Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Malaria Journal 1/2010

Open Access 01-12-2010 | Research

Plasmodium infection and its risk factors in eastern Uganda

Authors: Rachel L Pullan, Hasifa Bukirwa, Sarah G Staedke, Robert W Snow, Simon Brooker

Published in: Malaria Journal | Issue 1/2010

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

Malaria is a leading cause of disease burden in Uganda, although surprisingly few contemporary, age-stratified data exist on malaria epidemiology in the country. This report presents results from a total population survey of malaria infection and intervention coverage in a rural area of eastern Uganda, with a specific focus on how risk factors differ between demographic groups in this population.

Methods

In 2008, a cross-sectional survey was conducted in four contiguous villages in Mulanda, sub-county in Tororo district, eastern Uganda, to investigate the epidemiology and risk factors of Plasmodium species infection. All permanent residents were invited to participate, with blood smears collected from 1,844 individuals aged between six months and 88 years (representing 78% of the population). Demographic, household and socio-economic characteristics were combined with environmental data using a Geographical Information System. Hierarchical models were used to explore patterns of malaria infection and identify individual, household and environmental risk factors.

Results

Overall, 709 individuals were infected with Plasmodium, with prevalence highest among 5-9 year olds (63.5%). Thin films from a random sample of 20% of parasite positive participants showed that 94.0% of infections were Plasmodium falciparum and 6.0% were P. malariae; no other species or mixed infections were seen. In total, 68% of households owned at least one mosquito although only 27% of school-aged children reported sleeping under a net the previous night. In multivariate analysis, infection risk was highest amongst children aged 5-9 years and remained high in older children. Risk of infection was lower for those that reported sleeping under a bed net the previous night and living more than 750 m from a rice-growing area. After accounting for clustering within compounds, there was no evidence for an association between infection prevalence and socio-economic status, and no evidence for spatial clustering.

