Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Arthritis Research & Therapy 4/2009

01-08-2009 | Review

Gout. Hyperuricemia and cardiovascular disease: how strong is the evidence for a causal link?

Authors: Angelo L Gaffo, N Lawrence Edwards, Kenneth G Saag

Published in: Arthritis Research & Therapy | Issue 4/2009

Login to get access

Abstract

An association between high levels of serum urate and cardiovascular disease has been proposed for many decades. However, it was only recently that compelling basic science data, small clinical trials, and epidemiological studies have provided support to the idea of a true causal effect. In this review we present recently published data that study the association between hyperuricemia and selected cardiovascular diseases, with a final conclusion about the possibility of this association being causal.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
go back to reference Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, Arnold LM, Choi H, Deyo RA, Gabriel S, Hirsch R, Hochberg MC, Hunder GG, Jordan JM, Katz JN, Kremers HM, Wolfe F: Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part II. Arthritis Rheum. 2008, 58: 26-35. 10.1002/art.23176.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, Arnold LM, Choi H, Deyo RA, Gabriel S, Hirsch R, Hochberg MC, Hunder GG, Jordan JM, Katz JN, Kremers HM, Wolfe F: Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part II. Arthritis Rheum. 2008, 58: 26-35. 10.1002/art.23176.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
3.
go back to reference Brook RA, Kleinman NL, Patel PA, Melkonian AK, Brizee TJ, Smeeding JE, Joseph-Ridge N: The economic burden of gout on an employed population. Curr Med Res Opin. 2006, 22: 1381-1389. 10.1185/030079906X112606.CrossRefPubMed Brook RA, Kleinman NL, Patel PA, Melkonian AK, Brizee TJ, Smeeding JE, Joseph-Ridge N: The economic burden of gout on an employed population. Curr Med Res Opin. 2006, 22: 1381-1389. 10.1185/030079906X112606.CrossRefPubMed
4.
go back to reference Kleinman NL, Brook RA, Patel PA, Melkonian AK, Brizee TJ, Smeeding JE, Joseph-Ridge N: The impact of gout on work absence and productivity. Value Health. 2007, 10: 231-237. 10.1111/j.1524-4733.2007.00173.x.CrossRefPubMed Kleinman NL, Brook RA, Patel PA, Melkonian AK, Brizee TJ, Smeeding JE, Joseph-Ridge N: The impact of gout on work absence and productivity. Value Health. 2007, 10: 231-237. 10.1111/j.1524-4733.2007.00173.x.CrossRefPubMed
6.
go back to reference Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL: Modern Epidemiology. 2008, Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 3 Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL: Modern Epidemiology. 2008, Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 3
7.
go back to reference Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT, Roccella EJ: The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003, 289: 2560-2572. 10.1001/jama.289.19.2560.CrossRefPubMed Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT, Roccella EJ: The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003, 289: 2560-2572. 10.1001/jama.289.19.2560.CrossRefPubMed
8.
go back to reference Culleton BF, Larson MG, Kannel WB, Levy D: Serum uric acid and risk for cardiovascular disease and death: the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med. 1999, 131: 7-13.CrossRefPubMed Culleton BF, Larson MG, Kannel WB, Levy D: Serum uric acid and risk for cardiovascular disease and death: the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med. 1999, 131: 7-13.CrossRefPubMed
9.
go back to reference Pearson TA, Blair SN, Daniels SR, Eckel RH, Fair JM, Fortmann SP, Franklin BA, Goldstein LB, Greenland P, Grundy SM, Hong Y, Miller NH, Lauer RM, Ockene IS, Sacco RL, Sallis JF, Smith SC, Stone NJ, Taubert KA: AHA Guidelines for Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke: 2002 Update: Consensus Panel Guide to Comprehensive Risk Reduction for Adult Patients Without Coronary or Other Atherosclerotic Vascular Diseases. American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee. Circulation. 2002, 106: 388-391. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000020190.45892.75.CrossRefPubMed Pearson TA, Blair SN, Daniels SR, Eckel RH, Fair JM, Fortmann SP, Franklin BA, Goldstein LB, Greenland P, Grundy SM, Hong Y, Miller NH, Lauer RM, Ockene IS, Sacco RL, Sallis JF, Smith SC, Stone NJ, Taubert KA: AHA Guidelines for Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke: 2002 Update: Consensus Panel Guide to Comprehensive Risk Reduction for Adult Patients Without Coronary or Other Atherosclerotic Vascular Diseases. American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee. Circulation. 2002, 106: 388-391. 10.1161/01.CIR.0000020190.45892.75.CrossRefPubMed
11.
