Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Endocrine
Published in: Endocrine 1/2017

01-07-2017 | Review

Androgenetic alopecia: a review

Authors: Francesca Lolli, Francesco Pallotti, Alfredo Rossi, Maria C. Fortuna, Gemma Caro, Andrea Lenzi, Andrea Sansone, Francesco Lombardo

Published in: Endocrine | Issue 1/2017

Login to get access

Abstract

Purpose

Androgenetic alopecia, commonly known as male pattern baldness, is the most common type of progressive hair loss disorder in men. The aim of this paper is to review recent advances in understanding the pathophysiology and molecular mechanism of androgenetic alopecia.

Methods

Using the PubMed database, we conducted a systematic review of the literature, selecting studies published from 1916 to 2016.

Results

The occurrence and development of androgenetic alopecia depends on the interaction of endocrine factors and genetic predisposition. Androgenetic alopecia is characterized by progressive hair follicular miniaturization, caused by the actions of androgens on the epithelial cells of genetically susceptible hair follicles in androgen-dependent areas. Although the exact pathogenesis of androgenetic alopecia remains to be clarified, research has shown that it is a polygenetic condition. Numerous studies have unequivocally identified two major genetic risk loci for androgenetic alopecia, on the X-chromosome AR⁄EDA2R locus and the chromosome 20p11 locus.

