Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress 2023 EHA Congress 2023 ASCO Annual Meeting
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

A round-up of the ONWARDS phase 3 clinical trials evaluating the novel weekly insulin icodec in people with diabetes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Current Fungal Infection Reports
Published in: Current Fungal Infection Reports 2/2019

01-06-2019 | Amphotericin B | Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics of Antifungal Agents (N Beyda, Section Editor)

Updates in Ocular Antifungal Pharmacotherapy: Formulation and Clinical Perspectives

Authors: Ruchi Thakkar, Akash Patil, Tabish Mehraj, Narendar Dudhipala, Soumyajit Majumdar

Published in: Current Fungal Infection Reports | Issue 2/2019

Login to get access

Abstract

Purpose of Review

In this review, a compilation on the current antifungal pharmacotherapy is discussed, with emphases on the updates in the formulation and clinical approaches of the routinely used antifungal drugs in ocular therapy.

Recent Findings

Natamycin (Natacyn® eye drops) remains the only approved medication in the management of ocular fungal infections. This monotherapy shows therapeutic outcomes in superficial ocular fungal infections, but in case of deep-seated mycoses or endophthalmitis, successful therapeutic outcomes are infrequent, as a result of which alternative therapies are sought. In such cases, amphotericin B, azoles, and echinocandins are used off-label, either in combination with natamycin or with each other (frequently) or as standalone monotherapies, and have provided effective therapeutic outcomes.

