Top

Published in:

Open Access 01-12-2012 | Review

Understanding the population genetics of Plasmodium vivax is essential for malaria control and elimination

Authors: Alicia Arnott, Alyssa E Barry, John C Reeder

Published in: Malaria Journal | Issue 1/2012

Abstract

Traditionally, infection with Plasmodium vivax was thought to be benign and self-limiting, however, recent evidence has demonstrated that infection with P. vivax can also result in severe illness and death. Research into P. vivax has been relatively neglected and much remains unknown regarding the biology, pathogenesis and epidemiology of this parasite. One of the fundamental factors governing transmission and immunity is parasite diversity. An understanding of parasite population genetic structure is necessary to understand the epidemiology, diversity, distribution and dynamics of natural P. vivax populations. In addition, studying the population structure of genes under immune selection also enables investigation of the dynamic interplay between transmission and immunity, which is crucial for vaccine development. A lack of knowledge regarding the transmission and spread of P. vivax has been particularly highlighted in areas where malaria control and elimination programmes have made progress in reducing the burden of Plasmodium falciparum, yet P. vivax remains as a substantial obstacle. With malaria elimination back on the global agenda, mapping of global and local P. vivax population structure is essential prior to establishing goals for elimination and the roll-out of interventions. A detailed knowledge of the spatial distribution, transmission and clinical burden of P. vivax is required to act as a benchmark against which control targets can be set and measured. This paper presents an overview of what is known and what is yet to be fully understood regarding P. vivax population genetics, as well as the importance and application of P. vivax population genetics studies.

Guerra CA, Howes RE, Patil AP, Gething PW, Van Boeckel TP, Temperley WH, Kabaria CW, Tatem AJ, Manh BH, Elyazar IR, Baird JK, Snow RW, Hay SI: The international limits and population at risk of Plasmodium vivax transmission in 2009. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010, 4: e774-10.1371/journal.pntd.0000774.PubMedCentralPubMed

Ferreira MU, Karunaweera ND, da Silva-Nunes M, da Silva NS, Wirth DF, Hartl DL: Population structure and transmission dynamics of Plasmodium vivax in rural Amazonia. J Infect Dis. 2007, 195: 1218-1226. 10.1086/512685.PubMed

Kasehagen LJ, Mueller I, McNamara DT, Bockarie MJ, Kiniboro B, Rare L, Lorry K, Kastens W, Reeder JC, Kazura JW, Zimmerman PA: Changing patterns of Plasmodium blood-stage infections in the Wosera region of Papua New Guinea monitored by light microscopy and high throughput PCR diagnosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 588-596.PubMedCentralPubMed

Jun G, Yeom JS, Hong JY, Shin EH, Chang KS, Yu JR, Oh S, Chung H, Park JW: Resurgence of Plasmodium vivax malaria in the Republic of Korea during 2006-2007. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 81: 605-610. 10.4269/ajtmh.2009.09-0111.PubMed

Carme B, Ardillon V, Girod R, Grenier C, Joubert M, Djossou F, Ravachol F: Update on the epidemiology of malaria in French Guiana. Med Trop (Mars). 2009, 69: 19-25.

Mendis K, Sina BJ, Marchesini P, Carter R: The neglected burden of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 64: 97-106.PubMed

Price RN, Tjitra E, Guerra CA, Yeung S, White NJ, Anstey NM: Vivax malaria: neglected and not benign. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007, 77: 79-87.PubMedCentralPubMed

Mueller I, Galinski MR, Baird JK, Carlton JM, Kochar DK, Alonso PL, del Portillo HA: Key gaps in the knowledge of Plasmodium vivax, a neglected human malaria parasite. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009, 9: 555-566. 10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70177-X.PubMed

Genton B, D'Acremont V, Rare L, Baea K, Reeder JC, Alpers MP, Muller I: Plasmodium vivax and mixed infections are associated with severe malaria in children: a prospective cohort study from Papua New Guinea. PLoS Med. 2008, 5: e127-10.1371/journal.pmed.0050127.PubMedCentralPubMed

10.