go back to reference Baker JF, Krishnan E, Chen L, Schumacher HR: Serum uric acid and cardiovascular disease: recent developments, and where do they leave us?. Am J Med. 2005, 118: 816-826. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.043.CrossRefPubMed Baker JF, Krishnan E, Chen L, Schumacher HR: Serum uric acid and cardiovascular disease: recent developments, and where do they leave us?. Am J Med. 2005, 118: 816-826. 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.043.CrossRefPubMed
12.
go back to reference Edwards NL: The role of hyperuricemia and gout in kidney and cardiovascular disease. Cleve Clin J Med. 2008, 75 (Suppl 5): S13-S16. 10.3949/ccjm.75.Suppl_5.S13.CrossRefPubMed Edwards NL: The role of hyperuricemia and gout in kidney and cardiovascular disease. Cleve Clin J Med. 2008, 75 (Suppl 5): S13-S16. 10.3949/ccjm.75.Suppl_5.S13.CrossRefPubMed
13.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, Soto V, Franco M, Santamaria J, Nakagawa T, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Johnson RJ, Herrera-Acosta J: Mild hyperuricemia induces glomerular hypertension in normal rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2002, 283: F1105-F1110.CrossRefPubMed Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, Soto V, Franco M, Santamaria J, Nakagawa T, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Johnson RJ, Herrera-Acosta J: Mild hyperuricemia induces glomerular hypertension in normal rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2002, 283: F1105-F1110.CrossRefPubMed
14.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Santamaria J, Avila-Casado C, Soto V, Nepomuceno T, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Johnson RJ, Herrera-Acosta J: Mild hyperuricemia induces vasoconstriction and maintains glomerular hypertension in normal and remnant kidney rats. Kidney Int. 2005, 67: 237-247. 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00074.x.CrossRefPubMed Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Santamaria J, Avila-Casado C, Soto V, Nepomuceno T, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Johnson RJ, Herrera-Acosta J: Mild hyperuricemia induces vasoconstriction and maintains glomerular hypertension in normal and remnant kidney rats. Kidney Int. 2005, 67: 237-247. 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00074.x.CrossRefPubMed
15.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, Avila-Casado C, Franco M, Zhao L, Johnson RJ: Treatment with the xanthine oxidase inhibitor febuxostat lowers uric acid and alleviates systemic and glomerular hypertension in experimental hyperuricaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008, 23: 1179-1185. 10.1093/ndt/gfm783.CrossRefPubMed Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, Avila-Casado C, Franco M, Zhao L, Johnson RJ: Treatment with the xanthine oxidase inhibitor febuxostat lowers uric acid and alleviates systemic and glomerular hypertension in experimental hyperuricaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008, 23: 1179-1185. 10.1093/ndt/gfm783.CrossRefPubMed
16.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, Avila-Casado C, Franco M, Wessale JL, Zhao L, Johnson RJ: Effect of febuxostat on the progression of renal disease in 5/6 nephrectomy rats with and without hyperuricemia. Nephron Physiol. 2008, 108: p69-p78. 10.1159/000127837.CrossRefPubMed Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, Avila-Casado C, Franco M, Wessale JL, Zhao L, Johnson RJ: Effect of febuxostat on the progression of renal disease in 5/6 nephrectomy rats with and without hyperuricemia. Nephron Physiol. 2008, 108: p69-p78. 10.1159/000127837.CrossRefPubMed
17.
go back to reference Corry DB, Eslami P, Yamamoto K, Nyby MD, Makino H, Tuck ML: Uric acid stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and oxidative stress via the vascular renin–angiotensin system. J Hypertens. 2008, 26: 269-275. 10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282f240bf.CrossRefPubMed Corry DB, Eslami P, Yamamoto K, Nyby MD, Makino H, Tuck ML: Uric acid stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and oxidative stress via the vascular renin–angiotensin system. J Hypertens. 2008, 26: 269-275. 10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282f240bf.CrossRefPubMed
18.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Soto V, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, Sautin YY, Nakagawa T, Franco M, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Johnson RJ: Role of oxidative stress in the renal abnormalities induced by experimental hyperuricemia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2008, 295: F1134-F1141. 10.1152/ajprenal.00104.2008.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Sanchez-Lozada LG, Soto V, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, Sautin YY, Nakagawa T, Franco M, Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Johnson RJ: Role of oxidative stress in the renal abnormalities induced by experimental hyperuricemia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2008, 295: F1134-F1141. 10.1152/ajprenal.00104.2008.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
19.