Conclusions

Candidate gene and genome-wide association studies have reported that single-nucleotide polymorphisms at different genomic loci are associated with androgenetic alopecia development. A number of genes determine the predisposition for androgenetic alopecia in a polygenic fashion. However, further studies are needed before the specific genetic factors of this polygenic condition can be fully explained.
Literature
1.
J.B. Hamilton, Patterned loss of hair in man; types and incidence. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 53, 708–728 (1951)PubMed
2.
L. Yip, S. Zaloumis, D. Irwin, G. Severi, J. Hopper, G. Giles, S. Harrap, R. Sinclair, J. Ellis, Gene-wide association study between the aromatase gene (CYP19A1) and female pattern hair loss. Br. J. Dermatol. 161, 289–294 (2009)PubMed
3.
G. Severi, R. Sinclair, J.L. Hopper, D.R. English, M.R.E. McCredie, P. Boyle, G.G. Giles, Androgenetic alopecia in men aged 40–69 years: prevalence and risk factors. Br. J. Dermatol. 149, 1207–1213 (2003)PubMed
4.
N. Otberg, A.M. Finner, J. Shapiro, Androgenetic alopecia. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am. 36, 379–398 (2007)
5.
R. Paus, G. Cotsarelis, The biology of hair follicles. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 491–497 (1999)PubMed
6.
C. Pierard-Franchimont, G.E. Pierard, Teloptosis, a turning point in hair shedding biorhythms. Dermatology 203, 115–117 (2001)PubMed
7.
W.C. Chumlea, T. Rhodes, C.J. Girman, A. Johnson-Levonas, F.R.W. Lilly, R. Wu, S.S. Guo, Family history and risk of hair loss. Dermatology 209, 33–39 (2004)PubMed
8.
D. Osborn, Inheritance of baldness. Various patterns due to heredity and sometimes present at birth—a sex-limited character-dominant in man–women not bald unless they inherit tendency from both parents. J. Hered. 7, 347–355 (1916)
9.
W. Kuster, R. Happle, The inheritance of common baldness: two B or not two B ? J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 11, 921–926 (1984)PubMed
10.
E. Levy-Nissenbaum, M. Bar-Natan, M. Frydman, E. Pras, Confirmation of the association between male pattern baldness and the androgen receptor gene. Eur. J. Dermatol. 15, 339–340 (2005)PubMed
11.
C.C. Zouboulis, K. Degitz, Androgen action on human skin—from basic research to clinical significance. Exp. Dermatol. 13, 5–10 (2004)PubMed
12.
K.S. Stenn, R. Paus, T. Dutton, B. Sarba, Glucocorticoid effect on hair growth initiation: a reconsideration. Skin Pharmacol. 6, 125–134 (1993)PubMed
13.
D. Deplewski, R.L. Rosenfield, Role of hormones in pilosebaceous unit development. Endocr. Rev. 21, 363–392 (2000)PubMed
14.
C. Roh, Q. Tao, S. Lyle, Dermal papilla-induced hair differentiation of adult epithelial stem cells from human skin. Physiol. Genom. 19, 207–217 (2004)
15.
C. Blanpain, W.E. Lowry, A. Geoghegan, L. Polak, E. Fuchs, Self-renewal, multipotency, and the existence of two cell populations within an epithelial stem cell niche. Cell 118, 635–648 (2004)PubMed
16.
V. Randall, in Hair and its Disorders: Biology, Pathology and Management, ed. By F. Camacho, V.A. Randall, P.V. The biology of androgenetic alopecia (Martin Dunitz, London, 2000), pp. 123–136
17.
A.J. Reynolds, R.F. Oliver, C.A. Jahoda, Dermal cell populations show variable competence in epidermal cell support: stimulatory effects of hair papilla cells. J. Cell Sci. 98(Pt 1), 75–83 (1991)PubMed
18.
N.A. Hibberts, A.E. Howell, V.A. Randall, Balding hair follicle dermal papilla cells contain higher levels of androgen receptors than those from non-balding scalp. J. Endocrinol. 156, 59–65 (1998)PubMed
19.
V.A. Botchkarev, J. Kishimoto, Molecular control of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions during hair follicle cycling. in Journal of Investigative Dermatology Symposium Proceedings. pp 46–55 (2003)
20.
V.A. Randall, M.J. Thornton, A.G. Messenger, Cultured dermal papilla cells from androgen-dependent human hair follicles (e.g. beard) contain more androgen receptors than those from non-balding areas of scalp. J. Endocrinol. 133, 141–147 (1992)PubMed
21.
S. Itami, S. Kurata, S. Takayasu, Androgen induction of follicular epithelial cell growth is mediated via insulin-like growth factor-I from dermal papilla cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 212, 988–994 (1995)PubMed
22.
