Skip to main content
Top
Published in: International Journal of Emergency Medicine 1/2011

Open Access 01-12-2011 | Original Research

Impact of additional module training on the level of basic life support knowledge of first year students at the University of Maribor

Authors: Damjan Lešnik, Bojan Lešnik, Jerneja Golub, Miljenko Križmarić, Štefan Mally, Štefek Grmec

Published in: International Journal of Emergency Medicine | Issue 1/2011

Login to get access

Abstract

Aim

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of additional (two versus one session) basic life support (BLS) training of university students on knowledge and attitude concerning the performance of cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

Methods

A total of 439 students in three separate groups were tested: those with no prior BLS training; BLS training in high school (part of the driver's education course); and BLS training in high school (in the driver's education course) and additional BLS training at the university.

Results

Our study showed the best results of BLS education in a group of university students who took an additional BLS module approximately half a year after the driver's education BLS course. In our study we observed equal levels of knowledge between the group with BLS training in high school and the group without any formal BLS education. The questionnaire revealed a disappointing level of knowledge about BLS in both groups.

Conclusion

Additional basic life support training (two BLS training sessions: high school and university) improves retention of knowledge and attitudes concerning performing CPR in first year university students.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Stratton SJ, Rashi P: Los Angeles County Prehospital Care Coordinators. Out-of-hospital unwitnessed cardiopulmonray collapse and no-bystander CPR: a practical addition to resuscitation termination guidelines. J Emerg Med 2008, 35: 175–9. 10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.04.007CrossRefPubMed Stratton SJ, Rashi P: Los Angeles County Prehospital Care Coordinators. Out-of-hospital unwitnessed cardiopulmonray collapse and no-bystander CPR: a practical addition to resuscitation termination guidelines. J Emerg Med 2008, 35: 175–9. 10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.04.007CrossRefPubMed
2.
go back to reference Vadeboncoeur T, Bobrow BJ, Clark L, Kern KB, Sanders AB, Berg RA, Ewy GA: The Save Hearts in Arizona Registry and Education (SHARE) program: who is performing CPR and where are they doing it? Resuscitation 2007, 75: 68–75. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.02.015CrossRefPubMed Vadeboncoeur T, Bobrow BJ, Clark L, Kern KB, Sanders AB, Berg RA, Ewy GA: The Save Hearts in Arizona Registry and Education (SHARE) program: who is performing CPR and where are they doing it? Resuscitation 2007, 75: 68–75. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.02.015CrossRefPubMed
3.
go back to reference Herlitz J, Svensson L, Holmberg S, Ängquist KA, Young M: Efficacy of bystander CPR: intervention by lay people and by health care professionals. Resuscitation 2005, 66: 291–5. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.04.003CrossRefPubMed Herlitz J, Svensson L, Holmberg S, Ängquist KA, Young M: Efficacy of bystander CPR: intervention by lay people and by health care professionals. Resuscitation 2005, 66: 291–5. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.04.003CrossRefPubMed
4.
go back to reference Nordberg P, Hollenberg J, Herlitz J, Rosenqvist M, Svensson L: Aspects on the increase in bystander CPR in Sweden and its association with outcome. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 329–33. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.11.013CrossRefPubMed Nordberg P, Hollenberg J, Herlitz J, Rosenqvist M, Svensson L: Aspects on the increase in bystander CPR in Sweden and its association with outcome. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 329–33. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.11.013CrossRefPubMed
5.
go back to reference Hollenberg J, Herlitz J, Lindqvist J, Riva G, Bohm K, Rosenqvist M, Svensson L: Improved survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is associated with an increase in proportion of emergency crew-witnessed cases and bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation 2008, 1184: 389–96. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.734137CrossRef Hollenberg J, Herlitz J, Lindqvist J, Riva G, Bohm K, Rosenqvist M, Svensson L: Improved survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is associated with an increase in proportion of emergency crew-witnessed cases and bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation 2008, 1184: 389–96. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.734137CrossRef
6.