go back to reference Arai H, Hori S, Aramori I, Ohkubo H, Nakanishi S: Cloning and expression of a cDNA encoding an endothelin receptor. Nature. 1990, 348: 730-732. 10.1038/348730a0.CrossRefPubMed Arai H, Hori S, Aramori I, Ohkubo H, Nakanishi S: Cloning and expression of a cDNA encoding an endothelin receptor. Nature. 1990, 348: 730-732. 10.1038/348730a0.CrossRefPubMed
20.
go back to reference Cheng TH, Lin JW, Chao HH, Chen YL, Chen CH, Chan P, Liu JC: Uric acid activates extracellular signal-regulated kinases and thereafter endothelin-1 expression in rat cardiac fibroblasts. Int J Cardiol. 2008, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.09.004.. Cheng TH, Lin JW, Chao HH, Chen YL, Chen CH, Chan P, Liu JC: Uric acid activates extracellular signal-regulated kinases and thereafter endothelin-1 expression in rat cardiac fibroblasts. Int J Cardiol. 2008, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.09.004..
21.
go back to reference Enomoto A, Kimura H, Chairoungdua A, Shigeta Y, Jutabha P, Cha SH, Hosoyamada M, Takeda M, Sekine T, Igarashi T, Matsuo H, Kikuchi Y, Oda T, Ichida K, Hosoya T, Shimokata K, Niwa T, Kanai Y, Endou H: Molecular identification of a renal urate anion exchanger that regulates blood urate levels. Nature. 2002, 417: 447-452.PubMed Enomoto A, Kimura H, Chairoungdua A, Shigeta Y, Jutabha P, Cha SH, Hosoyamada M, Takeda M, Sekine T, Igarashi T, Matsuo H, Kikuchi Y, Oda T, Ichida K, Hosoya T, Shimokata K, Niwa T, Kanai Y, Endou H: Molecular identification of a renal urate anion exchanger that regulates blood urate levels. Nature. 2002, 417: 447-452.PubMed
22.
go back to reference Panoulas VF, Douglas KM, Milionis HJ, Nightingale P, Kita MD, Klocke R, Metsios GS, Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou A, Elisaf MS, Kitas GD: Serum uric acid is independently associated with hypertension in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Hum Hypertens. 2008, 22: 177-182. 10.1038/sj.jhh.1002298.CrossRefPubMed Panoulas VF, Douglas KM, Milionis HJ, Nightingale P, Kita MD, Klocke R, Metsios GS, Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou A, Elisaf MS, Kitas GD: Serum uric acid is independently associated with hypertension in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Hum Hypertens. 2008, 22: 177-182. 10.1038/sj.jhh.1002298.CrossRefPubMed
23.
go back to reference Feig DI, Soletsky B, Johnson RJ: Effect of allopurinol on blood pressure of adolescents with newly diagnosed essential hypertension: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008, 300: 924-932. 10.1001/jama.300.8.924.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Feig DI, Soletsky B, Johnson RJ: Effect of allopurinol on blood pressure of adolescents with newly diagnosed essential hypertension: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008, 300: 924-932. 10.1001/jama.300.8.924.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
24.
go back to reference Kanbay M, Ozkara A, Selcoki Y, Isik B, Turgut F, Bavbek N, Uz E, Akcay A, Yigitoglu R, Covic A: Effect of treatment of hyperuricemia with allopurinol on blood pressure, creatinine clearence, and proteinuria in patients with normal renal functions. Int Urol Nephrol. 2007, 39: 1227-1233. 10.1007/s11255-007-9253-3.CrossRefPubMed Kanbay M, Ozkara A, Selcoki Y, Isik B, Turgut F, Bavbek N, Uz E, Akcay A, Yigitoglu R, Covic A: Effect of treatment of hyperuricemia with allopurinol on blood pressure, creatinine clearence, and proteinuria in patients with normal renal functions. Int Urol Nephrol. 2007, 39: 1227-1233. 10.1007/s11255-007-9253-3.CrossRefPubMed
25.