S. Inui, Y. Fukuzato, T. Nakajima, K. Yoshikawa, S. Itami, Identification of androgen-inducible TGF-beta1 derived from dermal papilla cells as a key mediator in Androgenetic alopecia. J Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 8, 69–71 (2003)
23.
M. Philpott, in Hair and its Disorders: Biology, Research and Management. ed. By F. Camacho, lV. Randal, V. Price. The roles of growth factors in hair follicles: investigations using cultured hair follicles (Martin Dunitz, London, 2001) pp. 103–113
24.
R.D. Sinclair, Male androgenetic alopecia (Part II). J. Men’s Health Gend. 2, 38–44 (2005)
25.
S. Inui, Y. Fukuzato, T. Nakajima, K. Yoshikawa, S. Itami, Androgen-inducible TGF-beta1 from balding dermal papilla cells inhibits epithelial cell growth: a clue to understand paradoxical effects of androgen on human hair growth. FASEB J. 16, 1967–1969 (2002)PubMed
26.
S. Inui, S. Itami, Molecular basis of androgenetic alopecia: from androgen to paracrine mediators through dermal papilla. J. Dermatol. Sci. 61, 1–6 (2011)PubMed
27.
T. Hibino, T. Nishiyama, Role of TGF-beta2 in the human hair cycle. J. Dermatol. Sci. 35, 9–18 (2004)PubMed
28.
M.H. Kwack, Y.K. Sung, E.J. Chung, S.U. Im, J.S. Ahn, M.K. Kim, J.C. Kim, Dihydrotestosterone-inducible dickkopf 1 from balding dermal papilla cells causes apoptosis in follicular keratinocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 262–269 (2008)PubMed
29.
M.H. Kwack, J.S. Ahn, M.K. Kim, J.C. Kim, Y.K. Sung, Dihydrotestosterone-inducible IL-6 inhibits elongation of human hair shafts by suppressing matrix cell proliferation and promotes regression of hair follicles in mice. J. Invest. Dermatol. 132, 43–49 (2012)PubMed
30.
V. Poor, S. Juricskay, E. Telegdy, Urinary steroids in men with male-pattern alopecia. J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods 53, 123–130 (2002)PubMed
31.
C.C. Zouboulis, The human skin as a hormone target and an endocrine gland. Hormones 3, 9–26 (2004)PubMed
32.
M. Fritsch, C.E. Orfanos, C.C. Zouboulis, Sebocytes are the key regulators of androgen homeostasis in human skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 116, 793–800 (2001)PubMed
33.
L. Di Luigi, F. Romanelli, A. Lenzi, Androgenic-anabolic steroids abuse in males. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 28, 81–84 (2005)PubMed
34.
S. Inui, S. Itami, Androgen actions on the human hair follicle: perspectives. Exp. Dermatol. 22, 168–171 (2013)PubMed
35.
R. Hoffmann, Enzymology of the hair follicle. Eur. J. Dermatol. 11, 296–300 (2001)PubMed
36.
U. Hoppe, P.-M. Holterhus, L. Wunsch, D. Jocham, T. Drechsler, S. Thiele, C. Marschke, O. Hiort, Tissue-specific transcription profiles of sex steroid biosynthesis enzymes and the androgen receptor. J. Mol. Med. 84, 651–659 (2006)PubMed
37.
D. Thiboutot, P. Martin, L. Volikos, K. Gilliland, Oxidative activity of the type 2 isozyme of 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD) predominates in human sebaceous glands. J. Invest. Dermatol. 111, 390–395 (1998)PubMed
38.
S. Takayasu, Metabolism and action of androgen in the skin. Int. J. Dermatol. 18, 681–692 (1979)PubMed
39.
D.W. Russell, D.M. Berman, J.T. Bryant, K.M. Cala, D.L. Davis, C.P. Landrum, J.S. Prihoda, R.I. Silver, A.E. Thigpen, W.C. Wigley, The molecular genetics of steroid 5 alpha-reductases. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 49, 275–284 (1994)PubMed
40.
S. Nakanishi, I. Adachi, K. Takayasu. in Hair Research for the Next Millennium. ed. By D. Neste. Expression of androgen receptor, type I and type II 5a-reductase in human dermal papilla cellse (VREPB, Amsterdam, 1996) pp 333–337
41.
Y. Asada, T. Sonoda, M. Ojiro, S. Kurata, T. Sato, T. Ezaki, S. Takayasu, 5 alpha-reductase type 2 is constitutively expressed in the dermal papilla and connective tissue sheath of the hair follicle in vivo but not during culture in vitro. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86, 2875–2880 (2001)PubMed
42.
M.E. Sawaya, V.H. Price, Different levels of 5alpha-reductase type I and II, aromatase, and androgen receptor in hair follicles of women and men with androgenetic alopecia. J. Invest. Dermatol. 109, 296–300 (1997)PubMed
43.
M.E. Sawaya, N.S. Penneys, Immunohistochemical distribution of aromatase and 3B-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in human hair follicle and sebaceous gland. J. Cutan. Pathol. 19, 309–314 (1992)PubMed
44.
U. Ohnemus, M. Uenalan, J. Inzunza, J.-A. Gustafsson, R. Paus, The hair follicle as an estrogen target and source. Endocr. Rev. 27, 677–706 (2006)PubMed