Tjitra E, Anstey NM, Sugiarto P, Warikar N, Kenangalem E, Karyana M, Lampah DA, Price RN: Multidrug-resistant Plasmodium vivax associated with severe and fatal malaria: a prospective study in Papua, Indonesia. PLoS Med. 2008, 5: e128-10.1371/journal.pmed.0050128.PubMedCentralPubMed

11.

Alexandre MA, Ferreira CO, Siqueira AM, Magalhaes BL, Mourao MP, Lacerda MV, Alecrim MG: Severe Plasmodium vivax malaria, Brazilian Amazon. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010, 16: 1611-1614.PubMedCentralPubMed

12.

Barcus MJ, Basri H, Picarima H, Manyakori C, Sekartuti , Elyazar I, Bangs MJ, Maguire JD, Baird JK: Demographic risk factors for severe and fatal vivax and falciparum malaria among hospital admissions in northeastern Indonesian Papua. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007, 77: 984-991.PubMed

13.

Fernandez-Becerra C, Pinazo MJ, Gonzalez A, Alonso PL, del Portillo HA, Gascon J: Increased expression levels of the pvcrt-o and pvmdr1 genes in a patient with severe Plasmodium vivax malaria. Malar J. 2009, 8: 55-10.1186/1475-2875-8-55.PubMedCentralPubMed

14.

Kochar DK, Das A, Kochar SK, Saxena V, Sirohi P, Garg S, Kochar A, Khatri MP, Gupta V: Severe Plasmodium vivax malaria: a report on serial cases from Bikaner in northwestern India. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 80: 194-198.PubMed

15.

Shrinking the Malaria Map: A Prospectus on Malaria Elimination. Edited by: Feachem RGA, Phillips AA, Targett GA. 2009, San Francisco: The Global Health Group, Global Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, First

16.

The maIERA Consultative Group on Drugs: A research agenda for malaria eradication: drugs. PLoS Med. 2011, 8: e1000402

17.

Baird JK, Hoffman SL: Primaquine therapy for malaria. Clin Infect Dis. 2004, 39: 1336-1345. 10.1086/424663.PubMed

18.

Joshi H, Prajapati SK, Verma A, Kang'a S, Carlton JM: Plasmodium vivax in India. Trends Parasitol. 2008, 24: 228-235. 10.1016/j.pt.2008.01.007.PubMed

19.

Schultz L, Wapling J, Mueller I, Ntsuke PO, Senn N, Nale J, Kiniboro B, Buckee CO, Tavul L, Siba PM, Reeder JC, Barry AE: Multilocus haplotypes reveal variable levels of diversity and population structure of Plasmodium falciparum in Papua New Guinea, a region of intense perennial transmission. Malar J. 2010, 9: 336-10.1186/1475-2875-9-336.PubMedCentralPubMed

20.

Joy DA, Gonzalez-Ceron L, Carlton JM, Gueye A, Fay M, McCutchan TF, Su XZ: Local adaptation and vector-mediated population structure in Plasmodium vivax malaria. Mol Biol Evol. 2008, 25: 1245-1252. 10.1093/molbev/msn073.PubMedCentralPubMed

21.

Reid H, Vallely A, Taleo G, Tatem AJ, Kelly G, Riley I, Harris I, Henri I, Iamaher S, Clements AC: Baseline spatial distribution of malaria prior to an elimination programme in Vanuatu. Malar J. 2010, 9: 150-10.1186/1475-2875-9-150.PubMedCentralPubMed

22.

Grynberg P, Fontes CJ, Hughes AL, Braga EM: Polymorphism at the apical membrane antigen 1 locus reflects the world population history of Plasmodium vivax. BMC Evol Biol. 2008, 8: 123-10.1186/1471-2148-8-123.PubMedCentralPubMed

23.

Cui L, Escalante AA, Imwong M, Snounou G: The genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax populations. Trends Parasitol. 2003, 19: 220-226. 10.1016/S1471-4922(03)00085-0.PubMed

24.

Baum J, Billker O, Bousema T, Dinglasan R, McGovern V, Mota MM, Mueller I, Sinden R: A research agenda for malaria eradication: basic science and enabling technologies. PLoS Med. 2011, 8: e1000399

25.

