. APMIS. 1999, 107 (4): 437-444.PubMed Bronnestam R: Direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing in bacteriuria. APMIS. 1999, 107 (4): 437-444.PubMed
136.
go back to reference Breteler KB, Rentenaar RJ, Verkaart G, Sturm PD: Performance and clinical significance of direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing on urine from hospitalized patients. Scand J Infect Dis. 2011, 43: 771-776.PubMed Breteler KB, Rentenaar RJ, Verkaart G, Sturm PD: Performance and clinical significance of direct antimicrobial susceptibility testing on urine from hospitalized patients. Scand J Infect Dis. 2011, 43: 771-776.PubMed
137.
go back to reference Baron EJ, Miller JM, Weinstein MP, Richter SS, Gilligan PH, Thomson RB, Bourbeau P, Carroll KC, Kehl SC, Dunne WM, Robinson-Dunn B, Schwartzman JD, Chapin KC, Snyder JW, Forbes BA, Patel R, Rosenblatt JE, Pritt BS: A guide to utilization of the microbiology laboratory for diagnosis of infectious diseases: 2013 recommendations by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the American Society for Microbiology (ASM). Clin Infect Dis. 2013, 57: e22-e121.PubMedPubMedCentral Baron EJ, Miller JM, Weinstein MP, Richter SS, Gilligan PH, Thomson RB, Bourbeau P, Carroll KC, Kehl SC, Dunne WM, Robinson-Dunn B, Schwartzman JD, Chapin KC, Snyder JW, Forbes BA, Patel R, Rosenblatt JE, Pritt BS: A guide to utilization of the microbiology laboratory for diagnosis of infectious diseases: 2013 recommendations by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the American Society for Microbiology (ASM). Clin Infect Dis. 2013, 57: e22-e121.PubMedPubMedCentral
138.
go back to reference Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Everett ED, Dellinger P, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan EL, Montoya JG, Wade JC: Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2005, 41: 1373-1406.PubMed Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Everett ED, Dellinger P, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan EL, Montoya JG, Wade JC: Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2005, 41: 1373-1406.PubMed
139.
go back to reference Wolk DM, Struelens MJ, Pancholi P, Davis T, Della-Latta P, Fuller D, Picton E, Dickenson R, Denis O, Johnson D, Chapin K: Rapid detection of Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in wound specimens and blood cultures: multicenter preclinical evaluation of the Cepheid Xpert MRSA/SA skin and soft tissue and blood culture assays. J Clin Microbiol. 2009, 47: 823-826.PubMedPubMedCentral Wolk DM, Struelens MJ, Pancholi P, Davis T, Della-Latta P, Fuller D, Picton E, Dickenson R, Denis O, Johnson D, Chapin K: Rapid detection of Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in wound specimens and blood cultures: multicenter preclinical evaluation of the Cepheid Xpert MRSA/SA skin and soft tissue and blood culture assays. J Clin Microbiol. 2009, 47: 823-826.PubMedPubMedCentral
140.
go back to reference Dubouix-Bourandy A, de Ladoucette A, Pietri V, Mehdi N, Benzaquen D, Guinand R, Gandois JM: Direct detection of Staphylococcus osteoarticular infections by use of Xpert MRSA/SA SSTI real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2011, 49: 4225-4230.PubMedPubMedCentral Dubouix-Bourandy A, de Ladoucette A, Pietri V, Mehdi N, Benzaquen D, Guinand R, Gandois JM: Direct detection of Staphylococcus osteoarticular infections by use of Xpert MRSA/SA SSTI real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2011, 49: 4225-4230.PubMedPubMedCentral
141.
go back to reference Titecat M, Loiez C, Senneville E, Wallet F, Dezeque H, Legout L, Migaud H, Courcol RJ: Evaluation of rapid mecA gene detection versus standard culture in staphylococcal chronic prosthetic joint infections. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 73: 318-321.PubMed Titecat M, Loiez C, Senneville E, Wallet F, Dezeque H, Legout L, Migaud H, Courcol RJ: Evaluation of rapid mecA gene detection versus standard culture in staphylococcal chronic prosthetic joint infections. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012, 73: 318-321.PubMed
142.