45.
46.
D. Gianfrilli, S. Pierotti, R. Pofi, C. Leonardo, M. Ciccariello, F. Barbagallo, Sex steroid metabolism in benign and malignant intact prostate biopsies: individual profiling of prostate intracrinology. Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, 464869 (2014)PubMedPubMedCentral
47.
M.J. McPhaul, Androgen receptor mutations and androgen insensitivity. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 198, 61–67 (2002)PubMed
48.
J.D. Wilson, J.E. Griffin, D.W. Russell, Steroid 5 alpha-reductase 2 deficiency. Endocr. Rev. 14, 577–593 (1993)PubMed
49.
T. Liang, S. Hoyer, R. Yu, K. Soltani, A.L. Lorincz, R.A. Hiipakka, S. Liao, Immunocytochemical localization of androgen receptors in human skin using monoclonal antibodies against the androgen receptor. J. Invest. Dermatol. 100, 663–666 (1993)PubMed
50.
T. Tadokoro, S. Itami, K. Hosokawa, H. Terashi, S. Takayasu, Human genital melanocytes as androgen target cells. J. Invest. Dermatol. 109, 513–517 (1997)PubMed
51.
S. Itami, S. Kurata, T. Sonoda, S. Takayasu, Interaction between dermal papilla cells and follicular epithelial cells in vitro: effect of androgen. Br. J. Dermatol. 132, 527–532 (1995)PubMed
52.
S. Inui, S. Itami, H.J. Pan, C. Chang, Lack of androgen receptor transcriptional activity in human keratinocytes. J. Dermatol. Sci. 23, 87–92 (2000)PubMed
53.
J.E. Cobb, N.C. Wong, L.W. Yip, J. Martinick, R. Bosnich, R.D. Sinclair, J.M. Craig, R. Saffery, S.B. Harrap, J.A. Ellis, Evidence of increased DNA methylation of the androgen receptor gene in occipital hair follicles from men with androgenetic alopecia. Br. J. Dermatol. 165, 210–213 (2011)PubMed
54.
N. Fujimoto, S. Yeh, H.Y. Kang, S. Inui, H.C. Chang, A. Mizokami, C. Chang, Cloning and characterization of androgen receptor coactivator, ARA55, in human prostate. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 8316–8321 (1999)PubMed
55.
S. Inui, Y. Fukuzato, T. Nakajima, S. Kurata, S. Itami, Androgen receptor co-activator Hic-5/ARA55 as a molecular regulator of androgen sensitivity in dermal papilla cells of human hair follicles. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127, 2302–2306 (2007)PubMed
56.
S. Itami, S. Kurata, S. Takayasu, 5 Alpha-reductase activity in cultured human dermal papilla cells from beard compared with reticular dermal fibroblasts. J. Invest. Dermatol. 94, 150–152 (1990)PubMed
57.
S. Itami, S. Kurata, T. Sonoda, S. Takayasu, Characterization of 5 alpha-reductase in cultured human dermal papilla cells from beard and occipital scalp hair. J. Invest. Dermatol. 96, 57–60 (1991)PubMed
58.
P. Lee, C.-C. Zhu, N.S. Sadick, A.H. Diwan, P.S. Zhang, J.S. Liu, V.G. Prieto, Expression of androgen receptor coactivator ARA70/ELE1 in androgenic alopecia. J. Cutan. Pathol. 32, 567–571 (2005)PubMed
59.
M.E. Sawaya, A.R. Shalita, Androgen receptor polymorphisms (CAG repeat lengths) in androgenetic alopecia, hirsutism, and acne. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 3, 9–15 (1998)PubMed
60.
A.M. Hillmer, S. Hanneken, S. Ritzmann, T. Becker, J. Freudenberg, F.F. Brockschmidt, A. Flaquer, Y. Freudenberg-Hua, R.A. Jamra, C. Metzen, U. Heyn, N. Schweiger, R.C. Betz, B. Blaumeiser, J. Hampe, S. Schreiber, T.G. Schulze, H.C. Hennies, J. Schumacher, P. Propping, T. Ruzicka, S. Cichon, T.F. Wienker, R. Kruse, M.M. Nothen, Genetic variation in the human androgen receptor gene is the major determinant of common early-onset androgenetic alopecia. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77, 140–148 (2005)PubMedPubMedCentral
61.
J.A. Ellis, M. Stebbing, S.B. Harrap, Polymorphism of the androgen receptor gene is associated with male pattern baldness. J. Invest. Dermatol. 116, 452–455 (2001)PubMed
62.
J.A. Ellis, K.J. Scurrah, J.E. Cobb, S.G. Zaloumis, A.E. Duncan, S.B. Harrap, Baldness and the androgen receptor: the AR polyglycine repeat polymorphism does not confer susceptibility to androgenetic alopecia. Hum. Genet. 121, 451–457 (2007)PubMed
63.
V.M. Hayes, G. Severi, Sa Eggleton, E.J.D. Padilla, M.C. Southey, R.L. Sutherland, J.L. Hopper, G.G. Giles, Short communication the E211 G > a androgen receptor polymorphism is associated with a decreased risk of metastatic prostate cancer and androgenetic alopecia. Cancer Epidemiol. 14, 993–996 (2005)
64.
J.E. Cobb, S.J. White, S.B. Harrap, J.A. Ellis, Androgen receptor copy number variation and androgenetic alopecia: a case-control study. PLoS One 4, e5081 (2009)PubMedPubMedCentral