go back to reference Montalcini T, Gorgone G, Gazzaruso C, Sesti G, Perticone F, Pujia A: Relation between serum uric acid and carotid intima-media thickness in healthy postmenopausal women. Intern Emerg Med. 2007, 2: 19-23. 10.1007/s11739-007-0004-3.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Montalcini T, Gorgone G, Gazzaruso C, Sesti G, Perticone F, Pujia A: Relation between serum uric acid and carotid intima-media thickness in healthy postmenopausal women. Intern Emerg Med. 2007, 2: 19-23. 10.1007/s11739-007-0004-3.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
26.
go back to reference Tavil Y, Kaya MG, Oktar SO, Sen N, Okyay K, Yazici HU, Cengel A: Uric acid level and its association with carotid intima-media thickness in patients with hypertension. Atherosclerosis. 2008, 197: 159-163. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.03.008.CrossRefPubMed Tavil Y, Kaya MG, Oktar SO, Sen N, Okyay K, Yazici HU, Cengel A: Uric acid level and its association with carotid intima-media thickness in patients with hypertension. Atherosclerosis. 2008, 197: 159-163. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.03.008.CrossRefPubMed
27.
go back to reference Pacifico L, Cantisani V, Anania C, Bonaiuto E, Martino F, Pascone R, Chiesa C: Serum uric acid and its association with metabolic syndrome and carotid atherosclerosis in obese children. Eur J Endocrinol. 2009, 160: 45-52. 10.1530/EJE-08-0618.CrossRefPubMed Pacifico L, Cantisani V, Anania C, Bonaiuto E, Martino F, Pascone R, Chiesa C: Serum uric acid and its association with metabolic syndrome and carotid atherosclerosis in obese children. Eur J Endocrinol. 2009, 160: 45-52. 10.1530/EJE-08-0618.CrossRefPubMed
28.
go back to reference Tatli E, Aktoz M, Buyuklu M, Altun A: The relationship between coronary artery disease and uric acid levels in young patients with acute myocardial infarction. Cardiol J. 2008, 15: 21-25.PubMed Tatli E, Aktoz M, Buyuklu M, Altun A: The relationship between coronary artery disease and uric acid levels in young patients with acute myocardial infarction. Cardiol J. 2008, 15: 21-25.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Dunkelgrun M, Welten GM, Goei D, Winkel TA, Schouten O, van Domburg RT, van Gestel YR, Flu WJ, Hoeks SE, Bax JJ, Poldermans D: Association between serum uric acid and perioperative and late cardiovascular outcome in patients with suspected or definite coronary artery disease undergoing elective vascular surgery. Am J Cardiol. 2008, 102: 797-801. 10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.05.019.CrossRefPubMed Dunkelgrun M, Welten GM, Goei D, Winkel TA, Schouten O, van Domburg RT, van Gestel YR, Flu WJ, Hoeks SE, Bax JJ, Poldermans D: Association between serum uric acid and perioperative and late cardiovascular outcome in patients with suspected or definite coronary artery disease undergoing elective vascular surgery. Am J Cardiol. 2008, 102: 797-801. 10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.05.019.CrossRefPubMed
30.
go back to reference Koton S, Howard SC, Warlow CP, Murphy MF, Rothwell PM: Serum urate predicts long-term risk of acute coronary events in women after a transient ischaemic attack and stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2008, 26: 517-524. 10.1159/000155990.CrossRefPubMed Koton S, Howard SC, Warlow CP, Murphy MF, Rothwell PM: Serum urate predicts long-term risk of acute coronary events in women after a transient ischaemic attack and stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2008, 26: 517-524. 10.1159/000155990.CrossRefPubMed
31.
go back to reference Lazzeri C, Valente S, Chiostri M, Sori A, Bernardo P, Gensini GF: Uric acid in the acute phase of ST elevation myocardial infarction submitted to primary PCI: its prognostic role and relation with inflammatory markers. A single center experience. Int J Cardiol. 2008, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.06.024.. Lazzeri C, Valente S, Chiostri M, Sori A, Bernardo P, Gensini GF: Uric acid in the acute phase of ST elevation myocardial infarction submitted to primary PCI: its prognostic role and relation with inflammatory markers. A single center experience. Int J Cardiol. 2008, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.06.024..