go back to reference Swor RA, Jackson RE, Compton S, Domeier R, Zalenski R, Honeycutt L, Kuhn GJ, Frederiksen S, Pascual RG: Cardiac arrest in private locations: different strategies are needed to improve outcome. Resuscitation 2003, 58: 171–6. 10.1016/S0300-9572(03)00118-7CrossRefPubMed Swor RA, Jackson RE, Compton S, Domeier R, Zalenski R, Honeycutt L, Kuhn GJ, Frederiksen S, Pascual RG: Cardiac arrest in private locations: different strategies are needed to improve outcome. Resuscitation 2003, 58: 171–6. 10.1016/S0300-9572(03)00118-7CrossRefPubMed
7.
go back to reference Swor RA, Fahoome G, Compton S: Potential impact of a targeted cardiopulmonary resuscitation program for older adults on survival from private residence cardiac arrest. Acad Emerg Med 2005, 12: 7–12. 10.1111/j.1553-2712.2005.tb01469.xCrossRefPubMed Swor RA, Fahoome G, Compton S: Potential impact of a targeted cardiopulmonary resuscitation program for older adults on survival from private residence cardiac arrest. Acad Emerg Med 2005, 12: 7–12. 10.1111/j.1553-2712.2005.tb01469.xCrossRefPubMed
8.
go back to reference Shiraki T, Osawa K, Suzuki H, Yoshida M, Takahashi N, Takeuchi K, Tanakaya M, Kohno K, Saito D: Incidence and outcomes of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in the eastern part of Yamaguchi prefecture. Int Heart J 2009, 54: 489–500. 10.1536/ihj.50.489CrossRef Shiraki T, Osawa K, Suzuki H, Yoshida M, Takahashi N, Takeuchi K, Tanakaya M, Kohno K, Saito D: Incidence and outcomes of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in the eastern part of Yamaguchi prefecture. Int Heart J 2009, 54: 489–500. 10.1536/ihj.50.489CrossRef
9.
go back to reference Iwami T, Kawamura T, Hiraide A, Berg RA, Hayashi Y, Nishiuchi T, Kajino K, Yonemoto N, Yukioka H, Sugimoto H, Kakuchi H, Sase K, Yokoyama H, Nonogi H: Effectiveness of bystander-initiated cardiac-only resuscitation for patients with out-of- hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation 2007, 116: 2900–7. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.723411CrossRefPubMed Iwami T, Kawamura T, Hiraide A, Berg RA, Hayashi Y, Nishiuchi T, Kajino K, Yonemoto N, Yukioka H, Sugimoto H, Kakuchi H, Sase K, Yokoyama H, Nonogi H: Effectiveness of bystander-initiated cardiac-only resuscitation for patients with out-of- hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation 2007, 116: 2900–7. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.723411CrossRefPubMed
10.
go back to reference Abe T, Tokuda Y, Ishimatu S, SOS-KANTO study group: Predictors for good cerebral performance among adult survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 431–6. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.12.010CrossRefPubMed Abe T, Tokuda Y, Ishimatu S, SOS-KANTO study group: Predictors for good cerebral performance among adult survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 431–6. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.12.010CrossRefPubMed
11.
go back to reference Wiese CH, Wilke H, Bahr J, Graf BM: Practical examination of bystanders performing Basic Life Support in Germany: a prospective manikin study. BMC Emerg Med 2008, 8: 14. 10.1186/1471-227X-8-14PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Wiese CH, Wilke H, Bahr J, Graf BM: Practical examination of bystanders performing Basic Life Support in Germany: a prospective manikin study. BMC Emerg Med 2008, 8: 14. 10.1186/1471-227X-8-14PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
12.
go back to reference Parnell MM, Larsen PD: Poor quality teaching in lay person CPR courses. Resuscitation 2007, 73: 271–8. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.09.008CrossRefPubMed Parnell MM, Larsen PD: Poor quality teaching in lay person CPR courses. Resuscitation 2007, 73: 271–8. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.09.008CrossRefPubMed
13.
go back to reference Reder S, Quan L: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in Washington state public high schools. Resuscitation 2003, 56: 283–8. 10.1016/S0300-9572(02)00376-3CrossRefPubMed Reder S, Quan L: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in Washington state public high schools. Resuscitation 2003, 56: 283–8. 10.1016/S0300-9572(02)00376-3CrossRefPubMed
14.
go back to reference Niemi-Murola L, Mäkinen M, Castren M, ECCE Study Group: Medical and nursing students attitudes toward cardiopulmonary resuscitation and current practice guidelines. Resuscitation 2007, 72: 257–63. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.07.006CrossRefPubMed Niemi-Murola L, Mäkinen M, Castren M, ECCE Study Group: Medical and nursing students attitudes toward cardiopulmonary resuscitation and current practice guidelines. Resuscitation 2007, 72: 257–63. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.07.006CrossRefPubMed
15.