65.
D.A. Prodi, N. Pirastu, G. Maninchedda, A. Sassu, A. Picciau, M.A. Palmas, A. Mossa, I. Persico, M. Adamo, A. Angius, M. Pirastu, EDA2R is associated with androgenetic alopecia. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 2268–2270 (2008)PubMed
66.
A.M. Hillmer, J. Freudenberg, S. Myles, S. Herms, K. Tang, D.A. Hughes, F.F. Brockschmidt, Y. Ruan, M. Stoneking, M.M. Nöthen, Recent positive selection of a human androgen receptor/ectodysplasin A2 receptor haplotype and its relationship to male pattern baldness. Hum. Genet. 126, 255 (2009)PubMedPubMedCentral
67.
F.F. Brockschmidt, A.M. Hillmer, S. Eigelshoven, S. Hanneken, S. Heilmann, S. Barth, C. Herold, T. Becker, R. Kruse, M.M. Nöthen, Fine mapping of the human AR/EDA2R locus in androgenetic alopecia. Br. J. Dermatol. 162, 899–903 (2010)PubMed
68.
J.A. Ellis, M. Stebbing, S.B. Harrap, Genetic analysis of male pattern baldness and the 5alpha-reductase genes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 110, 849–853 (1998)PubMed
69.
J.B. Richards, X. Yuan, F. Geller, D. Waterworth, V. Bataille, D. Glass, K. Song, G. Waeber, P. Vollenweider, K.K.H. Aben, L.A. Kiemeney, B. Walters, N. Soranzo, U. Thorsteinsdottir, A. Kong, T. Rafnar, P. Deloukas, P. Sulem, H. Stefansson, K. Stefansson, T.D. Spector, V. Mooser, Male-pattern baldness susceptibility locus at 20p11. Nat. Genet. 40, 1282–1284 (2008)PubMedPubMedCentral
70.
F.F. Brockschmidt, S. Heilmann, J.A. Ellis, S. Eigelshoven, S. Hanneken, C. Herold, S. Moebus, M.A. Alblas, B. Lippke, N. Kluck, L. Priebe, F.A. Degenhardt, R.A. Jamra, C. Meesters, K.H. Jöckel, R. Erbel, S. Harrap, J. Schumacher, H. Fröhlich, R. Kruse, A.M. Hillmer, T. Becker, M.M. Nöthen, Susceptibility variants on chromosome 7p21.1 suggest HDAC9 as a new candidate gene for male-pattern baldness. Br. J. Dermatol. 165, 1293–1302 (2011)PubMed
71.
A.M. Hillmer, F.F. Brockschmidt, S. Hanneken, S. Eigelshoven, M. Steffens, A. Flaquer, S. Herms, T. Becker, A.-K. Kortüm, D.R. Nyholt, Z.Z. Zhao, G.W. Montgomery, N.G. Martin, T.W. Mühleisen, M.A. Alblas, S. Moebus, K.-H. Jöckel, M. Bröcker-Preuss, R. Erbel, R. Reinartz, R.C. Betz, S. Cichon, P. Propping, M.P. Baur, T.F. Wienker, R. Kruse, M.M. Nöthen, Susceptibility variants for male-pattern baldness on chromosome 20p11. Nat. Genet. 40, 1279–1281 (2008)PubMed
72.
D.R. Chesire, W.B. Isaacs, Ligand-dependent inhibition of beta-catenin/TCF signaling by androgen receptor. Oncogene 21, 8453–8469 (2002)PubMed
73.
R. Li, F.F. Brockschmidt, A.K. Kiefer, H. Stefansson, D.R. Nyholt, K. Song, S.H. Vermeulen, S. Kanoni, D. Glass, S.E. Medland, M. Dimitriou, D. Waterworth, J.Y. Tung, F. Geller, S. Heilmann, A.M. Hillmer, V. Bataille, S. Eigelshoven, S. Hanneken, S. Moebus, C. Herold, M. den Heijer, G.W. Montgomery, P. Deloukas, N. Eriksson, A.C. Heath, T. Becker, P. Sulem, M. Mangino, P. Vollenweider, T.D. Spector, G. Dedoussis, N.G. Martin, L.A. Kiemeney, V. Mooser, K. Stefansson, D.A. Hinds, M.M. Nöthen, J.B. Richards, Six novel susceptibility loci for early-onset androgenetic alopecia and their unexpected association with common diseases. PLoS Genet. 8, e1002746 (2012)PubMedPubMedCentral
74.
T. Kitagawa, K.I. Matsuda, S. Inui, H. Takenaka, N. Katoh, S. Itami, S. Kishimoto, M. Kawata, Keratinocyte growth inhibition through the modification of wnt signaling by androgen in balding dermal papilla cells. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 94, 1288–1294 (2009)PubMedPubMedCentral
75.
G.J. Leirõs, A.I. Attorresi, M.E. Balañá, Hair follicle stem cell differentiation is inhibited through cross-talk between Wnt/β-catenin and androgen signalling in dermal papilla cells from patients with androgenetic alopecia. Br. J. Dermatol. 166, 1035–1042 (2012)PubMed
76.
J.S. Crabtree, E.J. Kilbourne, B.J. Peano, S. Chippari, T. Kenney, C. McNally, W. Wang, H.A. Harris, R.C. Winneker, S. Nagpal, C.C. Thompson, A mouse model of androgenetic alopecia. Endocrinology 151, 2373–2380 (2010)PubMed
77.
F. Yang, X. Li, M. Sharma, C.Y. Sasaki, D.L. Longo, B. Lim, Z. Sun, Linking beta-catenin to androgen-signaling pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 11336–11344 (2002)PubMed
78.
J. Kishimoto, R.E. Burgeson, B.A. Morgan, Wnt signaling maintains the hair-inducing activity of the dermal papilla. Genes Dev. 14, 1181–1185 (2000)PubMedPubMedCentral
79.