32.
go back to reference Schretlen DJ, Inscore AB, Vannorsdall TD, Kraut M, Pearlson GD, Gordon B, Jinnah HA: Serum uric acid and brain ischemia in normal elderly adults. Neurology. 2007, 69: 1418-1423. 10.1212/01.wnl.0000277468.10236.f1.CrossRefPubMed Schretlen DJ, Inscore AB, Vannorsdall TD, Kraut M, Pearlson GD, Gordon B, Jinnah HA: Serum uric acid and brain ischemia in normal elderly adults. Neurology. 2007, 69: 1418-1423. 10.1212/01.wnl.0000277468.10236.f1.CrossRefPubMed
33.
go back to reference Schretlen DJ, Inscore AB, Jinnah HA, Rao V, Gordon B, Pearlson GD: Serum uric acid and cognitive function in community-dwelling older adults. Neuropsychology. 2007, 21: 136-140. 10.1037/0894-4105.21.1.136.CrossRefPubMed Schretlen DJ, Inscore AB, Jinnah HA, Rao V, Gordon B, Pearlson GD: Serum uric acid and cognitive function in community-dwelling older adults. Neuropsychology. 2007, 21: 136-140. 10.1037/0894-4105.21.1.136.CrossRefPubMed
34.
go back to reference Muir SW, Harrow C, Dawson J, Lees KR, Weir CJ, Sattar N, Walters MR: Allopurinol use yields potentially beneficial effects on inflammatory indices in those with recent ischemic stroke: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke. 2008, 39: 3303-3307. 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.519793.CrossRefPubMed Muir SW, Harrow C, Dawson J, Lees KR, Weir CJ, Sattar N, Walters MR: Allopurinol use yields potentially beneficial effects on inflammatory indices in those with recent ischemic stroke: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke. 2008, 39: 3303-3307. 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.519793.CrossRefPubMed
35.
go back to reference Fang J, Alderman MH: Serum uric acid and cardiovascular mortality the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971–1992. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA. 2000, 283: 2404-2410. 10.1001/jama.283.18.2404.CrossRefPubMed Fang J, Alderman MH: Serum uric acid and cardiovascular mortality the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971–1992. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA. 2000, 283: 2404-2410. 10.1001/jama.283.18.2404.CrossRefPubMed
36.
go back to reference Strasak A, Ruttmann E, Brant L, Kelleher C, Klenk J, Concin H, Diem G, Pfeiffer K, Ulmer H: Serum uric acid and risk of cardiovascular mortality: a prospective long-term study of 83,683 Austrian men. Clin Chem. 2008, 54: 273-284. 10.1373/clinchem.2007.094425.CrossRefPubMed Strasak A, Ruttmann E, Brant L, Kelleher C, Klenk J, Concin H, Diem G, Pfeiffer K, Ulmer H: Serum uric acid and risk of cardiovascular mortality: a prospective long-term study of 83,683 Austrian men. Clin Chem. 2008, 54: 273-284. 10.1373/clinchem.2007.094425.CrossRefPubMed
37.
go back to reference Strasak AM, Kelleher CC, Brant LJ, Rapp K, Ruttmann E, Concin H, Diem G, Pfeiffer KP, Ulmer H: Serum uric acid is an independent predictor for all major forms of cardiovascular death in 28,613 elderly women: a prospective 21-year follow-up study. Int J Cardiol. 2008, 125: 232-239. 10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.11.094.CrossRefPubMed Strasak AM, Kelleher CC, Brant LJ, Rapp K, Ruttmann E, Concin H, Diem G, Pfeiffer KP, Ulmer H: Serum uric acid is an independent predictor for all major forms of cardiovascular death in 28,613 elderly women: a prospective 21-year follow-up study. Int J Cardiol. 2008, 125: 232-239. 10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.11.094.CrossRefPubMed
38.