Havryliuk T, Ferreira MU: A closer look at multiple-clone Plasmodium vivax infections: detection methods, prevalence and consequences. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009, 104: 67-73.PubMed

26.

Karunaweera ND, Ferreira MU, Munasinghe A, Barnwell JW, Collins WE, King CL, Kawamoto F, Hartl DL, Wirth DF: Extensive microsatellite diversity in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax. Gene. 2008, 410: 105-112. 10.1016/j.gene.2007.11.022.PubMed

27.

Imwong M, Nair S, Pukrittayakamee S, Sudimack D, Williams JT, Mayxay M, Newton PN, Kim JR, Nandy A, Osorio L, Carlton JM, White NJ, Day NP, Anderson TJ: Contrasting genetic structure in Plasmodium vivax populations from Asia and South America. Int J Parasitol. 2007, 37: 1013-1022. 10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.02.010.PubMed

28.

Van den Eede P, Van der Auwera G, Delgado C, Huyse T, Soto-Calle VE, Gamboa D, Grande T, Rodriguez H, Llanos A, Anne J, Erhart A, D'Alessandro U: Multilocus genotyping reveals high heterogeneity and strong local population structure of the Plasmodium vivax population in the Peruvian Amazon. Malar J. 2010, 9: 151-10.1186/1475-2875-9-151.PubMedCentralPubMed

29.

Brito CF, Ferreira MU: Molecular markers and genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2011, 106: (Suppl 1):12-26.PubMed

30.

Imwong M, Pukrittayakamee S, Gruner AC, Renia L, Letourneur F, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, Snounou G: Practical PCR genotyping protocols for Plasmodium vivax using Pvcs and Pvmsp1. Malar J. 2005, 4: 20-10.1186/1475-2875-4-20.PubMedCentralPubMed

31.

Cui L, Mascorro CN, Fan Q, Rzomp KA, Khuntirat B, Zhou G, Chen H, Yan G, Sattabongkot J: Genetic diversity and multiple infections of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Western Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003, 68: 613-619.PubMed

32.

Rungsihirunrat K, Chaijaroenkul W, Siripoon N, Seugorn A, Na-Bangchang K: Genotyping of polymorphic marker (MSP3alpha and MSP3beta) genes of Plasmodium vivax field isolates from malaria endemic of Thailand. Trop Med Int Health. 2011, 16: 794-801. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02771.x.PubMed

33.

Van den Eede P, Erhart A, Van der Auwera G, Van Overmeir C, Thang ND, Hung le X, Anne J, D'Alessandro U: High complexity of Plasmodium vivax infections in symptomatic patients from a rural community in central Vietnam detected by microsatellite genotyping. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010, 82: 223-227. 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0458.PubMed

34.

Prajapati SK, Verma A, Adak T, Yadav RS, Kumar A, Eapen A, Das MK, Singh N, Sharma SK, Rizvi MA, Dash AP, Joshi H: Allelic dimorphism of Plasmodium vivax gam-1 in the Indian subcontinent. Malar J. 2006, 5: 90-10.1186/1475-2875-5-90.PubMedCentralPubMed

35.

Kim JR, Imwong M, Nandy A, Chotivanich K, Nontprasert A, Tonomsing N, Maji A, Addy M, Day NP, White NJ, Pukrittayakamee S: Genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax in Kolkata, India. Malar J. 2006, 5: 71-10.1186/1475-2875-5-71.PubMedCentralPubMed

36.

Wickramarachchi T, Premaratne PH, Dias S, Handunnetti SM, Udagama-Randeniya PV: Genetic complexity of Plasmodium vivax infections in Sri Lanka, as reflected at the merozoite-surface-protein-3alpha locus. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2010, 104: 95-108. 10.1179/136485910X12607012374190.PubMed

37.

Gunawardena S, Karunaweera ND, Ferreira MU, Phone-Kyaw M, Pollack RJ, Alifrangis M, Rajakaruna RS, Konradsen F, Amerasinghe PH, Schousboe ML, Galappaththy GN, Abeyasinghe RR, Hartl DL, Wirth DF: Geographic structure of Plasmodium vivax: microsatellite analysis of parasite populations from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Ethiopia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010, 82: 235-242. 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0588.PubMedCentralPubMed

38.