Conclusion

These findings demonstrate that mosquito net usage remains inadequate and is strongly associated with risk of malaria among school-aged children. Infection risk amongst adults is influenced by proximity to potential mosquito breeding grounds. Taken together, these findings emphasize the importance of increasing net coverage, especially among school-aged children.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
go back to reference Malaria Control Programme MoH: Uganda Malaria Control Strategic Plan. 2005, /06 - 2009/10 Malaria Control Programme MoH: Uganda Malaria Control Strategic Plan. 2005, /06 - 2009/10
2.
go back to reference Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K: Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa's non-pregnant population. Bull World Hlth Organ. 1999, 77: 624-640. Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K: Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa's non-pregnant population. Bull World Hlth Organ. 1999, 77: 624-640.
3.
go back to reference Snow RW, Marsh K: The consequences of reducing transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in Africa. Adv Parasitol. 2002, 52: 235-264. full_text.CrossRefPubMed Snow RW, Marsh K: The consequences of reducing transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in Africa. Adv Parasitol. 2002, 52: 235-264. full_text.CrossRefPubMed
4.
go back to reference Idro R, Aloyo J, Mayende L, Bitarakwate E, John CC, Kivumbi GW: Severe malaria in children in areas of low, moderate and high transmission intensity in Uganda. Trop Med Int Health. 2006, 11: 115-124. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01518.x.CrossRefPubMed Idro R, Aloyo J, Mayende L, Bitarakwate E, John CC, Kivumbi GW: Severe malaria in children in areas of low, moderate and high transmission intensity in Uganda. Trop Med Int Health. 2006, 11: 115-124. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01518.x.CrossRefPubMed
5.
go back to reference Idro R, Bitarakwate E, Tumwesigye E, Chandy CJ: Clinical manifestations of severe malaria in the highlands of southwestern Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 72: 561-567.PubMed Idro R, Bitarakwate E, Tumwesigye E, Chandy CJ: Clinical manifestations of severe malaria in the highlands of southwestern Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 72: 561-567.PubMed
6.
go back to reference Ndyomugyenyi R, Magnussen P: Malaria morbidity, mortality and pregnancy outcome in areas with different levels of malaria transmission in Uganda: a hospital record-based study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 95: 463-468. 10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90003-3.CrossRefPubMed Ndyomugyenyi R, Magnussen P: Malaria morbidity, mortality and pregnancy outcome in areas with different levels of malaria transmission in Uganda: a hospital record-based study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 95: 463-468. 10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90003-3.CrossRefPubMed
7.
go back to reference Ndyomugyenyi R, Magnussen P: Trends in malaria-attributable morbidity and mortality among young children admitted to Ugandan hospitals, for the period 1990-2001. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2004, 98: 315-327. 10.1179/000349804225003433.CrossRefPubMed Ndyomugyenyi R, Magnussen P: Trends in malaria-attributable morbidity and mortality among young children admitted to Ugandan hospitals, for the period 1990-2001. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2004, 98: 315-327. 10.1179/000349804225003433.CrossRefPubMed
8.
go back to reference Hay SI, Guerra CA, Gething PW, Patil AP, Tatem AJ, Noor AM, Kabaria CW, Manh BH, Elyazar IR, Brooker S, Smith DL, Moyeed RA, Snow RW: A world malaria map: Plasmodium falciparum endemicity in 2007. PLoS Med. 2009, 24: e1000048-CrossRef Hay SI, Guerra CA, Gething PW, Patil AP, Tatem AJ, Noor AM, Kabaria CW, Manh BH, Elyazar IR, Brooker S, Smith DL, Moyeed RA, Snow RW: A world malaria map: Plasmodium falciparum endemicity in 2007. PLoS Med. 2009, 24: e1000048-CrossRef
9.
go back to reference Talisuna A, Langi P, Bakyaita N, Egwang TG, Mutabingwa TK, Watkins WE, Van Marck E, D'Alessandro U: Intensity of malaria transmission, antimalarial-drug use and resistence in Uganda: what is the relationship between these three factors?. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2002, 96: 310-317. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90108-2.CrossRef Talisuna A, Langi P, Bakyaita N, Egwang TG, Mutabingwa TK, Watkins WE, Van Marck E, D'Alessandro U: Intensity of malaria transmission, antimalarial-drug use and resistence in Uganda: what is the relationship between these three factors?. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2002, 96: 310-317. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90108-2.CrossRef
10.
go back to reference Okello PE, Van Bortel W, Byaruhanga AM, Correwyn A, Roelants P, Talisuna A, D'Alessandro U, Coosemans M: Variation in malaria transmission intensity in seven sites throughout Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 219-225.PubMed Okello PE, Van Bortel W, Byaruhanga AM, Correwyn A, Roelants P, Talisuna A, D'Alessandro U, Coosemans M: Variation in malaria transmission intensity in seven sites throughout Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 219-225.PubMed
11.
go back to reference Uganda Bureau of Statistics U: Uganda: DHS, 2006 - Final Report. 2006, Macro International Inc: Calverton, Maryland, USA Uganda Bureau of Statistics U: Uganda: DHS, 2006 - Final Report. 2006, Macro International Inc: Calverton, Maryland, USA