go back to reference Hamasu S, Morimoto T, Kuramoto N, Horiguchi M, Iwami T, Nishiyama C, Takada K, Kubota Y, Seki S, Maeda Y, Sakai Y, Hiraide A: Effects of BLS training on factors associated with attitude toward CPR in college students. Resuscitation. 2009, 80(3):359–64. Hamasu S, Morimoto T, Kuramoto N, Horiguchi M, Iwami T, Nishiyama C, Takada K, Kubota Y, Seki S, Maeda Y, Sakai Y, Hiraide A: Effects of BLS training on factors associated with attitude toward CPR in college students. Resuscitation. 2009, 80(3):359–64.
16.
go back to reference Miro O, Jimenez-Fabrega X, Espigol G, et al.: Effects of BLS training. Teaching Basic Life Support to 12–16 year olds in Barcelona schools: views of head teachers. Resuscitation 2006, 70: 107–16. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.11.015CrossRefPubMed Miro O, Jimenez-Fabrega X, Espigol G, et al.: Effects of BLS training. Teaching Basic Life Support to 12–16 year olds in Barcelona schools: views of head teachers. Resuscitation 2006, 70: 107–16. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.11.015CrossRefPubMed
17.
go back to reference Parnell MM, Perason J, Galletly DC, Larsen PD: Knowledge of and attitudes towards resuscitation in New Zealand high-school students. Emerg Med J 2006, 23: 899. 10.1136/emj.2006.041160PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Parnell MM, Perason J, Galletly DC, Larsen PD: Knowledge of and attitudes towards resuscitation in New Zealand high-school students. Emerg Med J 2006, 23: 899. 10.1136/emj.2006.041160PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
18.
go back to reference Toner P, Connolly M, Laverty L, McGrath P, Connolly D, McCluskey DR: Effects of BLS training. Teaching basic life support to school children using medical students and teachers in a "peer-training" model - results of the "ABC for life" programme. Resuscitation 2007, 75: 169–75. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.03.009CrossRefPubMed Toner P, Connolly M, Laverty L, McGrath P, Connolly D, McCluskey DR: Effects of BLS training. Teaching basic life support to school children using medical students and teachers in a "peer-training" model - results of the "ABC for life" programme. Resuscitation 2007, 75: 169–75. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.03.009CrossRefPubMed
19.
go back to reference Grmec Š, Križmarić M, Mally Š, Koželj A, Špindler M, Lešnik B: Utstein style analysis of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest-bystander CPR and end expired carbon dioxide. Resuscitation 2007, 72: 404–14. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.07.012CrossRefPubMed Grmec Š, Križmarić M, Mally Š, Koželj A, Špindler M, Lešnik B: Utstein style analysis of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest-bystander CPR and end expired carbon dioxide. Resuscitation 2007, 72: 404–14. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.07.012CrossRefPubMed
20.
go back to reference Salako SE: The Declaration of Helsinki 2000: Ethical principles and the dignity of difference. Med Law 2006, 25: 341–54.PubMed Salako SE: The Declaration of Helsinki 2000: Ethical principles and the dignity of difference. Med Law 2006, 25: 341–54.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Perkins GD, Barrett H, Bullock I, Gabbott DA, Nolan JP, Mitchell S, Short A, Smith CM, Smith GB, Todd S, Bion JF: The Acute Care Undergraduate Teaching (ACUTE) Intiative; consensus development of core compentencies in acute care for undergraduates in the United Kingdom. Intensive Care Med 2005, 31: 1627–33. 10.1007/s00134-005-2837-4CrossRefPubMed Perkins GD, Barrett H, Bullock I, Gabbott DA, Nolan JP, Mitchell S, Short A, Smith CM, Smith GB, Todd S, Bion JF: The Acute Care Undergraduate Teaching (ACUTE) Intiative; consensus development of core compentencies in acute care for undergraduates in the United Kingdom. Intensive Care Med 2005, 31: 1627–33. 10.1007/s00134-005-2837-4CrossRefPubMed
22.
go back to reference Beckers S, Fries M, Bickenbach J, Hoffmann N, Classen-Linke I, Killersreiter B, Wainwright U, Rossaint R, Kuhlen R: Introduction Course Working Group. Evaluation of a new approach to implement structured, evidence-based emergency medical care in undergraduate medical education in Germany. Resuscitation 2005, 65: 345–56. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.11.023CrossRefPubMed Beckers S, Fries M, Bickenbach J, Hoffmann N, Classen-Linke I, Killersreiter B, Wainwright U, Rossaint R, Kuhlen R: Introduction Course Working Group. Evaluation of a new approach to implement structured, evidence-based emergency medical care in undergraduate medical education in Germany. Resuscitation 2005, 65: 345–56. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.11.023CrossRefPubMed
23.