Summary

In recent times, amphotericin B, azoles, and echinocandins have come to occupy an important niche in ocular antifungal pharmacotherapy, along with natamycin (still the preferred choice in most clinical cases), in the management of ocular fungal infections.
Literature
1.
Collier S, Gronostaj M, MacGurn A, Cope J, Yoder J, Beach M. Estimated burden of keratitis—United States, 2010. MMWR. 2014;63:1027–30.PubMed
2.
•• Ansari Z, Miller D, Galor A. Current thoughts in fungal keratitis: diagnosis and treatment. Curr Fungal Infect Rep. 2013;7:209–18 A comprehensive review that details the pharamcotherapy associated with ocular fungal infections especially keratitis. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
3.
•• Lakhani P, Patil A, Majumdar S. Challenges in the polyene- and azole-based pharmacotherapy of ocular fungal infections. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2019;35:6–22 A detailed review on the clinical challenges associated with polyene and azole antifungals and the approaches that have been investigated to overcome them. CrossRefPubMed
4.
Patil A, Lakhani P, Taskar P, Wu KW, Sweeney C, Avula B, et al. Formulation development, optimization, and in vitro-in vivo characterization of natamycin-loaded PEGylated nano-lipid carriers for ocular applications. J Pharm Sci. 2018;107:2160–71.
5.
•• Patil A, Majumdar S. Echinocandins in ocular therapeutics. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther: the official journal of the Association for Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2017;33:340–52 A first review that compiles and discusses the investigations of echinocandins specifically in the domain of ocular antifungal pharmacotherapy. CrossRef
6.
• Thomas P, Kaliamurthy J. Mycotic keratitis: epidemiology, diagnosis and management. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013;19:210–20 A detailed review that provides specifications on the current clinical management of ocular fungal keratitis. CrossRefPubMed
7.
Keay L, Gower E, Iovieno A, Oechsler R, Alfonso E, Matoba A, et al. Clinical and microbiological characteristics of fungal keratitis in the United States, 2001-2007: a multicenter study. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:920–6.
8.
Patil A, Lakhani P, Majumdar S. Current perspectives on natamycin in ocular fungal infections. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2017;41:206–12.CrossRef
9.
Chandrasekar P. Management of invasive fungal infections: a role for polyenes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:457–65.CrossRefPubMed
10.
Chandrasekar P. Amphotericin B lipid complex: treatment of invasive fungal infections in patients refractory to or intolerant of amphotericin B deoxycholate. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2008;4:1285–94.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
11.
12.
Spanakis E, Aperis G, Mylonakis E. New agents for the treatment of fungal infections: clinical efficacy and gaps in coverage. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:1060–8.CrossRefPubMed
13.
Wilke M. Treatment and prophylaxis of invasive candidiasis with anidulafungin, caspofungin and micafungin and its impact on use and costs—review of the literature. Eur J Med Res. 2016;16(4):180–6.CrossRef
14.
D.M. Dixon, T.J. Walsh, Antifungal agents, in: the S. Baron (Eds.) Medical microbiology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Microbiology, Galveston (TX), 1996.
15.
te Welscher Y, Napel H, Balagué M, Souza C, Riezman H, de Kruijff B, et al. Natamycin blocks fungal growth by binding specifically to ergosterol without permeabilizing the membrane. J Biol Chem. 2008;283:6393–401.
16.
• Müller G, Kara-José N, de Castro R. Antifungals in eye infections: drugs and routes of administration. Rev Bras Oftalmol. 2013;72:132–41 A review that evaluates the pharmaceutical facets of antifungals and their delivery. CrossRef
17.
Qiu S, Zhao G, Lin J, Wang X, Hu L, Du Z, et al. Natamycin in the treatment of fungal keratitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Ophthalmol. 2015;8:597–602.
18.
Janga KY, Tatke A, Balguri SP, Lamichanne SP, Ibrahim MM, Maria DN, et al. Ion-sensitive in situ hydrogels of natamycin bilosomes for enhanced and prolonged ocular pharmacotherapy: in vitro permeability, cytotoxicity and in vivo evaluation. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. 2018;23:1–12.
19.