12.
go back to reference Filmer D, Pritchett LH: Estimating wealth effects without expenditure data--or tears: an application to educational enrollments in states of India. Demography. 2001, 38: 115-132.PubMed Filmer D, Pritchett LH: Estimating wealth effects without expenditure data--or tears: an application to educational enrollments in states of India. Demography. 2001, 38: 115-132.PubMed
13.
go back to reference Gilks WR, Richardson S, Spiegelhalter DJ: Markov Chain Monte Carlo in Practice. 1996, London: Chapman and Hall Gilks WR, Richardson S, Spiegelhalter DJ: Markov Chain Monte Carlo in Practice. 1996, London: Chapman and Hall
14.
go back to reference Diggle P, Moyeed R, Tawn J: Model-based geostatistics (with discussion). Applied Statistics. 1998, 47: 299-350. Diggle P, Moyeed R, Tawn J: Model-based geostatistics (with discussion). Applied Statistics. 1998, 47: 299-350.
15.
go back to reference Ribeiro JM, Seulu F, Abose T, Kidane G, Teklehaimanot A: Temporal and spatial distribution of anopheline mosquitos in an Ethiopian village: implications for malaria control strategies. Bull World Health Organ. 1996, 74: 299-305.PubMedCentralPubMed Ribeiro JM, Seulu F, Abose T, Kidane G, Teklehaimanot A: Temporal and spatial distribution of anopheline mosquitos in an Ethiopian village: implications for malaria control strategies. Bull World Health Organ. 1996, 74: 299-305.PubMedCentralPubMed
16.
go back to reference Government of Uganda: Atlas of Uganda. 1962, Department of Lands and Surveys, Uganda Government of Uganda: Atlas of Uganda. 1962, Department of Lands and Surveys, Uganda
17.
go back to reference Jelliffe EFP, Jelliffe DB: Plasmodium malariae in Ugandan children. I. Prevalence in young children in rural communities. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1963, 12: 296-297.PubMed Jelliffe EFP, Jelliffe DB: Plasmodium malariae in Ugandan children. I. Prevalence in young children in rural communities. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1963, 12: 296-297.PubMed
18.
go back to reference Onori E: Distribution of Plasmodium ovale in the eastern, western and northern regions of Uganda. Bull World Health Organ. 1967, 37: 665-668.PubMedCentralPubMed Onori E: Distribution of Plasmodium ovale in the eastern, western and northern regions of Uganda. Bull World Health Organ. 1967, 37: 665-668.PubMedCentralPubMed
19.
20.
go back to reference Ministry of Health, Uganda/World Health Organisation: Annual reports of the Uganda Malaria Eradication Pilot Project. 1959 Ministry of Health, Uganda/World Health Organisation: Annual reports of the Uganda Malaria Eradication Pilot Project. 1959
21.
go back to reference Francis D, Nsobya SL, Talisuna A, Yeka A, Kamya MR, Machekano R, Dokomajilar C, Rosenthal PJ, Dorsey G: Geographic differences in antimalarial drug efficacy in Uganda are explained by differences in endemicity and not by known molecular markers of drug resistance. J Infect Dis. 2006, 193: 978-986. 10.1086/500951.CrossRefPubMed Francis D, Nsobya SL, Talisuna A, Yeka A, Kamya MR, Machekano R, Dokomajilar C, Rosenthal PJ, Dorsey G: Geographic differences in antimalarial drug efficacy in Uganda are explained by differences in endemicity and not by known molecular markers of drug resistance. J Infect Dis. 2006, 193: 978-986. 10.1086/500951.CrossRefPubMed
22.
go back to reference Killeen GF, Tami A, Kihonda J, Okumu FO, Kotas ME, Grundmann H, Kasigudi N, Ngonyani H, Mayagaya V, Nathan R, Abdulla S, Charlwood JD, Smith TA, Lengeler C: Cost-sharing strategies combining targeted public subsidies with private-sector delivery achieve high bednet coverage and reduced malaria transmission in Kilombero Valley, southern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis. 2007, 7: 121-10.1186/1471-2334-7-121.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Killeen GF, Tami A, Kihonda J, Okumu FO, Kotas ME, Grundmann H, Kasigudi N, Ngonyani H, Mayagaya V, Nathan R, Abdulla S, Charlwood JD, Smith TA, Lengeler C: Cost-sharing strategies combining targeted public subsidies with private-sector delivery achieve high bednet coverage and reduced malaria transmission in Kilombero Valley, southern Tanzania. BMC Infect Dis. 2007, 7: 121-10.1186/1471-2334-7-121.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
23.
go back to reference Bernard J, Mtove G, Mandike R, Mtei F, Maxwell C, Reyburn H: Equity and coverage of insecticide-treated bed nets in an area of intense transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in Tanzania. Malar J. 2009, 8: 65-10.1186/1475-2875-8-65.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Bernard J, Mtove G, Mandike R, Mtei F, Maxwell C, Reyburn H: Equity and coverage of insecticide-treated bed nets in an area of intense transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in Tanzania. Malar J. 2009, 8: 65-10.1186/1475-2875-8-65.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
24.
go back to reference Matovu F, Goodman C, Wiseman V, Mwengee W: How equitable is bed net ownership and utilisation in Tanzania? A practical application of the principles of horizontal and vertical equity. Malar J. 2009, 8: 109-10.1186/1475-2875-8-109.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Matovu F, Goodman C, Wiseman V, Mwengee W: How equitable is bed net ownership and utilisation in Tanzania? A practical application of the principles of horizontal and vertical equity. Malar J. 2009, 8: 109-10.1186/1475-2875-8-109.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