Khatoon L, Baliraine FN, Bonizzoni M, Malik SA, Yan G: Genetic structure of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum in the Bannu district of Pakistan. Malar J. 2010, 9: 112-10.1186/1475-2875-9-112.PubMedCentralPubMed

39.

Zakeri S, Raeisi A, Afsharpad M, Kakar Q, Ghasemi F, Atta H, Zamani G, Memon MS, Salehi M, Djadid ND: Molecular characterization of Plasmodium vivax clinical isolates in Pakistan and Iran using pvmsp-1, pvmsp-3alpha and pvcsp genes as molecular markers. Parasitol Int. 2010, 59: 15-21. 10.1016/j.parint.2009.06.006.PubMed

40.

Yang Z, Miao J, Huang Y, Li X, Putaporntip C, Jongwutiwes S, Gao Q, Udomsangpetch R, Sattabongkot J, Cui L: Genetic structures of geographically distinct Plasmodium vivax populations assessed by PCR/RFLP analysis of the merozoite surface protein 3beta gene. Acta Trop. 2006, 100: 205-212. 10.1016/j.actatropica.2006.10.011.PubMedCentralPubMed

41.

Zhong D, Bonizzoni M, Zhou G, Wang G, Chen B, Vardo-Zalik A, Cui L, Yan G, Zheng B: Genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax malaria in China and Myanmar. Infect Genet Evol. 2011, 11: 1419-1425. 10.1016/j.meegid.2011.05.009.PubMedCentralPubMed

42.

Kim TS, Kim HH, Lee SS, Na BK, Lin K, Cho SH, Kang YJ, Kim DK, Sohn Y, Kim H, Lee HW: Prevalence of Plasmodium vivax VK210 and VK247 subtype in Myanmar. Malar J. 2010, 9: 195-10.1186/1475-2875-9-195.PubMedCentralPubMed

43.

Moon SU, Lee HW, Kim JY, Na BK, Cho SH, Lin K, Sohn WM, Kim TS: High frequency of genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax field isolates in Myanmar. Acta Trop. 2009, 109: 30-36. 10.1016/j.actatropica.2008.09.006.PubMed

44.

Chen N, Auliff A, Rieckmann K, Gatton M, Cheng Q: Relapses of Plasmodium vivax infection result from clonal hypnozoites activated at predetermined intervals. J Infect Dis. 2007, 195: 934-941. 10.1086/512242.PubMed

45.

Zakeri S, Dinparast Djadid N, Zeinali S: Sequence heterogeneity of the merozoite surface protein-1 gene (MSP-1) of Plasmodium vivax wild isolates in southeastern Iran. Acta Trop. 2003, 88: 91-97. 10.1016/S0001-706X(03)00192-X.PubMed

46.

Zakeri S, Abouie Mehrizi A, Djadid ND, Snounou G: Circumsporozoite protein gene diversity among temperate and tropical Plasmodium vivax isolates from Iran. Trop Med Int Health. 2006, 11: 729-737. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01613.x.PubMed

47.

Zakeri S, Barjesteh H, Djadid ND: Merozoite surface protein-3alpha is a reliable marker for population genetic analysis of Plasmodium vivax. Malar J. 2006, 5: 53-10.1186/1475-2875-5-53.PubMedCentralPubMed

48.

Severini C, Menegon M, Di Luca M, Abdullaev I, Majori G, Razakov SA, Gradoni L: Risk of Plasmodium vivax malaria reintroduction in Uzbekistan: genetic characterization of parasites and status of potential malaria vectors in the Surkhandarya region. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2004, 98: 585-592. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2004.01.003.PubMed

49.

Zakeri S, Safi N, Afsharpad M, Butt W, Ghasemi F, Mehrizi AA, Atta H, Zamani G, Djadid ND: Genetic structure of Plasmodium vivax isolates from two malaria endemic areas in Afghanistan. Acta Trop. 2010, 113: 12-19. 10.1016/j.actatropica.2009.08.025.PubMed

50.

Zeyrek FY, Tachibana S, Yuksel F, Doni N, Palacpac N, Arisue N, Horii T, Coban C, Tanabe K: Limited polymorphism of the Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface protein 1 gene in isolates from Turkey. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010, 83: 1230-1237. 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.10-0353.PubMedCentralPubMed

51.