C. Lo Celso, D.M. Prowse, F.M. Watt, Transient activation of beta-catenin signalling in adult mouse epidermis is sufficient to induce new hair follicles but continuous activation is required to maintain hair follicle tumours. Development 131, 1787–1799 (2004)PubMed
80.
D. Van Mater, F.T. Kolligs, A.A. Dlugosz, E.R. Fearon, Transient activation of beta -catenin signaling in cutaneous keratinocytes is sufficient to trigger the active growth phase of the hair cycle in mice. Genes Dev. 17, 1219–1224 (2003)PubMedPubMedCentral
81.
T. Andl, S.T. Reddy, T. Gaddapara, S.E. Millar, WNT signals are required for the initiation of hair follicle development. Dev. Cell 2, 643–653 (2002)PubMed
82.
A.A. Mills, B. Zheng, X.J. Wang, H. Vogel, D.R. Roop, A. Bradley, p63 is a p53 homologue required for limb and epidermal morphogenesis. Nature 398, 708–713 (1999)PubMed
83.
M. Sosnova, M. Bradl, J.V. Forrester, CD34+ corneal stromal cells are bone marrow-derived and express hemopoietic stem cell markers. Stem Cells 23, 507–515 (2005)PubMed
84.
L.A. Garza, Y. Liu, Z. Yang, B. Alagesan, J.A. Lawson, S.M. Norberg, D.E. Loy, T. Zhao, H.B. Blatt, D.C. Stanton, L. Carrasco, G. Ahluwalia, S.M. Fischer, G.A. FitzGerald, G. Cotsarelis, Prostaglandin D2 inhibits hair growth and is elevated in bald scalp of men with androgenetic alopecia 4, 126ra34 (2012).
85.
S. Heilmann, D.R. Nyholt, F.F. Brockschmidt, A.M. Hillmer, C. Herold, T. Becker, N.G. Martin, M.M. Nöthen, No genetic support for a contribution of prostaglandins to the aetiology of androgenetic alopecia. Br. J. Dermatol. 169, 222–224 (2013)PubMed
86.
A.W. Bahta, N. Farjo, B. Farjo, M.P. Philpott, Premature senescence of balding dermal papilla cells in vitro is associated with p16(INK4a) expression. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 1088–1094 (2008)PubMed
87.
Q.M. Chen, Replicative senescence and oxidant-induced premature senescence. Beyond the control of cell cycle checkpoints. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 908, 111–125 (2000)PubMed
88.
J.H. Upton, R.F. Hannen, A.W. Bahta, N. Farjo, B. Farjo, M.P. Philpott, Oxidative stress–associated senescence in dermal papilla cells of men with androgenetic alopecia. J. Investig. Dermatol. Adv. Online Publ. 135, 1244–1252 (2015)
89.
M. Bienova, R. Kucerova, M. Fiuraskova, M. Hajduch, Z. Kolar, Androgenetic alopecia and current methods of treatment. Acta. Dermatovenerol. Alp. Pannonica Adriat. 14, 5–8 (2005)PubMed
90.
H.S. Shin, C.H. Won, S.H. Lee, O.S. Kwon, K.H. Kim, H.C. Eun, Efficacy of 5% minoxidil versus combined 5% minoxidil and 0.01% tretinoin for male pattern hair loss: a randomized, double-blind, comparative clinical trial. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 8, 285–290 (2007)PubMed
91.
A.E. Buhl, D.J. Waldon, T.T. Kawabe, J.M. Holland, Minoxidil stimulates mouse vibrissae follicles in organ culture. J. Invest. Dermatol. 92, 315–320 (1989)PubMed
92.
A. Blumeyer, A. Tosti, A. Messenger, P. Reygagne, V. Del Marmol, P.I. Spuls, M. Trakatelli, A. Finner, F. Kiesewetter, R. Trüeb, B. Rzany, U. Blume-Peytavi, Evidence-based (S3) guideline for the treatment of androgenetic alopecia in women and in men. JDDG 9, S1–S57 (2011)PubMed
93.
E.P. Jenkins, S. Andersson, J. Imperato-McGinley, J.D. Wilson, D.W. Russell, Genetic and pharmacological evidence for more than one human steroid 5 alpha-reductase. J. Clin. Invest. 89, 293–300 (1992)PubMedPubMedCentral
94.
D.W. Russell, J.D. Wilson, Steroid 5 alpha-reductase: two genes/two enzymes. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 63, 25–61 (1994)PubMed
95.
G. Harris, B. Azzolina, W. Baginsky, G. Cimis, G.H. Rasmusson, R.L. Tolman, C.R. Raetz, K. Ellsworth, Identification and selective inhibition of an isozyme of steroid 5 alpha-reductase in human scalp. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 89, 10787–10791 (1992)PubMed
96.
A.E. Thigpen, R.I. Silver, J.M. Guileyardo, M.L. Casey, J.D. McConnell, D.W. Russell, Tissue distribution and ontogeny of steroid 5 alpha-reductase isozyme expression. J. Clin. Invest. 92, 903–910 (1993)PubMedPubMedCentral
97.
E. Bayne, J. Flanagan, B. Azzolina, R. Einstein, J. Mumford, B. Avala, D. Chang, I. Thiboutot, I. Singer, G. Harris, Immunolocalization of type 2 5a-reductase in human hair follicles [abstract]. in 1997 Annual Meeting Society for Investigative Dermatology. p. 651 (1997)
98.