Paradkar M, Parmar M. Formulation development and evaluation of natamycin niosomal in-situ gel for ophthalmic drug delivery. J Drug Delive Sci Technol. 2017;39:113–22.CrossRef
20.
Zhang J, Xie Y, Zhou T, Li J, He J, Xia H, et al. Development of natamycin-hydroxypropyl-beta-Cyclodextrin inclusion complex, ion-triggered in situ gel for sustained ocular delivery: in vitro, ex vivo evaluation and ocular pharmacokinetics study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2018;59:2676.
21.
Lalitha P, Shapiro B, Srinivasan M, Prajna N, Acharya N, Fothergill A, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of fusarium, aspergillus, and other filamentous fungi isolated from keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125:789–93.
22.
Lalitha P, Vijaykumar R, Prajna N, Fothergill A. In vitro natamycin susceptibility of ocular isolates of Fusarium and Aspergillus species: comparison of commercially formulated natamycin eye drops to pharmaceutical-grade powder. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:3477–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
23.
Xuguang S, Zhixin W, Zhiqun W, Shiyun L, Ran L. Ocular fungal isolates and antifungal susceptibility in northern China. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;143:131–3.CrossRefPubMed
24.
Xu Y, Pang G, Zhao D, Gao C, Zhou L, Sun S, et al. In vitro activity of thimerosal against ocular pathogenic Fungi. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:536–9.
25.
Wang L, Wang L, Han L, Yin W. Study of pathogens of fungal keratitis and the sensitivity of pathogenic fungi to therapeutic agents with the disk diffusion method. Curr Eye Res. 2015;40:1095–101.CrossRefPubMed
26.
Prajna N, Mascarenhas J, Krishnan T, Reddy P, Prajna L, Srinivasan M, et al. Comparison of natamycin and voriconazole for the treatment of fungal keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol (Chicago, Ill. : 1960). 128(2010):672–8.
27.
Pradhan L, Sharma S, Nalamada S, Sahu S, Das S, Garg P. Natamycin in the treatment of keratomycosis: correlation of treatment outcome and in vitro susceptibility of fungal isolates. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2011;59:512–4.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
28.
Ito J, Hooshmand-Rad R. Treatment of Candida infections with amphotericin B lipid complex. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:S384–91.CrossRefPubMed
29.
Segal B, Walsh T. Amphotericin B is still the drug of choice for invasive aspergillosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174:102.CrossRef
30.
Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Cuenca-Estrella M, Monzón A, Mellado E, Rodríguez-Tudela J. Antifungal susceptibility profile of clinical Fusarium spp. isolates identified by molecular methods. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;61:805–9.CrossRefPubMed
31.
O'Day D, Head W, Robinson R, Clanton J. Corneal penetration of topical amphotericin B and natamycin. Curr Eye Res. 1986;5:877–82.CrossRefPubMed
32.
R. Gaudana, H. Ananthula, A. Parenky, A. Mitra, Ocular drug delivery, AAPS J2010, pp. 348–360.
33.
Goldblum D, Rohrer K, Frueh B, Theurillat R, Thormann W, Zimmerli S. Ocular distribution of intravenously administered lipid formulations of amphotericin B in a rabbit model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46:3719–23.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
34.
Fu T, Yi J, Lv S, Zhang B. Ocular amphotericin B delivery by chitosan-modified nanostructured lipid carriers for fungal keratitis-targeted therapy. J Liposome Res. 2017;27:228–33.CrossRefPubMed
35.
Chhonker YS, Prasad YD, Chandasana H, Vishvkarma A, Mitra K, Shukla PK, et al. Amphotericin-B entrapped lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles for prolonged ocular application. Int J Biol Macromol. 2015;72:1451–8.
36.
Das S, Suresh PK. Nanosuspension: a new vehicle for the improvement of the delivery of drugs to the ocular surface Application to amphotericin B. Nanomedicine : Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine. 2011;7:242–7.
37.
Das S, Suresh PK, Desmukh R. Design of Eudragit RL 100 nanoparticles by nanoprecipitation method for ocular drug delivery. Nanomedicine. 2010;6:318–23.CrossRefPubMed
38.
da Silveira WL, Damasceno BP, Ferreira LF, Ribeiro IL, Silva KS, Silva AL, et al. Development and characterization of a microemulsion system containing amphotericin B with potential ocular applications. Curr Drug Deliv. 2016;13:982–93.