Sutton PL, Neyra V, Hernandez JN, Branch OH: Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax infections in the Peruvian Amazon: propagation of complex, multiple allele-type infections without super-infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 81: 950-960. 10.4269/ajtmh.2009.09-0132.PubMedCentralPubMed

52.

Rezende AM, Tarazona-Santos E, Couto AD, Fontes CJ, De Souza JM, Carvalho LH, Brito CF: Analysis of genetic variability of Plasmodium vivax isolates from different Brazilian Amazon areas using tandem repeats. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 80: 729-733.PubMed

53.

Rezende AM, Tarazona-Santos E, Fontes CJ, Souza JM, Couto AD, Carvalho LH, Brito CF: Microsatellite loci: determining the genetic variability of Plasmodium vivax. Trop Med Int Health. 2010, 15: 718-726. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02535.x.PubMed

54.

Storti-Melo LM, de Souza-Neiras WC, Cassiano GC, Joazeiro AC, Fontes CJ, Bonini-Domingos CR, Couto AA, Povoa MM, de Mattos LC, Cavasini CE, Rossit AR, Machado RL: Plasmodium vivax circumsporozoite variants and Duffy blood group genotypes in the Brazilian Amazon region. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 103: 672-678. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.07.018.PubMed

55.

Orjuela-Sanchez P, da Silva NS, da Silva-Nunes M, Ferreira MU: Recurrent parasitemias and population dynamics of Plasmodium vivax polymorphisms in rural Amazonia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 81: 961-968. 10.4269/ajtmh.2009.09-0337.PubMed

56.

Veron V, Legrand E, Yrinesi J, Volney B, Simon S, Carme B: Genetic diversity of msp3alpha and msp1_b5 markers of Plasmodium vivax in French Guiana. Malar J. 2009, 8: 40-10.1186/1475-2875-8-40.PubMedCentralPubMed

57.

Bonilla JA, Validum L, Cummings R, Palmer CJ: Genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax Pvcsp and Pvmsp1 in Guyana, South America. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 830-835.PubMed

58.

Cristiano FA, Perez MA, Nicholls RS, Guerra AP: Polymorphism in the Plasmodium vivax msp 3: gene in field samples from Tierralta, Colombia. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2008, 103: 493-496. 10.1590/S0074-02762008000500015.PubMed

59.

Ord R, Polley S, Tami A, Sutherland CJ: High sequence diversity and evidence of balancing selection in the Pvmsp3alpha gene of Plasmodium vivax in the Venezuelan Amazon. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2005, 144: 86-93. 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2005.08.005.PubMed

60.

Leclerc MC, Gauthier C, Villegas L, Urdaneta L: Genetic diversity of merozoite surface protein-1 gene of Plasmodium vivax isolates in mining villages of Venezuela (Bolivar State). Acta Trop. 2005, 95: 26-32. 10.1016/j.actatropica.2005.03.007.PubMed

61.

Henry-Halldin CN, Sepe D, Susapu M, McNamara DT, Bockarie M, King CL, Zimmerman PA: High-throughput molecular diagnosis of circumsporozoite variants VK210 and VK247 detects complex Plasmodium vivax infections in malaria endemic populations in Papua New Guinea. Infect Genet Evol. 2011, 11: 391-398. 10.1016/j.meegid.2010.11.010.PubMedCentralPubMed

62.

Mueller I, Kaiok J, Reeder JC, Cortes A: The population structure of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax during an epidemic of malaria in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002, 67: 459-464.PubMed

63.

Koepfli C, Mueller I, Marfurt J, Goroti M, Sie A, Oa O, Genton B, Beck HP, Felger I: Evaluation of Plasmodium vivax genotyping markers for molecular monitoring in clinical trials. J Infect Dis. 2009, 199: 1074-1080. 10.1086/597303.PubMed

64.

Gomez JC, McNamara DT, Bockarie MJ, Baird JK, Carlton JM, Zimmerman PA: Identification of a polymorphic Plasmodium vivax microsatellite marker. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003, 69: 377-379.PubMedCentralPubMed

65.