L. Drake, M. Hordinsky, V. Fiedler, J. Swinehart, W.P. Unger, P.C. Cotterill, D.M. Thiboutot, N. Lowe, C. Jacobson, D. Whiting, S. Stieglitz, S.J. Kraus, E.I. Griffin, D. Weiss, P. Carrington, C. Gencheff, G.W. Cole, D.M. Pariser, E.S. Epstein, W. Tanaka, A. Dallob, K. Vandormael, L. Geissler, J. Waldstreicher, The effects of finasteride on scalp skin and serum androgen levels in men with androgenetic alopecia. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 41, 550–554 (1999)PubMed
99.
M. Caserini, M. Radicioni, C. Leuratti, E. Terragni, M. Iorizzo, R. Palmieri, Effects of a novel finasteride 0.25% topical solution on scalp and serum dihydrotestosterone in healthy men with androgenetic alopecia. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 54, 19–27 (2016)PubMed
100.
M. Caserini, M. Radicioni, C. Leuratti, O. Annoni, R. Palmieri, A novel finasteride 0.25% topical solution for androgenetic alopecia: pharmacokinetics and effects on plasma androgen levels in healthy male volunteers. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 52, 842–849 (2014)PubMed
101.
B.S. Chandrashekar, T. Nandhini, V. Vasanth, R. Sriram, S. Navale, Topical minoxidil fortified with finasteride: An account of maintenance of hair density after replacing oral finasteride. Indian Dermatol. Online J. 6, 17–20 (2015)PubMedPubMedCentral
102.
Z. Hajheydari, J. Akbari, M. Saeedi, L. Shokoohi, Comparing the therapeutic effects of finasteride gel and tablet in treatment of the androgenetic alopecia. Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol. 75, 47–51 (2009)PubMed
103.
C. Tanglertsampan, Efficacy and safety of 3% minoxidil versus combined 3% minoxidil / 0.1% finasteride in male pattern hair loss: a randomized, double-blind, comparative study. J. Med. Assoc. Thail. 95, 1312–1316 (2012)
104.
S. Khandpur, M. Suman, B.S. Reddy, Comparative efficacy of various treatment regimens for androgenetic alopecia in men. J. Dermatol. 29, 489–498 (2002)PubMed
105.
A.R. Diani, M.J. Mulholland, K.L. Shull, M.F. Kubicek, G.A. Johnson, H.J. Schostarez, M.N. Brunden, A.E. Buhl, Hair growth effects of oral administration of finasteride, a steroid 5α-reductase inhibitor, alone and in combination with topical minoxidil in the balding stumptail macaque. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 74, 345–350 (1992)PubMed
106.
A. Rossi, C. Cantisani, M. Scarno, A. Trucchia, M.C. Fortuna, S. Calvieri, Finasteride, 1 mg daily administration on male androgenetic alopecia in different age groups: 10-year follow-up. Dermatol. Ther. 24, 455–461 (2011)PubMed
107.
J.W. Overstreet, V.L. Fuh, J. Gould, S.S. Howards, M.M. Lieber, W. Hellstrom, S. Shapiro, P. Carroll, R.S. Corfman, S. Petrou, R. Lewis, P. Toth, T. Shown, J. Roy, J.P. Jarow, J. Bonilla, C.A. Jacobsen, D.Z. Wang, K.D. Kaufman, Chronic treatment with finasteride daily does not affect spermatogenesis or semen production in young men. J. Urol. 162, 1295–1300 (1999)PubMed
108.
A.M. Traish, J. Hassani, A.T. Guay, M. Zitzmann, M.L. Hansen, Adverse side effects of 5α-reductase inhibitors therapy: persistent diminished libido and erectile dysfunction and depression in a subset of patients. J. Sex. Med. 8, 872–884 (2011)PubMed
109.
M.S. Irwig, S. Kolukula. Persistent sexual side effects of finasteride for male pattern hair loss. J. Sex. Med. 8, 1747–1753 (2011)PubMed
110.
Y. Wu, R.R. Chhipa, H. Zhang, C. Ip, The antiandrogenic effect of finasteride against a mutant androgen receptor. Cancer Biol. Ther. 11, 902–909 (2011)PubMedPubMedCentral
111.
D.A. Finn, S.L. Long, M.A. Tanchuck, J.C. Crabbe, Interaction of chronic ethanol exposure and finasteride: sex and strain differences. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 78, 435–443 (2004)PubMed
112.
B. Stoffel-Wagner, Neurosteroid biosynthesis in the human brain and its clinical implications. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1007, 64–78 (2003)PubMed
113.
R. Rupprecht, F. Holsboer, Neuroactive steroids: mechanisms of action and neuropsychopharmacological perspectives. Trends Neurosci. 22, 410–416 (1999)PubMed
Metadata
Title
Androgenetic alopecia: a review
Authors
Francesca Lolli
Francesco Pallotti
Alfredo Rossi
Maria C. Fortuna
Gemma Caro
Andrea Lenzi
Andrea Sansone
Francesco Lombardo
Publication date
01-07-2017
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Endocrine / Issue 1/2017
Print ISSN: 1355-008X
Electronic ISSN: 1559-0100
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-017-1280-y