39.
Zhou W, Wang Y, Jian J, Song S. Self-aggregated nanoparticles based on amphiphilic poly(lactic acid)-grafted-chitosan copolymer for ocular delivery of amphotericin B. Int J Nanomedicine. 2013;8:3715–28.PubMedPubMedCentral
40.
Shao Y, Yu Y, Pei C, Tan Y, Zhou Q, Yi J, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of intracameral amphotericin B injection for 60 patients with keratomycosis. Int J Ophthalmol. 2010;3:257–60.
41.
Yilmaz S, Ture M, Maden A. Efficacy of intracameral amphotericin B injection in the management of refractory keratomycosis and endophthalmitis. Cornea. 2007;26:398–402.CrossRefPubMed
42.
Kaushik S, Ram J, Brar GS, Jain AK, Chakraborti A, Gupta A. Intracameral amphotericin B: initial experience in severe keratomycosis. Cornea. 2001;20:715–9.CrossRefPubMed
43.
Kermani NK, Aggarwal SP. Isolated post-operative Aspergillus niger endophthalmitis. Eye (London, England). 2000;14(Pt 1):114–6.CrossRef
44.
Ritterband DC, Shah M, Seedor JA. Colletotrichum graminicola: a new corneal pathogen. Cornea. 1997;16:362–4.CrossRefPubMed
45.
Hu J, Zhang J, Li Y, Han X, Zheng W, Yang J, et al. A combination of intrastromal and intracameral injections of amphotericin B in the treatment of severe fungal keratitis. J Ophthalmol. 2016;2016:7.
46.
Garcia-Valenzuela E, Song CD. Intracorneal injection of amphothericin B for recurrent fungal keratitis and endophthalmitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123:1721–3.CrossRefPubMed
47.
48.
Yee R, Cheng C, Meenakshi S, Ludden T, Wallace J, Rinaldi M. Ocular penetration and pharmacokinetics of topical fluconazole. Cornea. 1997;16:64–71.CrossRefPubMed
49.
Yilmaz S, Maden A. Severe fungal keratitis treated with subconjunctival fluconazole. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140:454–8.CrossRefPubMed
50.
Tsai S, Lin Y, Hsu H, Chen Y. Subconjunctival injection of fluconazole in the treatment of fungal Alternaria keratitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2014;24:103–6.CrossRefPubMed
51.
52.
53.
Edelstein S, Akduman L, Durham B, Fothergill A, Hsu H. Resistant Fusarium keratitis progressing to endophthalmitis. Eye & Contact Lens. 2011;38:331–5.CrossRef
54.
Al-Hatmi A, Meletiadis J, Curfs-Breuker I, Bonifaz A, Meis J, Hoog S. In vitro combinations of natamycin with voriconazole, itraconazole and micafungin against clinical Fusarium strains causing keratitis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:953–5.CrossRefPubMed
55.
Moustafa MA, Elnaggar YSR, El-Refaie WM, Abdallah OY. Hyalugel-integrated liposomes as a novel ocular nanosized delivery system of fluconazole with promising prolonged effect. Int J Pharm. 2017;534:14–24.CrossRefPubMed
56.
Silva GR, Almeida APR, Fernandes-Cunha GM, Castro BFM, Vieira LC, Fulgêncio GO, et al. Safety and in vivo release of fluconazole-loaded implants in rabbits’ eyes. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2016;35:323–6.
57.
Fetih G. Fluconazole-loaded niosomal gels as a topical ocular drug delivery system for corneal fungal infections. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2016;35:8–15.CrossRef
58.
El-Sayed S, Wagdy F, El-Hagaa A, Mottawea E. Topical amphotericin B versus subconjunctival fluconazole injection in the management of fungal keratitis. Menoufia Med J. 2016;29:601–5.CrossRef
59.
Mahdy R, Nada W, Wageh M. Topical amphotericin B and subconjunctival injection of fluconazole (combination therapy) versus topical amphotericin B (monotherapy) in treatment of keratomycosis. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther: the official journal of the Association for Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2010;26:281–5.CrossRef
60.
You X, Li J, Li S, Shi W. Effects of lamellar keratectomy and intrastromal injection of 0.2% fluconazole on fungal keratitis. J Ophthalmol. 2015;2015:10.
61.
Sahu R, Singh B, Saraf S, Kaithwas G, Kishor K. Photochemical toxicity of drugs intended for ocular use. Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju. 2014;65:157–67.CrossRefPubMed
62.
Miller D, Galor A, Alfonso E, Fungal keratitis, in: Mannis M, Holland E (Eds.) Cornea fundamentals, diagnosis, and management, Elsevier Publishing China 2016.
63.
Neoh C, Daniell M, Chen S, Stewart K, Kong D. Clinical utility of caspofungin eye drops in fungal keratitis. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014;44:96–104.CrossRefPubMed
64.