go back to reference Das M, Elzubeir M: First aid and basic life support skills training early in medical curriculum: ciriculum issues, outcomes, and confidence of students. Teach Learn Med 2001, 13: 240–6. 10.1207/S15328015TLM1304_05CrossRefPubMed Das M, Elzubeir M: First aid and basic life support skills training early in medical curriculum: ciriculum issues, outcomes, and confidence of students. Teach Learn Med 2001, 13: 240–6. 10.1207/S15328015TLM1304_05CrossRefPubMed
24.
go back to reference Hubble MW, Bachman M, Price R, Martin N, Huie D: Willingness of high school students to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation and automated external defibrillation. Prehosp Emerg Care 2003, 7: 219–24. 10.1080/10903120390936815CrossRefPubMed Hubble MW, Bachman M, Price R, Martin N, Huie D: Willingness of high school students to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation and automated external defibrillation. Prehosp Emerg Care 2003, 7: 219–24. 10.1080/10903120390936815CrossRefPubMed
25.
go back to reference Al-Turki YA, Al-Fraih YS, Jalaly JB, et al.: Knowledge and attitudes towards cardiopulmonary resuscitation among university students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 2008, 29: 1306–9.PubMed Al-Turki YA, Al-Fraih YS, Jalaly JB, et al.: Knowledge and attitudes towards cardiopulmonary resuscitation among university students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 2008, 29: 1306–9.PubMed
26.
go back to reference Sosada K, Zurawinski W, Stepien T, Makarska J, Myrcik D: Evaluation of the knowledge of teachers and high school students in Silesia on the principals of first aid. Wiad Lek 2002, 55: 883–9.PubMed Sosada K, Zurawinski W, Stepien T, Makarska J, Myrcik D: Evaluation of the knowledge of teachers and high school students in Silesia on the principals of first aid. Wiad Lek 2002, 55: 883–9.PubMed
27.
go back to reference Reder S, Quan L: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in Washington state public schools. Resuscitation 2003, 56: 283–8. 10.1016/S0300-9572(02)00376-3CrossRefPubMed Reder S, Quan L: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in Washington state public schools. Resuscitation 2003, 56: 283–8. 10.1016/S0300-9572(02)00376-3CrossRefPubMed
28.
go back to reference Baser M, Coban S, Tasci S, Sungar G, Bayat M: Evaluating first-aid knowledge and attitude of a sample of Turkish primary school teachers. J Emerg Nurs 2007, 33: 428–32. 10.1016/j.jen.2006.11.003CrossRefPubMed Baser M, Coban S, Tasci S, Sungar G, Bayat M: Evaluating first-aid knowledge and attitude of a sample of Turkish primary school teachers. J Emerg Nurs 2007, 33: 428–32. 10.1016/j.jen.2006.11.003CrossRefPubMed
29.
go back to reference Grmec Š, Mally Š: Emergency medicine in Slovenia-Emergency center, prehospital emergency medicine and academic emergency medicine. Liječ Vjesn 2009, 31(Suppl 1):16–20. Grmec Š, Mally Š: Emergency medicine in Slovenia-Emergency center, prehospital emergency medicine and academic emergency medicine. Liječ Vjesn 2009, 31(Suppl 1):16–20.
30.
go back to reference Kaye W, Rallis SF, Mancini ME: The problem of poor retention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills may lie with the instructor, not the learner or the curriculum. Resuscitation 1991, 21: 67–87. 10.1016/0300-9572(91)90080-ICrossRefPubMed Kaye W, Rallis SF, Mancini ME: The problem of poor retention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills may lie with the instructor, not the learner or the curriculum. Resuscitation 1991, 21: 67–87. 10.1016/0300-9572(91)90080-ICrossRefPubMed
31.
go back to reference Hazinski MF, Markenson D, Neish S, Gerardi M, Hootman J, Nichol G, Taras H, Hickey R, Oconnor R, Potts J, van der Jagt E, Berger S, Schexnayder S, Garson AJr, Doherty A, Smith S: Response to cardiac arrest and selected life-threatening medical emergencies: The medical emergency response plan for schools--a statement for healthcare providers, policymakers, school administrators, and community leaders. Ann Emerg Med 2004, 43: 83–99. 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2003.11.001CrossRefPubMed Hazinski MF, Markenson D, Neish S, Gerardi M, Hootman J, Nichol G, Taras H, Hickey R, Oconnor R, Potts J, van der Jagt E, Berger S, Schexnayder S, Garson AJr, Doherty A, Smith S: Response to cardiac arrest and selected life-threatening medical emergencies: The medical emergency response plan for schools--a statement for healthcare providers, policymakers, school administrators, and community leaders. Ann Emerg Med 2004, 43: 83–99. 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2003.11.001CrossRefPubMed
32.
go back to reference Arshid M, Lo TY, Reynolds F: Quality of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during pediatric resuscitation training: time to stop the blind leading the blind. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 558–60. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.02.017CrossRefPubMed Arshid M, Lo TY, Reynolds F: Quality of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during pediatric resuscitation training: time to stop the blind leading the blind. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 558–60. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.02.017CrossRefPubMed