Other articles of this Issue 1/2017

Endocrine 1/2017 Go to the issue

Original Article

Ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration versus core needle biopsy: comparison of post-biopsy hematoma rates and risk factors

Endocrine Trials

The effects of vitamin D supplementation on proatherogenic inflammatory markers and carotid intima media thickness in subjects with metabolic syndrome: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial

Endocrine Imaging

“Pseudo-progression” in advanced thyroid cancer in response to kinase inhibitor therapy

Editorial

Does pasireotide directly modulate skeletal muscle metabolism?

Original Article

Vision related quality of life in patients with type 2 diabetes in the EUROCONDOR trial

Original Article

Hypopituitarism is associated with lower oxytocin concentrations and reduced empathic ability
Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

Read more

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Highlights from the ACC 2024 Congress

Year in Review: Pediatric cardiology

Pediatric Cardiology Video

Watch Dr. Anne Marie Valente present the last year's highlights in pediatric and congenital heart disease in the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Pulmonary vascular disease

Cardiopulmonary Comorbidity Video

The last year's highlights in pulmonary vascular disease are presented by Dr. Jane Leopold in this official video from ACC.24.

Year in Review: Valvular heart disease

Valvular Heart Disease Video

Watch Prof. William Zoghbi present the last year's highlights in valvular heart disease from the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Heart Failure Video

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discuss last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Heart Failure Video

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Watch now

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discuss last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

16-04-2024 Type 2 Diabetes News

Incentivised to exercise

11-04-2024 Lifestyle Modifications News

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

10-04-2024 Myocardial Infarction News

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page

Image Credits