Abdelbary GA, Amin MM, Zakaria MY. Ocular ketoconazole-loaded proniosomal gels: formulation, ex vivo corneal permeation and in vivo studies. Drug delivery. 2017;24:309–19.CrossRefPubMed
65.
Ahmed TA, Aljaeid BM. A potential in situ gel formulation loaded with novel fabricated poly(lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles for enhancing and sustaining the ophthalmic delivery of ketoconazole. Int J Nanomedicine. 2017;12:1863–75.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
66.
Kakkar S, Karuppayil SM, Raut JS, Giansanti F, Papucci L, Schiavone N, et al. Lipid-polyethylene glycol based nano-ocular formulation of ketoconazole. Int J Pharm. 2015;495:276–89.
67.
Torres M, Mohamed J, Cavazos-Adame H, Martinez L. Topical ketoconazole for fungal keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1985;100:293–8.CrossRefPubMed
68.
Rajaraman R, Bhat P, Vaidee V, Maskibail S, Raghavan A, Sivasubramaniam S, et al. Topical 5% natamycin with oral ketoconazole in filamentous fungal keratitis: a randomized controlled trial. Asia-Pacific J Ophthalmol (Philadelphia, Pa). 2015;4:146–50.
69.
Klont R, Eggink C, Rijs A, Wesseling P, Verweij P. Successful treatment of Fusarium keratitis with cornea transplantation and topical and systemic voriconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:e110–2.CrossRefPubMed
70.
Varma D, Thaker H, Moss P, Wedgwood K, Innes J. Use of voriconazole in candida retinitis. Eye. 2004;19:485–7.CrossRef
71.
Al-Badriyeh D, Neoh C, Stewart K, Kong D. Clinical utility of voriconazole eye drops in ophthalmic fungal keratitis. Clin Ophthalmol. 2010;4:391–405.PubMedPubMedCentral
72.
Hariprasad S, Mieler W, Holz E, Gao H, Kim J, Chi J, et al. Determination of vitreous, aqueous, and plasma concentration of orally administered voriconazole in humans. Arch Ophthalmol (Chicago, ILL: 1960). 2004;122:42–7.
73.
Thiel M, Zinkernagel A, Burhenne J, Kaufmann C, Haefeli W. Voriconazole concentration in human aqueous humor and plasma during topical or combined topical and systemic administration for fungal keratitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;51:239–44.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
74.
Kumar R, Sinha VR. Preparation and optimization of voriconazole microemulsion for ocular delivery, colloids and surfaces B. Biointerfaces. 2014;117:82–8.CrossRefPubMed
75.
Andrade LM, Rocha KA, De Sa FA, Marreto RN, Lima EM, Gratieri T, et al. Voriconazole-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers for ocular drug delivery. Cornea. 2016;35:866–71.
76.
Khare A, Singh I, Pawar P, Grover K. Design and evaluation of voriconazole loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for ophthalmic application. J Drug Deliv. 2016;2016:6590361–1.
77.
Pandurangan DK, Bodagala P, Palanirajan VK, Govindaraj S. Formulation and evaluation of voriconazole ophthalmic solid lipid nanoparticles in situ gel. Int J Pharm Investig. 2016;6:56–62.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
78.
Bunya VY, Hammersmith KM, Rapuano CJ, Ayres BD, Cohen EJ. Topical and oral voriconazole in the treatment of fungal keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;143:151–3.CrossRefPubMed
79.
80.
Ramakrishnan T, Constantinou M, Jhanji V, Vajpayee R. Voriconazole for management of fungal keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52:5855.
81.
Mehta H, Mehta H, Garg P, Kodial H. Voriconazole for the treatment of refractory Aspergillus fumigatus keratitis. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2008;56:243–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
82.
Arora R, Gupta D, Goyal J, Kaur R. Voriconazole versus natamycin as primary treatment in fungal corneal ulcers. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2011;39:434–40.CrossRefPubMed
83.
• Sharma S, Das S, Virdi A, Fernandes M, Sahu SK, Kumar Koday N, et al. Re-appraisal of topical 1% voriconazole and 5% natamycin in the treatment of fungal keratitis in a randomised trial. Br J Ophthalmol. 2015;99:1190 A clinical evaluation comparing the effectiveness of voriconazole with standardized natamycin therapy.
84.
Prajna NV, Krishnan T, Rajaraman R, Patel S, Srinivasan M, Das M, et al. Effect of oral voriconazole on fungal keratitis in the Mycotic Ulcer Treatment Trial II (MUTT II): a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2016;134:1365–72.
85.