Anderson TJ, Haubold B, Williams JT, Estrada-Franco JG, Richardson L, Mollinedo R, Bockarie M, Mokili J, Mharakurwa S, French N, Whitworth J, Velez ID, Brockman AH, Nosten F, Ferreira MU, Day KP: Microsatellite markers reveal a spectrum of population structures in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biol Evol. 2000, 17: 1467-1482.PubMed

66.

Mu J, Awadalla P, Duan J, McGee KM, Joy DA, McVean GA, Su XZ: Recombination hotspots and population structure in Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS Biol. 2005, 3: e335-10.1371/journal.pbio.0030335.PubMedCentralPubMed

67.

Anderson TJ, Su XZ, Bockarie M, Lagog M, Day KP: Twelve microsatellite markers for characterization of Plasmodium falciparum from finger-prick blood samples. Parasitology. 1999, 119 (Pt 2): 113-125.PubMed

68.

Imwong M, Sudimack D, Pukrittayakamee S, Osorio L, Carlton JM, Day NP, White NJ, Anderson TJ: Microsatellite variation, repeat array length, and population history of Plasmodium vivax. Mol Biol Evol. 2006, 23: 1016-1018. 10.1093/molbev/msj116.PubMed

69.

Russell B, Suwanarusk R, Lek-Uthai U: Plasmodium vivax genetic diversity: microsatellite length matters. Trends Parasitol. 2006, 22: 399-401. 10.1016/j.pt.2006.06.013.PubMed

70.

Leclerc MC, Durand P, Gauthier C, Patot S, Billotte N, Menegon M, Severini C, Ayala FJ, Renaud F: Meager genetic variability of the human malaria agent Plasmodium vivax. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004, 101: 14455-14460. 10.1073/pnas.0405186101.PubMedCentralPubMed

71.

de Souza-Neiras WC, de Melo LM, Machado RL: The genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax--a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2007, 102: 245-254.PubMed

72.

Koepfli C, Schoepflin S, Bretscher M, Lin E, Kiniboro B, Zimmerman PA, Siba P, Smith TA, Mueller I, Felger I: How much remains undetected? Probability of molecular detection of human plasmodia in the field. PLoS One. 2011, 6: e19010-10.1371/journal.pone.0019010.PubMedCentralPubMed

73.

Bruce MC, Galinski MR, Barnwell JW, Donnelly CA, Walmsley M, Alpers MP, Walliker D, Day KP: Genetic diversity and dynamics of plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax populations in multiply infected children with asymptomatic malaria infections in Papua New Guinea. Parasitology. 2000, 121 (Pt 3): 257-272.PubMed

74.

Daubersies P, Sallenave-Sales S, Magne S, Trape JF, Contamin H, Fandeur T, Rogier C, Mercereau-Puijalon O, Druilhe P: Rapid turnover of Plasmodium falciparum populations in asymptomatic individuals living in a high transmission area. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996, 54: 18-26.PubMed

75.

Guerra CA, Hay SI, Lucioparedes LS, Gikandi PW, Tatem AJ, Noor AM, Snow RW: Assembling a global database of malaria parasite prevalence for the Malaria Atlas Project. Malar J. 2007, 6: 17-10.1186/1475-2875-6-17.PubMedCentralPubMed

76.

Moonen B, Cohen JM, Snow RW, Slutsker L, Drakeley C, Smith DL, Abeyasinghe RR, Rodriguez MH, Maharaj R, Tanner M, Targett G: Operational strategies to achieve and maintain malaria elimination. Lancet. 2010, 376: 1592-1603. 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61269-X.PubMedCentralPubMed

77.

The Pacific Malaria Initiative Survey Group (PMISG) on behalf of the Ministries of Health of Vanuatu and Solomon Islands: Malaria on isolated Melanesian islands prior to the initiation of malaria elimination activities. Malar J. 2010, 9: 218

78.

Maguire JD, Bangs MJ, Brennan L, Rieckmann K, Taleo G: Cross-sectional characterization of malaria in Sanma and Shefa Provinces, Republic of Vanuatu: malaria control implications. P N G Med J. 2006, 49: 22-31.PubMed

79.