go back to reference Ioachimescu AG, Brennan DM, Hoar BM, Hazen SL, Hoogwerf BJ: Serum uric acid is an independent predictor of all-cause mortality in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a preventive cardiology information system (PreCIS) database cohort study. Arthritis Rheum. 2008, 58: 623-630. 10.1002/art.23121.CrossRefPubMed Ioachimescu AG, Brennan DM, Hoar BM, Hazen SL, Hoogwerf BJ: Serum uric acid is an independent predictor of all-cause mortality in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a preventive cardiology information system (PreCIS) database cohort study. Arthritis Rheum. 2008, 58: 623-630. 10.1002/art.23121.CrossRefPubMed
39.
go back to reference Krishnan E, Svendsen K, Neaton JD, Grandits G, Kuller LH: Long-term cardiovascular mortality among middle-aged men with gout. Arch Intern Med. 2008, 168: 1104-1110. 10.1001/archinte.168.10.1104.CrossRefPubMed Krishnan E, Svendsen K, Neaton JD, Grandits G, Kuller LH: Long-term cardiovascular mortality among middle-aged men with gout. Arch Intern Med. 2008, 168: 1104-1110. 10.1001/archinte.168.10.1104.CrossRefPubMed
40.
go back to reference Hsu SP, Pai MF, Peng YS, Chiang CK, Ho TI, Hung KY: Serum uric acid levels show a 'J-shaped' association with all-cause mortality in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004, 19: 457-462. 10.1093/ndt/gfg563.CrossRefPubMed Hsu SP, Pai MF, Peng YS, Chiang CK, Ho TI, Hung KY: Serum uric acid levels show a 'J-shaped' association with all-cause mortality in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004, 19: 457-462. 10.1093/ndt/gfg563.CrossRefPubMed
41.
go back to reference Suliman ME, Johnson RJ, Garcia-Lopez E, Qureshi AR, Molinaei H, Carrero JJ, Heimburger O, Barany P, Axelsson J, Lindholm B, Stenvinkel P: J-shaped mortality relationship for uric acid in CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006, 48: 761-771. 10.1053/j.ajkd.2006.08.019.CrossRefPubMed Suliman ME, Johnson RJ, Garcia-Lopez E, Qureshi AR, Molinaei H, Carrero JJ, Heimburger O, Barany P, Axelsson J, Lindholm B, Stenvinkel P: J-shaped mortality relationship for uric acid in CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006, 48: 761-771. 10.1053/j.ajkd.2006.08.019.CrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Navaneethan SD, Beddhu S: Associations of serum uric acid with cardiovascular events and mortality in moderate chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009, 24: 1260-1266. 10.1093/ndt/gfn621.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Navaneethan SD, Beddhu S: Associations of serum uric acid with cardiovascular events and mortality in moderate chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009, 24: 1260-1266. 10.1093/ndt/gfn621.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
43.
go back to reference Domrongkitchaiporn S, Sritara P, Kitiyakara C, Stitchantrakul W, Krittaphol V, Lolekha P, Cheepudomwit S, Yipintsoi T: Risk factors for development of decreased kidney function in a southeast Asian population: a 12-year cohort study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005, 16: 791-799. 10.1681/ASN.2004030208.CrossRefPubMed Domrongkitchaiporn S, Sritara P, Kitiyakara C, Stitchantrakul W, Krittaphol V, Lolekha P, Cheepudomwit S, Yipintsoi T: Risk factors for development of decreased kidney function in a southeast Asian population: a 12-year cohort study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005, 16: 791-799. 10.1681/ASN.2004030208.CrossRefPubMed
44.
go back to reference Iseki K, Ikemiya Y, Inoue T, Iseki C, Kinjo K, Takishita S: Significance of hyperuricemia as a risk factor for developing ESRD in a screened cohort. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004, 44: 642-650. 10.1016/S0272-6386(04)00934-5.CrossRefPubMed Iseki K, Ikemiya Y, Inoue T, Iseki C, Kinjo K, Takishita S: Significance of hyperuricemia as a risk factor for developing ESRD in a screened cohort. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004, 44: 642-650. 10.1016/S0272-6386(04)00934-5.CrossRefPubMed
45.