25.
go back to reference Noor AM, Moloney G, Borle M, Fegan GW, Shewchuk T, Snow RW: The use of mosquito nets and the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection in rural South Central Somalia. PLoS ONE. 2008, 3: e2081-10.1371/journal.pone.0002081.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Noor AM, Moloney G, Borle M, Fegan GW, Shewchuk T, Snow RW: The use of mosquito nets and the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection in rural South Central Somalia. PLoS ONE. 2008, 3: e2081-10.1371/journal.pone.0002081.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
26.
go back to reference Shargie EB, Gebre T, Ngondi J, Graves PM, Mosher AW, Emerson PM, Ejigsemahu Y, Endeshaw T, Olana D, WeldeMeskel A, Teferra A, Tadesse Z, Tilahun A, Yohannes G, Richards FO: Malaria prevalence and mosquito net coverage in Oromia and SNNPR regions of Ethiopia. BMC Public Health. 2008, 21: 321-10.1186/1471-2458-8-321.CrossRef Shargie EB, Gebre T, Ngondi J, Graves PM, Mosher AW, Emerson PM, Ejigsemahu Y, Endeshaw T, Olana D, WeldeMeskel A, Teferra A, Tadesse Z, Tilahun A, Yohannes G, Richards FO: Malaria prevalence and mosquito net coverage in Oromia and SNNPR regions of Ethiopia. BMC Public Health. 2008, 21: 321-10.1186/1471-2458-8-321.CrossRef
27.
go back to reference Afolabi BM, Sofola OT, Fatunmbi BS, Komakech W, Okah F, Saliu O, Otesemobor P, Oresanya OB, Amajoh CN, Fasiku D, Jalingo I: Household possession, use and non-use of treated or untreated mosquito nets in two ecologically diverse regions of Nigeria--Niger Delta and Sahel Savannah. Malar J. 2009, 8: 30-10.1186/1475-2875-8-30.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Afolabi BM, Sofola OT, Fatunmbi BS, Komakech W, Okah F, Saliu O, Otesemobor P, Oresanya OB, Amajoh CN, Fasiku D, Jalingo I: Household possession, use and non-use of treated or untreated mosquito nets in two ecologically diverse regions of Nigeria--Niger Delta and Sahel Savannah. Malar J. 2009, 8: 30-10.1186/1475-2875-8-30.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
28.
go back to reference Noor AM, Kirui VC, Brooker S, Snow RW: The use of insecticide treated nets by age: implications for universal coverage in Africa. BMC Public Health. 2009, 9: 369-10.1186/1471-2458-9-369.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Noor AM, Kirui VC, Brooker S, Snow RW: The use of insecticide treated nets by age: implications for universal coverage in Africa. BMC Public Health. 2009, 9: 369-10.1186/1471-2458-9-369.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
29.
go back to reference Clarke S, Bogh C, Brown R, Pinder M, Walraven G, Lindsay SW: Do untreated bednets protect against malaria?. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2001, 95: 457-462. 10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90001-X.CrossRef Clarke S, Bogh C, Brown R, Pinder M, Walraven G, Lindsay SW: Do untreated bednets protect against malaria?. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2001, 95: 457-462. 10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90001-X.CrossRef
30.
go back to reference Guyatt H, Corlett S, Robinson T, Ochola SA, Snow RW: Malaria prevention in highland Kenya: indoor residual house-spraying vs. insecticide-treated bednets. Trop Med Int Health. 2002, 7: 298-303. 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00874.x.CrossRefPubMed Guyatt H, Corlett S, Robinson T, Ochola SA, Snow RW: Malaria prevention in highland Kenya: indoor residual house-spraying vs. insecticide-treated bednets. Trop Med Int Health. 2002, 7: 298-303. 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00874.x.CrossRefPubMed
31.
go back to reference Lengeler C: Insecticide-treated bed nets and curtains for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004, CD000363- Lengeler C: Insecticide-treated bed nets and curtains for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004, CD000363-
32.
go back to reference Mboera LE, Kamugisha ML, Rumisha SF, Kisinza WN, Senkoro KP, Kitua AY: Malaria and mosquito net utilisation among schoolchildren in villages with or without healthcare facilities at different altitudes in Iringa District, Tanzania. Afr Health Sci. 2008, 8: 114-119.PubMedCentralPubMed Mboera LE, Kamugisha ML, Rumisha SF, Kisinza WN, Senkoro KP, Kitua AY: Malaria and mosquito net utilisation among schoolchildren in villages with or without healthcare facilities at different altitudes in Iringa District, Tanzania. Afr Health Sci. 2008, 8: 114-119.PubMedCentralPubMed
33.
go back to reference Gamage-Mendis AC, Carter R, Mendis C, De Zoysa AP, Herath PR, Mendis KN: Clustering of malaria infections within an endemic population: risk of malaria associated with the type of housing construction. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991, 45: 77-85.PubMed Gamage-Mendis AC, Carter R, Mendis C, De Zoysa AP, Herath PR, Mendis KN: Clustering of malaria infections within an endemic population: risk of malaria associated with the type of housing construction. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991, 45: 77-85.PubMed
34.
go back to reference Koram KA, Bennett S, Adiamah JH: Socio-economic risk factors for malaria in a peri-urban area of The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 1995, 89: 146-150. 10.1016/0035-9203(95)90471-9.CrossRef Koram KA, Bennett S, Adiamah JH: Socio-economic risk factors for malaria in a peri-urban area of The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 1995, 89: 146-150. 10.1016/0035-9203(95)90471-9.CrossRef