Maitland K, Williams TN, Peto TE, Day KP, Clegg JB, Weatherall DJ, Bowden DK: Absence of malaria-specific mortality in children in an area of hyperendemic malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997, 91: 562-566. 10.1016/S0035-9203(97)90026-2.PubMed

80.

Hii JL, Kanai L, Foligela A, Kan SK, Burkot TR, Wirtz RA: Impact of permethrin-impregnated mosquito nets compared with DDT house-spraying against malaria transmission by Anopheles farauti and An.punctulatus in the Solomon Islands. Med Vet Entomol. 1993, 7: 333-338. 10.1111/j.1365-2915.1993.tb00701.x.PubMed

81.

Feachem R, Sabot O: A new global malaria eradication strategy. Lancet. 2008, 371: 1633-1635. 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60424-9.PubMed

82.

Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Delgado L, Martinez N, Franco-Paredes C: Impact of imported malaria on the burden of disease in northeastern Venezuela. J Travel Med. 2006, 13: 15-20. 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2006.00006.x.PubMed

83.

Khan FY, Lutof AK, Yassin MA, Khattab MA, Saleh M, Rezeq HY, Almaslamani M: Imported malaria in Qatar: a 1 year hospital-based study in 2005. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2009, 7: 111-117. 10.1016/j.tmaid.2009.01.003.PubMed

84.

Choi KM, Choi YK, Kang YA, Seo SY, Lee HW, Cho SH, Lee WJ, Rhie HG, Lee HS, Kim JY: Study of the genetic discrimination between imported and autochthonous cases of malaria in South Korea. J Travel Med. 2011, 18: 63-66. 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2010.00473.x.PubMed

85.

Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Ferrer MV, Barrera MA, Pacheco M, Daza V, Franco-Paredes C: Imported cases of malaria admitted to two hospitals of Margarita Island, Venezuela, 1998-2005. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2009, 7: 44-48. 10.1016/j.tmaid.2008.09.006.PubMed

86.

Gatton ML, Cheng Q: Can estimates of antimalarial efficacy from field studies be improved?. Trends Parasitol. 2008, 24: 68-73. 10.1016/j.pt.2007.11.003.PubMedCentralPubMed

87.

Imwong M, Snounou G, Pukrittayakamee S, Tanomsing N, Kim JR, Nandy A, Guthmann JP, Nosten F, Carlton J, Looareesuwan S, Nair S, Sudimack D, Day NP, Anderson TJ, White NJ: Relapses of Plasmodium vivax infection usually result from activation of heterologous hypnozoites. J Infect Dis. 2007, 195: 927-933. 10.1086/512241.PubMed

88.

Teka H, Petros B, Yamuah L, Tesfaye G, Elhassan I, Muchohi S, Kokwaro G, Aseffa A, Engers H: Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax malaria in Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. Malar J. 2008, 7: 220-10.1186/1475-2875-7-220.PubMedCentralPubMed

89.

Havryliuk T, Orjuela-Sanchez P, Ferreira MU: Plasmodium vivax: microsatellite analysis of multiple-clone infections. Exp Parasitol. 2008, 120: 330-336. 10.1016/j.exppara.2008.08.012.PubMed

90.

Jongwutiwes S, Putaporntip C, Hughes AL: Bottleneck effects on vaccine-candidate antigen diversity of malaria parasites in Thailand. Vaccine. 2010, 28: 3112-3117. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.02.062.PubMedCentralPubMed

91.

Galinski MR, Barnwell JW: Plasmodium vivax: who cares?. Malar J. 2008, 7 (Suppl 1): S9-10.1186/1475-2875-7-S1-S9.PubMedCentralPubMed

92.

Golenda CF, Li J, Rosenberg R: Continuous in vitro propagation of the malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1997, 94: 6786-6791. 10.1073/pnas.94.13.6786.PubMedCentralPubMed

93.

Mons B, Collins WE, Skinner JC, van der Star W, Croon JJ, van der Kaay HJ: Plasmodium vivax: in vitro growth and reinvasion in red blood cells of Aotus nancymai. Exp Parasitol. 1988, 66: 183-188. 10.1016/0014-4894(88)90089-6.PubMed

94.

