Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders 1/2010

01-03-2010

Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus: Molecular mechanisms and clinical implications

Authors: Corey E. Tabit, William B. Chung, Naomi M. Hamburg, Joseph A. Vita

Published in: Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders | Issue 1/2010

Login to get access

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease is a major complication of diabetes mellitus, and improved strategies for prevention and treatment are needed. Endothelial dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis and clinical expression of atherosclerosis in diabetes mellitus. This article reviews the evidence linking endothelial dysfunction to human diabetes mellitus and experimental studies that investigated the responsible mechanisms. We then discuss the implications of these studies for current management and for new approaches for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes mellitus.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Narayan KM, Boyle JP, Geiss LS, Saaddine JB, Thompson TJ. Impact of recent increase in incidence on future diabetes burden: U.S., 2005–2050. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:2114–6.PubMed Narayan KM, Boyle JP, Geiss LS, Saaddine JB, Thompson TJ. Impact of recent increase in incidence on future diabetes burden: U.S., 2005–2050. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:2114–6.PubMed
2.
go back to reference Lloyd-Jones D, Adams R, Carnethon M, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2009 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2009;119:480–6.PubMed Lloyd-Jones D, Adams R, Carnethon M, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2009 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2009;119:480–6.PubMed
3.
go back to reference Eckel RH, Wassef M, Chait A, et al. Prevention conference VI: Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: writing Group II: pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in diabetes. Circulation. 2002;105:e138–43.PubMed Eckel RH, Wassef M, Chait A, et al. Prevention conference VI: Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: writing Group II: pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in diabetes. Circulation. 2002;105:e138–43.PubMed
4.
go back to reference Creager MA, Luscher TF, Cosentino F, Beckman JA. Diabetes and vascular disease: pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and medical therapy: Part I. Circulation. 2003;108:1527–32.PubMed Creager MA, Luscher TF, Cosentino F, Beckman JA. Diabetes and vascular disease: pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and medical therapy: Part I. Circulation. 2003;108:1527–32.PubMed
5.
go back to reference Widlansky ME, Gokce N, Keaney Jr JF, Vita JA. The clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:1149–60.PubMed Widlansky ME, Gokce N, Keaney Jr JF, Vita JA. The clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:1149–60.PubMed
6.
go back to reference Vita JA, Keaney Jr JF. Endothelial function: A barometer for cardiovascular risk? Circulation. 2002;106:640–2.PubMed Vita JA, Keaney Jr JF. Endothelial function: A barometer for cardiovascular risk? Circulation. 2002;106:640–2.PubMed
7.
go back to reference Beckman JA, Libby P, Creager MA. Diabetes mellitus, the metabolic syndrome, and atherosclerotic vascular disease. In: Zipes DP, Libby P, Bonow RO, Braunwald E, editors. Braunwald’s heart disease: A textbook of cardiovascular medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2005. p. 1035–46. Beckman JA, Libby P, Creager MA. Diabetes mellitus, the metabolic syndrome, and atherosclerotic vascular disease. In: Zipes DP, Libby P, Bonow RO, Braunwald E, editors. Braunwald’s heart disease: A textbook of cardiovascular medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2005. p. 1035–46.
8.
go back to reference Kim JA, Montagnani M, Koh KK, Quon MJ. Reciprocal relationships between insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction: molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms. Circulation. 2006;113:1888–904.PubMed Kim JA, Montagnani M, Koh KK, Quon MJ. Reciprocal relationships between insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction: molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms. Circulation. 2006;113:1888–904.PubMed
9.
go back to reference Bakker W, Eringa EC, Sipkema P, van Hinsbergh VW. Endothelial dysfunction and diabetes: roles of hyperglycemia, impaired insulin signaling and obesity. Cell Tissue Res. 2009;335:165–89.PubMed Bakker W, Eringa EC, Sipkema P, van Hinsbergh VW. Endothelial dysfunction and diabetes: roles of hyperglycemia, impaired insulin signaling and obesity. Cell Tissue Res. 2009;335:165–89.PubMed
10.
go back to reference Calles-Escandon J, Cipolla M. Diabetes and endothelial dysfunction: a clinical perspective. Endocr Rev. 2001;22:36–52.PubMed Calles-Escandon J, Cipolla M. Diabetes and endothelial dysfunction: a clinical perspective. Endocr Rev. 2001;22:36–52.PubMed
11.