Spampinato C, Leonardi D. Candida infections, causes, targets, and resistance mechanisms: traditional and alternative antifungal agents. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:204237.PubMedPubMedCentral
86.
Vandeputte P, Ferrari S, Coste A. Antifungal resistance and new strategies to control fungal infections. Int J Microbiol. 2012;2012:26.CrossRef
87.
Rajasekaran J, Thomas P, Kalavathy C, Joseph P, Abraham D. Itraconazole therapy for fungal keratitis. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1987;35:157–60.PubMed
88.
Agarwal P, Roy P, Das A, Banerjee A, Maity P, Banerjee A. Efficacy of topical and systemic itraconazole as a broad-spectrum antifungal agent in mycotic corneal ulcer. A preliminary study. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2001;49:173–6.PubMed
89.
Gunasekera V, Herbert L. A case of endogenous Candida albicans endophthalmitis resolving with itraconazole treatment without recourse to vitrectomy. Eye. 2006;21:110–1.CrossRefPubMed
90.
Ahuja M, Verma P, Bhatia M. Preparation and evaluation of chitosan–itraconazole co-precipitated nanosuspension for ocular delivery. J Exp Nanosci. 2013;10:209–21.CrossRef
91.
Mohanty B, Majumdar DK, Mishra SK, Panda AK, Patnaik S. Development and characterization of itraconazole-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for ocular delivery. Pharm Dev Technol. 2015;20:458–64.CrossRefPubMed
92.
Jin KW, Jeon HS, Hyon JY, Wee WR, Suh W, Shin YJ. A case of fungal keratitis and onychomycosis simultaneously infected by Trichophyton species. BMC Ophthalmol. 2014;14:90.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
93.
Yao YF, Zhang YM, Zhou P, Zhang B, Qiu WY, Tseng SCG. Therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty in severe fungal keratitis using cryopreserved donor corneas. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87:543–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
94.
Fesel P, Zuccaro A. β-Glucan: crucial component of the fungal cell wall and elusive MAMP in plants. Fungal Genet Biol. 2016;90:53–60.CrossRefPubMed
95.
Goldblum D, Frueh B, Sarra G, Katsoulis K, Zimmerli S. Topical caspofungin for treatment of keratitis caused by Candida albicans in a rabbit model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49:1359–63.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
96.
Kusbeci T, Avci B, Cetinkaya Z, Ozturk F, Yavas G, Ermis S, et al. The effects of caspofungin and voriconazole in experimental Candida endophthalmitis. Curr Eye Res. 2007;32:57–64.
97.
Mojumder D, Concepcion F, Patel S, Barkmeier A, Carvounis P, Wilson J, et al. Evaluating retinal toxicity of intravitreal caspofungin in the mouse eye. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51:5796–803.
98.
Shen Y, Liang C, Wang C, Lin K, Hsu M, Yuen H, et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of intravitreal Caspofungin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:7234–9.
99.
Kernt M, Kampik A. Intraocular caspofungin: in vitro safety profile for human ocular cells. Mycoses. 2010;54:e110–21.CrossRefPubMed
100.
Aydin S, Ertugrul B, Gultekin B, Uyar G, Kir E. Treatment of two postoperative endophthalmitis cases due to Aspergillus flavus and Scopulariopsis spp. with local and systemic antifungal therapy. BMC Infect Dis. 2007;7:87.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
101.
Neoh C, Leung L, Misra A, Vajpayee R, Davies G, Fullinfaw R, et al. Penetration of topically administered 0.5-percent caspofungin eye drops into human aqueous humor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:1761–3.
102.
Spriet I, Delaere L, Lagrou K, Peetermans W, Maertens J, Willems L. Intraocular penetration of voriconazole and caspofungin in a patient with fungal endophthalmitis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64:877–8.CrossRefPubMed
103.
Durand M, Kim I, D'Amico D, Loewenstein J, Tobin E, Kieval S, et al. Successful treatment of Fusarium endophthalmitis with voriconazole and Aspergillus endophthalmitis with voriconazole plus caspofungin. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140:552–4.
104.
Hurtado-Sarrió M, Duch-Samper A, Cisneros-Lanuza A, Díiaz-Llopis M, Peman-Garcíia J, Vazquez-Polo A. Successful topical application of caspofungin in the treatment of fungal keratitis refractory to voriconazole. Arch Ophthalmol. 2010;128:941–2.CrossRefPubMed
105.
Gregory M, Macdonald E, Lockington D, Ramaesh K. Recurrent fungal keratitis following penetrating keratoplasty: an unusual source of infection. Arch Ophthalmol. 2010;128:1490–1.CrossRefPubMed