go back to reference Petts DN, Lane A, Kennedy P, Hadfield SG, McIllmurray MB: Direct detection of groups A, C and G streptococci in clinical specimens by a trivalent colour test. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1988, 7: 34-39.PubMed Petts DN, Lane A, Kennedy P, Hadfield SG, McIllmurray MB: Direct detection of groups A, C and G streptococci in clinical specimens by a trivalent colour test. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1988, 7: 34-39.PubMed
143.
go back to reference de Quir's JCL B, Moreno S, Muñoz P, Rodríguez-Créixems M, Catalán P, Bouza E: Antigen detection in the rapid diagnosis of severe extrapharyngeal infections caused by group A streptococcus. Infect Dis Clin Pract. 1992, 1: 372-376. de Quir's JCL B, Moreno S, Muñoz P, Rodríguez-Créixems M, Catalán P, Bouza E: Antigen detection in the rapid diagnosis of severe extrapharyngeal infections caused by group A streptococcus. Infect Dis Clin Pract. 1992, 1: 372-376.
144.
go back to reference Garcia-Lechuz Moya JM: Clinical microbiological case: a Nicaraguan woman with skin lesions on the left elbow and foot. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001, 7: 84-87.PubMed Garcia-Lechuz Moya JM: Clinical microbiological case: a Nicaraguan woman with skin lesions on the left elbow and foot. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001, 7: 84-87.PubMed
145.
go back to reference Sinclair A, Xie X, Teltscher M, Dendukuri N: Systematic review and meta-analysis of a urine-based pneumococcal antigen test for diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae . J Clin Microbiol. 2013, 51 (7): 2303-2310.PubMedPubMedCentral Sinclair A, Xie X, Teltscher M, Dendukuri N: Systematic review and meta-analysis of a urine-based pneumococcal antigen test for diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae . J Clin Microbiol. 2013, 51 (7): 2303-2310.PubMedPubMedCentral
146.
go back to reference de Ory F, Minguito T: Comparison of five commercial assays for the detection of Legionella pneumophila antigens in urine. Enferm Infec Microbiol Clin. 2009, 27 (2): 81-84. de Ory F, Minguito T: Comparison of five commercial assays for the detection of Legionella pneumophila antigens in urine. Enferm Infec Microbiol Clin. 2009, 27 (2): 81-84.
147.
go back to reference Emmadi R, Boonyaratanakornkit JB, Selvarangan R, Shyamala V, Zimmer BL, Williams L, Bryant B, Schutzbank T, Schoonmaker MM, Amos Wilson JA, Hall L, Pancholi P, Bernard K: Molecular methods and platforms for infectious diseases testing a review of FDA-approved and cleared assays. J Mol Diagn. 2011, 13 (6): 583-604.PubMedPubMedCentral Emmadi R, Boonyaratanakornkit JB, Selvarangan R, Shyamala V, Zimmer BL, Williams L, Bryant B, Schutzbank T, Schoonmaker MM, Amos Wilson JA, Hall L, Pancholi P, Bernard K: Molecular methods and platforms for infectious diseases testing a review of FDA-approved and cleared assays. J Mol Diagn. 2011, 13 (6): 583-604.PubMedPubMedCentral
148.
go back to reference Tenover FC: Potential impact of rapid diagnostic tests on improving antimicrobial use. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010, 1213: 70-80.PubMed Tenover FC: Potential impact of rapid diagnostic tests on improving antimicrobial use. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010, 1213: 70-80.PubMed
Metadata
Title
Use of rapid diagnostic techniques in ICU patients with infections
Publication date
01-12-2014
Published in
BMC Infectious Diseases / Issue 1/2014
Electronic ISSN: 1471-2334
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-014-0593-1

Other articles of this Issue 1/2014

BMC Infectious Diseases 1/2014 Go to the issue