33.
go back to reference Woollard M, Whitfield R, Newcombe RG, Colquhoun M, Vetter N, Chamberlain D: Optimal refresher training intervals for AED and CPR skills: a randomised controlled trial. Resuscitation 2006, 71: 237–47. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.04.005CrossRefPubMed Woollard M, Whitfield R, Newcombe RG, Colquhoun M, Vetter N, Chamberlain D: Optimal refresher training intervals for AED and CPR skills: a randomised controlled trial. Resuscitation 2006, 71: 237–47. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.04.005CrossRefPubMed
34.
go back to reference Chamberlain D, Smith A, Woollard M, Colquhoun M, Handley AJ, Leaves S, Kern KB: Trials of teaching methods in basic life support (3): comparison of simulated CPR performance after first training and at 6 months, with a note on the value of re-training. Resuscitation 2002, 53: 179–87. 10.1016/S0300-9572(02)00025-4CrossRefPubMed Chamberlain D, Smith A, Woollard M, Colquhoun M, Handley AJ, Leaves S, Kern KB: Trials of teaching methods in basic life support (3): comparison of simulated CPR performance after first training and at 6 months, with a note on the value of re-training. Resuscitation 2002, 53: 179–87. 10.1016/S0300-9572(02)00025-4CrossRefPubMed
35.
go back to reference Braslow A, Brennan RT, Newman MM, Bircher NG, Batcheller AM, Kaye W: CPR training without an instructor: development and evaluation of a video self-instructional system for effective performance of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation 1997, 34: 207–20. 10.1016/S0300-9572(97)01096-4CrossRefPubMed Braslow A, Brennan RT, Newman MM, Bircher NG, Batcheller AM, Kaye W: CPR training without an instructor: development and evaluation of a video self-instructional system for effective performance of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation 1997, 34: 207–20. 10.1016/S0300-9572(97)01096-4CrossRefPubMed
36.
go back to reference Einspruch EL, Lynch B, Aufderheide TP, Nichol G, Becker L: Retention of CPR skills learned in a tradiotional AHA Heartsaver course versus 30-min video self-training: a controlled randomized study. Resuscitation 2007, 74: 476–86. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.01.030CrossRefPubMed Einspruch EL, Lynch B, Aufderheide TP, Nichol G, Becker L: Retention of CPR skills learned in a tradiotional AHA Heartsaver course versus 30-min video self-training: a controlled randomized study. Resuscitation 2007, 74: 476–86. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.01.030CrossRefPubMed
37.
go back to reference Bjorshol CA, Lindner TW, Soreide E, Moen L, Sunde K: Hospital employees improve basic life support skills and confidence with a personal resuscitation manikin and 24-min video instruction. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 898–902. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.06.009CrossRefPubMed Bjorshol CA, Lindner TW, Soreide E, Moen L, Sunde K: Hospital employees improve basic life support skills and confidence with a personal resuscitation manikin and 24-min video instruction. Resuscitation 2009, 80: 898–902. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.06.009CrossRefPubMed
38.
go back to reference Breckwoldt J, Beetz D, Schnitzer L, Waskow C, Arntz HR, Weimann J: Medical students teaching basic life support to school children as a required element of medical education-a randomised controlled study comparing three different approaches to fifth year medical training in emergency medicine. Resuscitation 2007, 74: 158–65. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.11.017CrossRefPubMed Breckwoldt J, Beetz D, Schnitzer L, Waskow C, Arntz HR, Weimann J: Medical students teaching basic life support to school children as a required element of medical education-a randomised controlled study comparing three different approaches to fifth year medical training in emergency medicine. Resuscitation 2007, 74: 158–65. 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.11.017CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Impact of additional module training on the level of basic life support knowledge of first year students at the University of Maribor
Authors
Damjan Lešnik
Bojan Lešnik
Jerneja Golub
Miljenko Križmarić
Štefan Mally
Štefek Grmec
Publication date
01-12-2011
Publisher
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in
International Journal of Emergency Medicine / Issue 1/2011
Print ISSN: 1865-1372
Electronic ISSN: 1865-1380
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1865-1380-4-16

Other articles of this Issue 1/2011

International Journal of Emergency Medicine 1/2011 Go to the issue