35.
go back to reference Graves PM, Richards FO, Ngondi J, Emerson PM, Shargie EB, Endeshaw T, Ceccato P, Ejigsemahu Y, Mosher AW, Hailemariam A, Zerihun M, Teferi T, Ayele B, Mesele A, Yohannes G, Tilahun A, Gebre T: Individual, household and environmental risk factors for malaria infection in Amhara, Oromia and SNNP regions of Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2009, 103: 1211-1220. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.11.016.CrossRef Graves PM, Richards FO, Ngondi J, Emerson PM, Shargie EB, Endeshaw T, Ceccato P, Ejigsemahu Y, Mosher AW, Hailemariam A, Zerihun M, Teferi T, Ayele B, Mesele A, Yohannes G, Tilahun A, Gebre T: Individual, household and environmental risk factors for malaria infection in Amhara, Oromia and SNNP regions of Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2009, 103: 1211-1220. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.11.016.CrossRef
36.
go back to reference Matthys B, Vounatsou P, Raso G, Tschannen AB, Becket EG, Gosoniu L, Cisse B, Tanner M, N'Goran EK, Utzinger J: Urban farming and malaria risk factors in a medium-sized town in Cote d'Ivoire. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 1223-1231.PubMed Matthys B, Vounatsou P, Raso G, Tschannen AB, Becket EG, Gosoniu L, Cisse B, Tanner M, N'Goran EK, Utzinger J: Urban farming and malaria risk factors in a medium-sized town in Cote d'Ivoire. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 1223-1231.PubMed
37.
go back to reference Snow RW, Peshu N, Forster D, Bomu G, Mitsanze E, Ngumbao E, Chisengwa R, Schellenberg JR, Hayes RJ, Newbold CI, Marsh K: Environmental and entomological risk factors for the development of clinical malaria among children on the Kenyan coast. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1998, 92: 381-385. 10.1016/S0035-9203(98)91056-2.CrossRefPubMed Snow RW, Peshu N, Forster D, Bomu G, Mitsanze E, Ngumbao E, Chisengwa R, Schellenberg JR, Hayes RJ, Newbold CI, Marsh K: Environmental and entomological risk factors for the development of clinical malaria among children on the Kenyan coast. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1998, 92: 381-385. 10.1016/S0035-9203(98)91056-2.CrossRefPubMed
38.
go back to reference Chuma J, Molyneux CS: Estimating inequalities in ownership of insecticide treated nets: does the choice of socio-economic status measure matter?. Health Policy Plan. 2009, 24: 83-93. 10.1093/heapol/czn050.CrossRefPubMed Chuma J, Molyneux CS: Estimating inequalities in ownership of insecticide treated nets: does the choice of socio-economic status measure matter?. Health Policy Plan. 2009, 24: 83-93. 10.1093/heapol/czn050.CrossRefPubMed
39.
go back to reference Mushi AK, Schellenberg JR, Mponda H, Lengeler C: Targeted subsidy for malaria control with treated nets using a discounted voucher system in Tanzania. Health Policy Plan. 2003, 18: 163-171. 10.1093/heapol/czg021.CrossRefPubMed Mushi AK, Schellenberg JR, Mponda H, Lengeler C: Targeted subsidy for malaria control with treated nets using a discounted voucher system in Tanzania. Health Policy Plan. 2003, 18: 163-171. 10.1093/heapol/czg021.CrossRefPubMed
40.
go back to reference Noor AM, Amin AA, Akhwale WS, Snow RW: Increasing coverage and decreasing inequity in insecticide-treated bed net use among rural Kenyan children. PLoS Med. 2007, 4: e255-10.1371/journal.pmed.0040255.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Noor AM, Amin AA, Akhwale WS, Snow RW: Increasing coverage and decreasing inequity in insecticide-treated bed net use among rural Kenyan children. PLoS Med. 2007, 4: e255-10.1371/journal.pmed.0040255.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
41.
go back to reference Noor AM, Omumbo JA, Amin AA, Zurovac D, Snow RW: Wealth, mother's education and physical access as determinants of retail sector net use in rural Kenya. Malar J. 2006, 5: 5-10.1186/1475-2875-5-5.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Noor AM, Omumbo JA, Amin AA, Zurovac D, Snow RW: Wealth, mother's education and physical access as determinants of retail sector net use in rural Kenya. Malar J. 2006, 5: 5-10.1186/1475-2875-5-5.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Grabowsky M, Nobiya T, Ahun M, Donna R, Lengor M, Zimmerman D, Hoekstra E, Bello-Wilmot A, Amofah G: Distributing insecticide-treated bednets during measles vaccination: a low cost means of achieving high and equitable coverage. Bull World Health Organ. 2005, 83: 3- Grabowsky M, Nobiya T, Ahun M, Donna R, Lengor M, Zimmerman D, Hoekstra E, Bello-Wilmot A, Amofah G: Distributing insecticide-treated bednets during measles vaccination: a low cost means of achieving high and equitable coverage. Bull World Health Organ. 2005, 83: 3-
43.
go back to reference Grabowsky M, Farrell N, Hawley WA, Chimumbwa J, Hoyer S, Wolkon A, Selanikio J: Integrating insecticide-treated bednets into a measles vaccination campaign achieves high, rapid and equitable coverage iwth direct and voucher based methods. Trop Med Int Health. 2005, 10: 1151-1160. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01502.x.CrossRefPubMed Grabowsky M, Farrell N, Hawley WA, Chimumbwa J, Hoyer S, Wolkon A, Selanikio J: Integrating insecticide-treated bednets into a measles vaccination campaign achieves high, rapid and equitable coverage iwth direct and voucher based methods. Trop Med Int Health. 2005, 10: 1151-1160. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01502.x.CrossRefPubMed
44.
go back to reference Wiseman V, McElroy B, Conteh L, Stevens W: Malaria prevention in the Gambia: patterns of expenditure and determinants of demand at the household level. Trop Med Int Health. 2006, 11: 419-431. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01586.x.CrossRefPubMed Wiseman V, McElroy B, Conteh L, Stevens W: Malaria prevention in the Gambia: patterns of expenditure and determinants of demand at the household level. Trop Med Int Health. 2006, 11: 419-431. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01586.x.CrossRefPubMed
45.
go back to reference Peterson E, Borrel LN, El-Sard W, Teklehaimanot A: Individual and household level factors associated with malaria incidence in a highland region of Ethiopia: a multilevel analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 80: 103-111.PubMed Peterson E, Borrel LN, El-Sard W, Teklehaimanot A: Individual and household level factors associated with malaria incidence in a highland region of Ethiopia: a multilevel analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 80: 103-111.PubMed
46.
go back to reference Clarke SE, Bogh C, Brown RC, Walraven GE, Thomas CJ, Lindsay SW: Risk of malaria attacks in Gambian children is greater away from malaria vector breeding sites. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2002, 96: 499-506. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90419-0.CrossRef Clarke SE, Bogh C, Brown RC, Walraven GE, Thomas CJ, Lindsay SW: Risk of malaria attacks in Gambian children is greater away from malaria vector breeding sites. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2002, 96: 499-506. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90419-0.CrossRef
47.
go back to reference Staedke SG, Nottingham EW, Cox J, Kamya MR, Rosenthal PJ, G D: Short report: proximity to mosquito breeding sites as a risk factor for clinical malaria episodes in an urban cohort of Ugandan children. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003, 69: 244-246.PubMed Staedke SG, Nottingham EW, Cox J, Kamya MR, Rosenthal PJ, G D: Short report: proximity to mosquito breeding sites as a risk factor for clinical malaria episodes in an urban cohort of Ugandan children. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003, 69: 244-246.PubMed
48.
go back to reference Machault V, Gadiaga L, Vignolles C, Jarjaval F, Bouzid S, Sokhna C, Lacaux JP, Trape JF, Rogier C, Pages F: Highly focused anopheline breeding sites and malaria transmission in Dakar. Malar J. 2009, 8: 138-10.1186/1475-2875-8-138.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Machault V, Gadiaga L, Vignolles C, Jarjaval F, Bouzid S, Sokhna C, Lacaux JP, Trape JF, Rogier C, Pages F: Highly focused anopheline breeding sites and malaria transmission in Dakar. Malar J. 2009, 8: 138-10.1186/1475-2875-8-138.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
49.
go back to reference Minakawa N, Seda P, Yan G: The influence of host and larval habitat distribution on the adundance of African malaria vectors in Western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002, 67: 32-38.PubMed Minakawa N, Seda P, Yan G: The influence of host and larval habitat distribution on the adundance of African malaria vectors in Western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002, 67: 32-38.PubMed
50.
go back to reference Trape JF, Lefebvre-Zante E, Legros F, Ndiaye G, Bouganali H, Druilhe P, Salem G: Vector density gradients and the epidemiology of urban malaria in Dakar, Senegal. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1992, 47: 181-189.PubMed Trape JF, Lefebvre-Zante E, Legros F, Ndiaye G, Bouganali H, Druilhe P, Salem G: Vector density gradients and the epidemiology of urban malaria in Dakar, Senegal. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1992, 47: 181-189.PubMed
51.
go back to reference Muturi EJ, Shililu J, Jacob BG, Mwangangi J, Mbogo C, Githure J, Novak RJ: Diversity of riceland mosquitoes and factors affecting their occurrence and distribution in Mwea, Kenya. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 2008, 24: 349-358. 10.2987/5675.1.CrossRefPubMed Muturi EJ, Shililu J, Jacob BG, Mwangangi J, Mbogo C, Githure J, Novak RJ: Diversity of riceland mosquitoes and factors affecting their occurrence and distribution in Mwea, Kenya. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 2008, 24: 349-358. 10.2987/5675.1.CrossRefPubMed
52.
go back to reference Muturi EJ, Muriu S, Shililu J, Mwangangi J, Jacob BG, Mbogo C, Githure J, Novak RJ: Effect of rice cultivation on malaria transmission in central Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008, 78: 270-275.PubMed Muturi EJ, Muriu S, Shililu J, Mwangangi J, Jacob BG, Mbogo C, Githure J, Novak RJ: Effect of rice cultivation on malaria transmission in central Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008, 78: 270-275.PubMed
53.
go back to reference Ijumba JN, Shenton FC, Clarke SE, Mosha FW, Lindsay SW: Irrigated crop production is associated with less malaria than traditional agriculture practices in Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2002, 96: 476-480. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90408-6.CrossRef Ijumba JN, Shenton FC, Clarke SE, Mosha FW, Lindsay SW: Irrigated crop production is associated with less malaria than traditional agriculture practices in Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2002, 96: 476-480. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90408-6.CrossRef
54.
go back to reference Ng'ang'a ZW, Shililu J, Jayasinghe G, Kimani V, Kabutha C, Kabuage L, Githure J, Mutero C: Malaria vector control practices in an irrigated rice agro-ecosystem in central kenya and implications for malaria control. Malar J. 2008, 7: 146-10.1186/1475-2875-7-146.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Ng'ang'a ZW, Shililu J, Jayasinghe G, Kimani V, Kabutha C, Kabuage L, Githure J, Mutero C: Malaria vector control practices in an irrigated rice agro-ecosystem in central kenya and implications for malaria control. Malar J. 2008, 7: 146-10.1186/1475-2875-7-146.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
55.
go back to reference Diuk-Wasser MA, Touré MB, Dolo G, Bagayoko M, Sogoba N, Sissoko I, Traoré SF, Taylor CE: Effect of rice cultivation patterns on malaria vector abundance in rice-growing villages in Mali. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007, 76: 869-874.PubMedCentralPubMed Diuk-Wasser MA, Touré MB, Dolo G, Bagayoko M, Sogoba N, Sissoko I, Traoré SF, Taylor CE: Effect of rice cultivation patterns on malaria vector abundance in rice-growing villages in Mali. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007, 76: 869-874.PubMedCentralPubMed
56.
go back to reference Killeen GF, Smith TA, Ferguson HM, Mshinda H, Abdulla S, Lengeler C, Kachur SP: Preventing childhood malaria in Africa by protecting adults from mosquitoes with insecticide-treated nets. PLoS Med. 2007, 4: e229-10.1371/journal.pmed.0040229.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Killeen GF, Smith TA, Ferguson HM, Mshinda H, Abdulla S, Lengeler C, Kachur SP: Preventing childhood malaria in Africa by protecting adults from mosquitoes with insecticide-treated nets. PLoS Med. 2007, 4: e229-10.1371/journal.pmed.0040229.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
57.
go back to reference Nathan R, Masanja H, Mshinda H, Schellenberg JA, De Savigny D, Lengeler C, Tanner M, Victoria CG: Mosquito nets and the poor: can social marketing redress inequalities in access?. Trop Med Int Health. 2004, 9: 1121-1126. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01309.x.CrossRefPubMed Nathan R, Masanja H, Mshinda H, Schellenberg JA, De Savigny D, Lengeler C, Tanner M, Victoria CG: Mosquito nets and the poor: can social marketing redress inequalities in access?. Trop Med Int Health. 2004, 9: 1121-1126. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01309.x.CrossRefPubMed
58.
go back to reference England R: Towards sustainable malaria control. Lancet. 2007, 370: 1864-10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61714-0.CrossRef England R: Towards sustainable malaria control. Lancet. 2007, 370: 1864-10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61714-0.CrossRef
59.
go back to reference Skarbinski J, Massaga JJ, Rowe AK, Kachur SP: Distribution of free, untreated bednets bundled with insecticide via an integrated child health campaign in Lindi region, Tanzania: lessons for future campaigns. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007, 76: 1100-1106.PubMed Skarbinski J, Massaga JJ, Rowe AK, Kachur SP: Distribution of free, untreated bednets bundled with insecticide via an integrated child health campaign in Lindi region, Tanzania: lessons for future campaigns. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007, 76: 1100-1106.PubMed
60.
go back to reference Teklehaimanot A, Sachs JD, Curtis C: Malaria control needs mass distribution of insecticidal bednets. Lancet. 2007, 369: 2143-2146. 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60951-9.CrossRefPubMed Teklehaimanot A, Sachs JD, Curtis C: Malaria control needs mass distribution of insecticidal bednets. Lancet. 2007, 369: 2143-2146. 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60951-9.CrossRefPubMed
61.
go back to reference Khatib RA, Killeen GF, Abdulla S, Kahigwa E, McElroy PD, Gerrets RPM, Mshinda H, Mwita A, Kachur SP: Markets, voucher subsidies and free nets combine to achieve high bednet coverage in rural Tanzania. Malar J. 2008, 7: 98-10.1186/1475-2875-7-98.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Khatib RA, Killeen GF, Abdulla S, Kahigwa E, McElroy PD, Gerrets RPM, Mshinda H, Mwita A, Kachur SP: Markets, voucher subsidies and free nets combine to achieve high bednet coverage in rural Tanzania. Malar J. 2008, 7: 98-10.1186/1475-2875-7-98.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
62.
go back to reference Pettifor A, Taylor E, Nku D, Duvall S, Tabala M, Mwandagalirwa K, Meshnick S, Behets F: Free distribution of insecticide treated bed nets to pregnant women in Kinshasa: an effective way to achieve 80% use by women and their newborns. Trop Med Int Health. 2009, 9: 1121-1126. Pettifor A, Taylor E, Nku D, Duvall S, Tabala M, Mwandagalirwa K, Meshnick S, Behets F: Free distribution of insecticide treated bed nets to pregnant women in Kinshasa: an effective way to achieve 80% use by women and their newborns. Trop Med Int Health. 2009, 9: 1121-1126.
63.
go back to reference Brooker S, Clarke S, Snow RW, Bundy DAP: Malaria in African schoolchildren: options for control. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2008, 102: 304-305. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.01.010.CrossRef Brooker S, Clarke S, Snow RW, Bundy DAP: Malaria in African schoolchildren: options for control. Trans R Soc Trop Med. 2008, 102: 304-305. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.01.010.CrossRef
64.