106.
Neoh C, Leung L, Vajpayee R, Stewart K, Kong D. Treatment of Alternaria keratitis with intrastromal and topical caspofungin in combination with intrastromal, topical, and oral voriconazole. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45:e24.CrossRefPubMed
107.
Tu E. Alternaria keratitis: clinical presentation and resolution with topical fluconazole or intrastromal voriconazole and topical caspofungin. Cornea. 2008;28:116–9.CrossRef
108.
Diekema D, Messer S, Hollis R, Jones R, Pfaller M. Activities of caspofungin, itraconazole, posaconazole, ravuconazole, voriconazole, and amphotericin B against 448 recent clinical isolates of filamentous fungi. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:3623–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
109.
Trujillo F, Paris G, Woodward L, Graybill J, Pena M, Najvar L, et al. Comparison of two antifungal agents, natamycin and micafungin, for fungal keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45:113.
110.
Hiraoka T, Wakabayashi T, Kaji Y, Nanbu P, Okamoto F, Kiuchi T, et al. Toxicological evaluation of micafungin ophthalmic solution in rabbit eyes. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2005;21:149–56.
111.
Paris G, Trujillo F, Woodward L, Trigo Y, Ballentine C, Najvar L, et al. Micafungin vs amphotericin B in the treatment of experimental aspergillosis endophthalmitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45:4014.
112.
Harrison J, Glickman R, Ballentine C, Trigo Y, Pena M, Kurian P, et al. Retinal function assessed by ERG before and after induction of ocular aspergillosis and treatment by the anti-fungal, micafungin, in rabbits. Doc Ophthalmol. 2005;110:37–55.
113.
Suzuki T, Uno T, Chen G, Ohashi Y. Ocular distribution of intravenously administered micafungin in rabbits. J Infect Chemother. 2008;14:204–2017.CrossRefPubMed
114.
Mitani A, Shiraishi A, Miyamoto H, Sunada A, Ueda A, Asari S, et al. Fungal keratitis caused by Beauveria bassiana: drug and temperature sensitivity profiles: a case report. BMC Research Notes. 2014;7:677.
115.
Kokuzawa S, Suemori S, Mochizuki K, Hirose Y, Yaguchi T. Aspergillus tubingenesis endophthalmitis after cataract surgery with implantation of preloaded intraocular lens. Semin Ophthalmol. 2013;29:218–21.CrossRefPubMed
116.
Kamoshita M, Matsumoto Y, Nishimura K, Katono Y, Murata M, Ozawa Y, et al. Wickerhamomyces anomalus fungal keratitis responds to topical treatment with antifungal micafungin. J Infect Chemother : official journal of the Japan Society of Chemotherapy. 2014;21:141–3.
117.
Walia H, Tucci V, Greene J, Tordilla-Wadia J, Kelty P, Walia S. A case of endogenous trichosporon endophthalmitis treated with micafungin and voriconazole. J Global Infect Dis. 2009;1:71–4.CrossRef
118.
Toshikuni N, Ujike K, Yanagawa T, Suga T, Shimizu T, Kusuda MO, et al. Candida albicans endophthalmitis after extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in a patient with liver cirrhosis. Int Med (Tokyo, Japan). 2006;45:1327–32.
119.
Matsumoto Y, Murat D, Kojima T, Shimazaki J, Tsubota K. The comparison of solitary topical micafungin or fluconazole application in the treatment of Candida fungal keratitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010;95:1406–9.CrossRefPubMed
120.
Monden Y, Yamamoto S, Yamakawa R, Sunada A, Asari S, Makimura K, et al. First case of fungal keratitis caused by Pestalotiopsis clavispora. Clin Ophthalmol. 2013;7:2261–4.
Metadata
Title
Updates in Ocular Antifungal Pharmacotherapy: Formulation and Clinical Perspectives
Authors
Ruchi Thakkar
Akash Patil
Tabish Mehraj
Narendar Dudhipala
Soumyajit Majumdar
Publication date
01-06-2019
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Fungal Infection Reports / Issue 2/2019
Print ISSN: 1936-3761
Electronic ISSN: 1936-377X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12281-019-00338-6

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Heart Failure Video

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Watch now

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discuss last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

16-04-2024 Type 2 Diabetes News

Incentivised to exercise

11-04-2024 Lifestyle Modifications News

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

10-04-2024 Myocardial Infarction News

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page

Image Credits