Chotivanich K, Silamut K, Udomsangpetch R, Stepniewska KA, Pukrittayakamee S, Looareesuwan S, White NJ: Ex-vivo short-term culture and developmental assessment of Plasmodium vivax. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 95: 677-680. 10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90113-0.PubMed

95.

Gentil F, Bargieri DY, Leite JA, Francoso KS, Patricio MB, Espindola NM, Vaz AJ, Palatnik-de-Sousa CB, Rodrigues MM, Costa FT, Soares IS: A recombinant vaccine based on domain II of Plasmodium vivax Apical Membrane Antigen 1 induces high antibody titres in mice. Vaccine. 2010, 28: 6183-6190. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.07.017.PubMed

96.

Weedall GD, Conway DJ: Detecting signatures of balancing selection to identify targets of anti-parasite immunity. Trends Parasitol. 2010, 26: 363-369. 10.1016/j.pt.2010.04.002.PubMed

97.

Gunasekera AM, Wickramarachchi T, Neafsey DE, Ganguli I, Perera L, Premaratne PH, Hartl D, Handunnetti SM, Udagama-Randeniya PV, Wirth DF: Genetic diversity and selection at the Plasmodium vivax apical membrane antigen-1 (PvAMA-1) locus in a Sri Lankan population. Mol Biol Evol. 2007, 24: 939-947. 10.1093/molbev/msm013.PubMed

98.

Richards JS, Beeson JG: The future for blood-stage vaccines against malaria. Immunol Cell Biol. 2009, 87: 377-390. 10.1038/icb.2009.27.PubMed

99.

Dias S, Longacre S, Escalante AA, Udagama-Randeniya PV: Genetic diversity and recombination at the C-terminal fragment of the merozoite surface protein-1 of Plasmodium vivax (PvMSP-1) in Sri Lanka. Infect Genet Evol. 2011, 11: 145-156. 10.1016/j.meegid.2010.09.007.PubMed

100.

Ferreira MU, da Silva Nunes M, Wunderlich G: Antigenic diversity and immune evasion by malaria parasites. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2004, 11: 987-995.PubMedCentralPubMed

101.

Arevalo-Herrera M, Chitnis C, Herrera S: Current status of Plasmodium vivax vaccine. Hum Vaccin. 2010, 6: 124-132. 10.4161/hv.6.1.9931.PubMed

102.

Remarque EJ, Faber BW, Kocken CH, Thomas AW: Apical membrane antigen 1: a malaria vaccine candidate in review. Trends Parasitol. 2008, 24: 74-84. 10.1016/j.pt.2007.12.002.PubMed

103.

Ord RL, Tami A, Sutherland CJ: ama1 genes of sympatric Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum from Venezuela differ significantly in genetic diversity and recombination frequency. PLoS One. 2008, 3: e3366-10.1371/journal.pone.0003366.PubMedCentralPubMed

104.

Polley SD, Chokejindachai W, Conway DJ: Allele frequency-based analyses robustly map sequence sites under balancing selection in a malaria vaccine candidate antigen. Genetics. 2003, 165: 555-561.PubMedCentralPubMed

Title: Understanding the population genetics of Plasmodium vivax is essential for malaria control and elimination
Authors: Alicia Arnott
Alyssa E Barry
John C Reeder
Publication date: 01-12-2012
Publisher: BioMed Central
Published in: Malaria Journal / Issue 1/2012
Electronic ISSN: 1475-2875
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-14

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Heart Failure Video

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

Springer Medicine

Understanding the population genetics of Plasmodium vivax is essential for malaria control and elimination

Abstract

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

Incentivised to exercise

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 1/2012

Light traps fail to estimate reliable malaria mosquito biting rates on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea

Anti-malarial drugs: how effective are they against Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes?

Policy options for deploying anti-malarial drugs in endemic countries: a population genetics approach

Plasmodium vivax malaria in Mali: a study from three different regions

CYP450 phenotyping and accurate mass identification of metabolites of the 8-aminoquinoline, anti-malarial drug primaquine

Routine delivery of artemisinin-based combination treatment at fixed health facilities reduces malaria prevalence in Tanzania: an observational study

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

Incentivised to exercise

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page