go back to reference Iseki K, Oshiro S, Tozawa M, Iseki C, Ikemiya Y, Takishita S: Significance of hyperuricemia on the early detection of renal failure in a cohort of screened subjects. Hypertens Res. 2001, 24: 691-697. 10.1291/hypres.24.691.CrossRefPubMed Iseki K, Oshiro S, Tozawa M, Iseki C, Ikemiya Y, Takishita S: Significance of hyperuricemia on the early detection of renal failure in a cohort of screened subjects. Hypertens Res. 2001, 24: 691-697. 10.1291/hypres.24.691.CrossRefPubMed
46.
go back to reference Obermayr RP, Temml C, Knechtelsdorfer M, Gutjahr G, Kletzmayr J, Heiss S, Ponholzer A, Madersbacher S, Oberbauer R, Klauser-Braun R: Predictors of new-onset decline in kidney function in a general middle-European population. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008, 23: 1265-1273. 10.1093/ndt/gfm790.CrossRefPubMed Obermayr RP, Temml C, Knechtelsdorfer M, Gutjahr G, Kletzmayr J, Heiss S, Ponholzer A, Madersbacher S, Oberbauer R, Klauser-Braun R: Predictors of new-onset decline in kidney function in a general middle-European population. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008, 23: 1265-1273. 10.1093/ndt/gfm790.CrossRefPubMed
47.
go back to reference Obermayr RP, Temml C, Gutjahr G, Knechtelsdorfer M, Oberbauer R, Klauser-Braun R: Elevated uric acid increases the risk for kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008, 19: 2407-2413. 10.1681/ASN.2008010080.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Obermayr RP, Temml C, Gutjahr G, Knechtelsdorfer M, Oberbauer R, Klauser-Braun R: Elevated uric acid increases the risk for kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008, 19: 2407-2413. 10.1681/ASN.2008010080.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
48.
go back to reference Siu YP, Leung KT, Tong MK, Kwan TH: Use of allopurinol in slowing the progression of renal disease through its ability to lower serum uric acid level. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006, 47: 51-59. 10.1053/j.ajkd.2005.10.006.CrossRefPubMed Siu YP, Leung KT, Tong MK, Kwan TH: Use of allopurinol in slowing the progression of renal disease through its ability to lower serum uric acid level. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006, 47: 51-59. 10.1053/j.ajkd.2005.10.006.CrossRefPubMed
49.
go back to reference Ridker PM, Libby P: Risk factors for atherothrombotic disease. Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. Edited by: Libby P, Braunwald E. 2008, Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 1 v (various pagings)., 8 Ridker PM, Libby P: Risk factors for atherothrombotic disease. Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. Edited by: Libby P, Braunwald E. 2008, Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 1 v (various pagings)., 8
50.
go back to reference Ames BN, Cathcart R, Schwiers E, Hochstein P: Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1981, 78: 6858-6862. 10.1073/pnas.78.11.6858.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Ames BN, Cathcart R, Schwiers E, Hochstein P: Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1981, 78: 6858-6862. 10.1073/pnas.78.11.6858.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
51.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Bautista-Garcia P, Soto V, Avila-Casado C, Vega-Campos IP, Nakagawa T, Zhao L, Franco M, Johnson RJ: Effects of febuxostat on metabolic and renal alterations in rats with fructose-induced metabolic syndrome. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2008, 294: F710-F718. 10.1152/ajprenal.00454.2007.CrossRefPubMed Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Bautista-Garcia P, Soto V, Avila-Casado C, Vega-Campos IP, Nakagawa T, Zhao L, Franco M, Johnson RJ: Effects of febuxostat on metabolic and renal alterations in rats with fructose-induced metabolic syndrome. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2008, 294: F710-F718. 10.1152/ajprenal.00454.2007.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Gout. Hyperuricemia and cardiovascular disease: how strong is the evidence for a causal link?
Authors
Angelo L Gaffo
N Lawrence Edwards
Kenneth G Saag
Publication date
01-08-2009
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Arthritis Research & Therapy / Issue 4/2009
Electronic ISSN: 1478-6362
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/ar2761

Other articles of this Issue 4/2009

Arthritis Research & Therapy 4/2009 Go to the issue
Live Webinar | 27-06-2024 | 18:00 (CEST)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Live: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)

WHO estimates that half of all patients worldwide are non-adherent to their prescribed medication. The consequences of poor adherence can be catastrophic, on both the individual and population level.

Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.

Prof. Kevin Dolgin
Prof. Florian Limbourg
Prof. Anoop Chauhan
Developed by: Springer Medicine
Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine