Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology
Published in: Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 1/2007

Open Access 01-12-2007 | Research

Lifestyle impact and the biology of the human scrotum

Author: Richard Ivell

Published in: Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology | Issue 1/2007

Login to get access

Abstract

The possession of a scrotum to contain the male gonads is a characteristic feature of almost all mammals, and appears to have evolved to allow the testes and epididymis to be exposed to a temperature a few degrees below that of core body temperature. Analysis of cryptorchid patients, and those with varicocele suggest that mild scrotal warming can be detrimental to sperm production, partly by effects on the stem cell population, and partly by effects on later stages of spermatogenesis and sperm maturation. Recent studies on the effects of clothing and lifestyle emphasize that these can also lead to chronically elevated scrotal temperatures. In particular, the wearing of nappies by infants is a cause for concern in this regard. Together all of the evidence indirectly supports the view that lifestyle factors in addition to other genetic and environmental influences could be contributing to the secular trend in declining male reproductive parameters. The challenge will be to provide relevant and targeted experimental results to support or refute the currently circumstantial evidence.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Werdelin L, Nilsonne A: The evolution of the scrotum and testicular descent in mammals: a phylogenetic view. J Theor Biol. 1999, 196: 61-72. 10.1006/jtbi.1998.0821.CrossRefPubMed
2.
3.
Yaeram J, Setchell BP, Maddocks S: Effect of heat stress on the fertility of male mice in vivo and in vitro. Reprod Fertil Dev. 2006, 18: 647-653. 10.1071/RD05022.CrossRefPubMed
4.
Gaeth AP, Short RV, Renfree MB: The developing renal, reproductive, and respiratory systems of the African elephant suggest an aquatic ancestry. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1999, 96: 5555-5558. 10.1073/pnas.96.10.5555.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
5.
Short RV: The testis: the witness of the mating system, the site of mutation and the engine of desire. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1997, 422: 3-7.CrossRefPubMed
6.
Bedford JM: Anatomical evidence for the epididymis as the prime mover in the evolution of the scrotum. Am J Anat. 1978, 152: 483-507. 10.1002/aja.1001520404.CrossRefPubMed
7.
Freeman S: The evolution of the scrotum: a new hypothesis. J Theor Biol. 1990, 145: 429-445. 10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80479-5.CrossRefPubMed
8.
Hutson JM, Hasthorpe S, Heyns CF: Anatomical and functional aspects of testicular descent and cryptorchidism. Endocr Rev. 1997, 18: 259-280. 10.1210/er.18.2.259.PubMed
9.
Ivell R, Hartung S: The molecular basis of cryptorchidism. Mol Hum Reprod. 2003, 9: 175-181. 10.1093/molehr/gag025.CrossRefPubMed
10.
Emmen JM, McKuskey A, Adham IM, Engel W, Grootegoed JA, Brinkmann AO: Hormonal control of gubernaculums development during testis descent: gubernaculums outgrowth in vitro requires both insulin-like factor and androgen. Endocrinology. 2000, 141: 4720-4727. 10.1210/en.141.12.4720.PubMed
11.
Kubota Y, Temelcos C, Bathgate RA, Smith KJ, Scott D, Zhao C, Hutson JM: The role of insulin 3, testosterone, Mullerian inhibiting substance and relaxin in rat gubernacular growth. Mol Hum Reprod. 2002, 8: 900-905. 10.1093/molehr/8.10.900.CrossRefPubMed
12.
Lyet L, Vigier B, van der Schoot P: Anti-mullerian hormone in relation to the growth and differentiation of the gubernacular primordia in mice. J Reprod Fertil. 1996, 108: 281-288.CrossRefPubMed
13.
Giannopoulos MF, Vlachakis IG, Charissis GC: 13 years' experience with the combined hormonal therapy of cryptorchidism. Horm Res. 2001, 55: 33-37. 10.1159/000049961.CrossRefPubMed
14.
Hadziselimovic F: Cryptorchidism, its impact on male fertility. Eur Urol. 2002, 41: 121-123. 10.1016/S0302-2838(01)00040-9.CrossRefPubMed
15.
Rusnack SL, Wu HY, Huff DS, Snyder HM, Carr MC, Bellah RD, Zderic SA, Canning DA: Testis histopathology in boys with cryptorchidism correlates with future fertility potential. J Urol. 2003, 169: 659-662. 10.1016/S0022-5347(05)63986-9.CrossRefPubMed
16.