go back to reference Walker K, Lynch M: Contributions of Anopheles larval control to malaria suppression in tropical Africa: review of achievements and potential. Med Vet Entomol. 2007, 21: 2-21. 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2007.00674.x.CrossRefPubMed Walker K, Lynch M: Contributions of Anopheles larval control to malaria suppression in tropical Africa: review of achievements and potential. Med Vet Entomol. 2007, 21: 2-21. 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2007.00674.x.CrossRefPubMed
65.
go back to reference Killeen GF, Knols BG, Gu W: Taking malaria tranmission out of the bottle: implications of mosquito dispersal for vector-control interventions. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003, 3: 297-303. 10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00611-X.CrossRefPubMed Killeen GF, Knols BG, Gu W: Taking malaria tranmission out of the bottle: implications of mosquito dispersal for vector-control interventions. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003, 3: 297-303. 10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00611-X.CrossRefPubMed
66.
go back to reference Yohannes M, Haile M, Ghebreyesus TA, Witten KH, Getachew A, Byass P, Lindsay S: Can source reduction of mosquito larval habitat reduce malaria transmission in Tigray, Ethiopia?. 2005, 10: 1274-1285. Yohannes M, Haile M, Ghebreyesus TA, Witten KH, Getachew A, Byass P, Lindsay S: Can source reduction of mosquito larval habitat reduce malaria transmission in Tigray, Ethiopia?. 2005, 10: 1274-1285.
67.
go back to reference Geissbühler Y, Kannady K, Chaki PP, Emidi B, Govella NJ, Mayagaya V, Kiama M, Mtasiwa D, Mshinda H, Lindsay S, Tanner M, Fillinger U, de Castro MC, Killeen GF: Microbial larvicide application by a large-scale, community-based program reduces malaria infection prevalence in urban Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PLoS ONE. 2009, 4: e5107-10.1371/journal.pone.0005107.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Geissbühler Y, Kannady K, Chaki PP, Emidi B, Govella NJ, Mayagaya V, Kiama M, Mtasiwa D, Mshinda H, Lindsay S, Tanner M, Fillinger U, de Castro MC, Killeen GF: Microbial larvicide application by a large-scale, community-based program reduces malaria infection prevalence in urban Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PLoS ONE. 2009, 4: e5107-10.1371/journal.pone.0005107.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
68.
go back to reference Fillinger U, Kannady K, William G, Vanek MJ, Dongus S, Nyika D, Geissbühler Y, Chaki PP, Govella NJ, Mathenge EM, Singer BH, Mshinda H, Lindsay SW, Tanner M, Mtasiwa D, de Castro MC, Killeen GF: A tool box for operational mosquito larval control: preliminary results and early lessons from the Urban Malaria Control Programme in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Malar J. 2008, 7: 20-10.1186/1475-2875-7-20.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Fillinger U, Kannady K, William G, Vanek MJ, Dongus S, Nyika D, Geissbühler Y, Chaki PP, Govella NJ, Mathenge EM, Singer BH, Mshinda H, Lindsay SW, Tanner M, Mtasiwa D, de Castro MC, Killeen GF: A tool box for operational mosquito larval control: preliminary results and early lessons from the Urban Malaria Control Programme in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Malar J. 2008, 7: 20-10.1186/1475-2875-7-20.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
69.
go back to reference Lautze J, McCartney M, Kirshen P, Olana D, Jayasinghe G, Spielman A: Effect of a large dam on malaria risk: the Koka reservoir in Ethiopia. Trop Med Int Health. 2007, 12: 982-989. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01878.x.CrossRefPubMed Lautze J, McCartney M, Kirshen P, Olana D, Jayasinghe G, Spielman A: Effect of a large dam on malaria risk: the Koka reservoir in Ethiopia. Trop Med Int Health. 2007, 12: 982-989. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01878.x.CrossRefPubMed
70.
go back to reference Ghebreyesus TA, Haile M, Witten KH, Getachew A, Yohannes AM, Yohannes M, Teklehaimanot HD, Lindsay SW, Byass P: Incidence of malaria among children living near dams in northern Ethiopia: community based incidence survey. BMJ. 1999, 319: 663-666.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Ghebreyesus TA, Haile M, Witten KH, Getachew A, Yohannes AM, Yohannes M, Teklehaimanot HD, Lindsay SW, Byass P: Incidence of malaria among children living near dams in northern Ethiopia: community based incidence survey. BMJ. 1999, 319: 663-666.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Plasmodium infection and its risk factors in eastern Uganda
Authors
Rachel L Pullan
Hasifa Bukirwa
Sarah G Staedke
Robert W Snow
Simon Brooker
Publication date
01-12-2010
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Malaria Journal / Issue 1/2010
Electronic ISSN: 1475-2875
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-9-2

Other articles of this Issue 1/2010

Malaria Journal 1/2010 Go to the issue
Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Highlights from the ACC 2024 Congress

Year in Review: Pediatric cardiology

Watch Dr. Anne Marie Valente present the last year's highlights in pediatric and congenital heart disease in the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Pulmonary vascular disease

The last year's highlights in pulmonary vascular disease are presented by Dr. Jane Leopold in this official video from ACC.24.

Year in Review: Valvular heart disease

Watch Prof. William Zoghbi present the last year's highlights in valvular heart disease from the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discuss last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.