Dieckmann KP, Skakkebaek NE: Carcinoma in situ of the testis: a review of biological and clinical features. Int J Cancer. 1999, 83: 815-822. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19991210)83:6<815::AID-IJC21>3.0.CO;2-Z.CrossRefPubMed
17.
Kumagai J, Fukuda J, Kodama H, Murata M, Kawamura K, Itoh H, Tanaka T: Germ cell specific heat shock protein 105 binds to p53 in a temperature-senistive manner in rat testis. Eur J Biochem. 2000, 267: 3073-3078. 10.1046/j.1432-1033.2000.01336.x.CrossRefPubMed
18.
Hirai K, Sasaki H, Yamamoto H, Sakamoto H, Kubota Y, Kakizoe T, Terada M, Ochiya T: HST-1/FGF-4 protects male germ cells from apoptosis under heat-stress condition. Exp Cell Res. 2004, 294: 77-85. 10.1016/j.yexcr.2003.11.012.CrossRefPubMed
19.
Zhang XS, Lue YH, Guo SH, Yuan JX, Hu ZY, Han CS, Hikim AP, Swedloff RS, Wang C, Liu YX: Expression of HSP105 and HSP60 during germ cell apoptosis in the heat-treated testes of adult cynomolgus monkeys (macaca fascicularis). Front Biosci. 2005, 10: 3110-3121.CrossRefPubMed
20.
Hadziselimovic F, Herzog B: The importance of both an early orchidopexy and germ cell maturation for fertility. Lancet. 2001, 358: 1156-1157. 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06274-2.CrossRefPubMed
21.
Skakkebaek NE, Rajpert De Meyts E, Main KM: Testicular dysgenesis syndrome an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum Reprod. 2001, 16: 972-978. 10.1093/humrep/16.5.972.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Hadziselimovic F, Zivkovic D, Bica DT, Emmons LR: The importance of mini-puberty for fertility in cryptorchidism. J Urol. 2005, 174: 1536-1539. 10.1097/01.ju.0000181506.97839.b0.CrossRefPubMed
23.
McKinnell C, Sharpe RM, Mahood K, Hallmark N, Scott H, Ivell R, Staub C, Jegou B, Haag F, Koch-Nolte F, Hartung S: Expression of insulin-like factor 3 protein in the rat testis during fetal and postnatal development and in relation to cryptorchidism induced by in utero exposure to di(n-Butyl)phthalate. Endocrinology. 2005, 146: 4536-4544. 10.1210/en.2005-0676.CrossRefPubMed
24.
Main KM, Mortensen GK, Kaleva MM, Boisen KA, Damgaard IN, Chellakooty M, Schmidt IM, Suomi AM, Virtanen HE, Petersen DV, Andersson AM, Toppari J, Skakkebaek NE: Human breast milk contamination with phthalates and alterations of endogenous reproductive hormones in infants three months of age. Environ Health Perspect. 2006, 114: 270-276.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
25.
Foster PM: Disruption of reproductive development in male rat offspring following in utero exposure to phthalate esters. Int J Androl. 2006, 29: 140-147. 10.1111/j.1365-2605.2005.00563.x.CrossRefPubMed
26.
Shetty G, Weng CCY: Cryptorchidism rescues spermatogonial differentiation in juvenile spermatogonial depletion (Jsd) mice. Endocrinology. 2004, 145: 126-133. 10.1210/en.2003-0928.CrossRefPubMed
27.
Shetty G, Weng CCY, Porter KL, Zhang Z, Pakarinen P, Kumar TR, Meistrich ML: Spermatogonial differentiation in juvenile spermatogonial depletion (jsd) mice with androgen receptor or follicle-stimulating hormone mutations. Endocrinology. 2006, 147: 3563-3570. 10.1210/en.2006-0159.CrossRefPubMed
28.
Turner TT: The study of varicocele through the use of animal models. Hum Reprod Update. 2001, 7: 78-84. 10.1093/humupd/7.1.78.CrossRefPubMed
29.
Schoor RA, Elhanbly SM, Niederberger C: The pathophysiology of varicocele-associated male infertility. Curr Urol Rep. 2001, 2: 432-436.CrossRefPubMed
30.
Ali JI, Weaver DJ, Weinstein SH, Grimes EM: Scrotal temperature and semen quality in men with and without varicocele. Arch Androl. 1990, 24: 215-219.CrossRefPubMed
31.
Lerchl A, Keck C, Spiteri-Grech J, Nieschlag E: Diurnal variations in scrotal temperature of normal men and patients with varicocele before and after treatment. Int J Androl. 1993, 16: 195-200.CrossRefPubMed
32.
Jung A, Eberl M, Schill WB: Improvement of semen quality by nocturnal scrotal cooling and moderate behavioural change to reduce genital heat stress in men with oligoasthenoteratozoospermia. Reproduction. 2001, 121: 595-603. 10.1530/rep.0.1210595.CrossRefPubMed
33.
Jung A, Schill WB, Schuppe HC: Improvement of semen quality by nocturnal scrotal cooling in oligozoospermic men with a history of testicular maldescent. Int J Androl. 2005, 28: 93-98. 10.1111/j.1365-2605.2004.00517.x.CrossRefPubMed
34.
Waites GM: Thermoregulation of the scrotum and testis: studies in animals and significance for man. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1991, 286: 9-17.CrossRefPubMed
35.
Hjolland NHI, Bonde JPE, Jensen TK, Olsen J: Diurnal scrotal skin temperature and semen quality. Int J Androl. 2000, 23: 309-318. 10.1046/j.1365-2605.2000.00245.x.CrossRef
36.
Hjolland NHI, Storgaard L, Ernst E, Bonde JP, Olsen J: The relation between daily activities and scrotal temperature. Reprod Toxicol. 2002, 16: 209-214. 10.1016/S0890-6238(02)00026-6.CrossRef
37.
Jung A, Leonhardt F, Schill WB, Schuppe HC: Influence of the type of undertrousers and physical activity on scrotal temperature. Hum Reprod. 2005, 20: 1022-1027. 10.1093/humrep/deh697.CrossRefPubMed
38.
Bujan L, Daudin M, Charlet JP, Thonneau P, Mieusset R: Increase in scrotal temperature in car drivers. Hum Reprod. 2000, 15: 1355-1357. 10.1093/humrep/15.6.1355.CrossRefPubMed
39.
Thonneau P, Ducot B, Bujan L, Mieusset R, Spira A: Heat exposure as a hazard to male fertility. Lancet. 1996, 347: 204-205. 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90391-8.CrossRefPubMed
40.
Chia DJ, Boston BA: Childhood obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Adv Pediatr. 2006, 53: 23-53. 10.1016/j.yapd.2006.04.005.CrossRefPubMed
41.
Partsch CJ, Aukamp M, Sippell WG: Scrotal temperature is increased in disposable plastic lined nappies. Arch Dis Child. 2000, 83: 364-368. 10.1136/adc.83.4.364.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
42.
Grove GL, Grove MJ, Bates NT, Wagman LM, Leyden JJ: Scrotal temperatures do not differ among young boys wearing disposable or reusable diapers. Skin Res Technol. 2002, 8: 260-270. 10.1034/j.1600-0846.2002.00336.x.CrossRefPubMed
43.
44.
45.
Pera I, Ivell R, Kirchhoff C: Body temperature (37 C) specifically downregulates the mRNA for the major sperm surface antigen CD52 in epididymal cell culture. Endocrinology. 1996, 137: 44514459-10.1210/en.137.10.4451.
46.
Sharpe RM: Pathways of endocrine disruption during male sexual differentiation and masculinisation. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006, 20: 91-110. 10.1016/j.beem.2005.09.005.CrossRefPubMed
47.
Travison TG, Araujo AB, O'Donnell AB, Kupelian V, McKinlay JB: A population-level decline in serum testosterone levels in American men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007, 92: 196-202. 10.1210/jc.2006-1375.CrossRefPubMed
48.
49.
Jury JA, Frayne J, Hall L: Sequence analysis of a variety of primate fertilin alpha genes: evidence for non-functional genes in the gorilla and man. Mol Reprod Dev. 1998, 51: 92-97. 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2795(199809)51:1<92::AID-MRD11>3.0.CO;2-W.CrossRefPubMed
50.
Ivell R, Pusch W, Balvers M, Valentin M, Walther N, Weinbauer G: Progressive inactivation of the haploid expressed gene for the sperm-specific endozepine-like peptide (ELP) through primate evolution. Gene. 2000, 255: 335-345. 10.1016/S0378-1119(00)00317-6.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Lifestyle impact and the biology of the human scrotum
Author
Richard Ivell
Publication date
01-12-2007
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology / Issue 1/2007
Electronic ISSN: 1477-7827
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7827-5-15

Other articles of this Issue 1/2007

Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 1/2007 Go to the issue

Research

Developmental stage on day-5 and fragmentation rate on day-3 can influence the implantation potential of top-quality blastocysts in IVF cycles with single embryo transfer

Research

THG113.31, a specific PGF2alpha receptor antagonist, induces human myometrial relaxation and BKCa channel activation

Research

Developmental expression of DAX1 in the European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax: lack of evidence for sexual dimorphism during sex differentiation

Research

E-cadherin expression and bromodeoxyuridine incorporation during development of ovarian inclusion cysts in age-matched breeder and incessantly ovulated CD-1 mice

Research

Genomic and proteomic profiling I: Leiomyomas in African Americans and Caucasians

Research

A prospective, randomised, controlled clinical study on the assessment of tolerability and of clinical efficacy of Merional (hMG-IBSA) administered subcutaneously versus Merional administered intramuscularly in women undergoing multifollicular ovarian stimulation in an ART programme (IVF)