go back to reference Malek AM, Alper SL, Izumo S. Hemodynamic shear stress and its role in atherosclerosis. JAMA. 1999;282:2035–42.PubMed Malek AM, Alper SL, Izumo S. Hemodynamic shear stress and its role in atherosclerosis. JAMA. 1999;282:2035–42.PubMed
12.
go back to reference Vita JA. Nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation in human subjects. Methods Enzymol. 2002;359:186–200.PubMed Vita JA. Nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation in human subjects. Methods Enzymol. 2002;359:186–200.PubMed
13.
go back to reference Silver AE, Vita JA. Shear-stress-mediated arterial remodeling in atherosclerosis: too much of a good thing? Circulation. 2006;113:2787–9.PubMed Silver AE, Vita JA. Shear-stress-mediated arterial remodeling in atherosclerosis: too much of a good thing? Circulation. 2006;113:2787–9.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Korshunov VA, Schwartz SM, Berk BC. Vascular remodeling: hemodynamic and biochemical mechanisms underlying Glagov’s phenomenon. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27:1722–8.PubMed Korshunov VA, Schwartz SM, Berk BC. Vascular remodeling: hemodynamic and biochemical mechanisms underlying Glagov’s phenomenon. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27:1722–8.PubMed
15.
go back to reference Heil M, Schaper W. Influence of mechanical, cellular, and molecular factors on collateral artery growth (arteriogenesis). Circ Res. 2004;95:449–58.PubMed Heil M, Schaper W. Influence of mechanical, cellular, and molecular factors on collateral artery growth (arteriogenesis). Circ Res. 2004;95:449–58.PubMed
16.
go back to reference Schaper W, Scholz D. Factors regulating arteriogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23:1143–51.PubMed Schaper W, Scholz D. Factors regulating arteriogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23:1143–51.PubMed
17.
go back to reference Pasterkamp G, Galis ZS, de Kleijn DP. Expansive arterial remodeling: location, location, location. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:650–7.PubMed Pasterkamp G, Galis ZS, de Kleijn DP. Expansive arterial remodeling: location, location, location. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:650–7.PubMed
18.
go back to reference de Chantemele EJ Belin, Vessieres E, Guihot AL, et al. Type 2 diabetes severely impairs structural and functional adaptation of rat resistance arteries to chronic changes in blood flow. Cardiovasc Res. 2009;81:788–96. de Chantemele EJ Belin, Vessieres E, Guihot AL, et al. Type 2 diabetes severely impairs structural and functional adaptation of rat resistance arteries to chronic changes in blood flow. Cardiovasc Res. 2009;81:788–96.
19.
go back to reference Rubio R, Berne RM. Release of adenosine by the normal myocardium in dogs and its relationship to the regulation of coronary resistance. Circ Res. 1969;25:407–15.PubMed Rubio R, Berne RM. Release of adenosine by the normal myocardium in dogs and its relationship to the regulation of coronary resistance. Circ Res. 1969;25:407–15.PubMed
20.
go back to reference Loscalzo J, Vita JA. Ischemia, hyperemia, exercise, and nitric oxide: complex physiology and complex molecular adaptations. Circulation. 1994;90:2556–9.PubMed Loscalzo J, Vita JA. Ischemia, hyperemia, exercise, and nitric oxide: complex physiology and complex molecular adaptations. Circulation. 1994;90:2556–9.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Ross R. Atherosclerosis–an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:115–26.PubMed Ross R. Atherosclerosis–an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:115–26.PubMed
22.
go back to reference Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2002;105:1135–43.PubMed Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2002;105:1135–43.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Li H, Cybulsky MI, Gimbrone MA, Libby P. An atherogenic diet rapidly induces VCAM-1, a cytokine-regulatable mononuclear leukocyte adhesion molecule, in rabbit aortic endothelium. Arterioscler Thromb. 1993;13(2):197–204.PubMed Li H, Cybulsky MI, Gimbrone MA, Libby P. An atherogenic diet rapidly induces VCAM-1, a cytokine-regulatable mononuclear leukocyte adhesion molecule, in rabbit aortic endothelium. Arterioscler Thromb. 1993;13(2):197–204.PubMed
24.
go back to reference Ruberg FL, Leopold JA, Loscalzo J. Atherothrombosis: plaque instability and thrombogenesis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2002;44:381–94.PubMed Ruberg FL, Leopold JA, Loscalzo J. Atherothrombosis: plaque instability and thrombogenesis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2002;44:381–94.PubMed
25.
26.
go back to reference Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, et al. Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:1046–51.PubMedCrossRef Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, et al. Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:1046–51.PubMedCrossRef
27.
go back to reference Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, et al. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet. 1992;340:1111–5.PubMed Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, et al. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet. 1992;340:1111–5.PubMed
28.
go back to reference Vita JA, Treasure CB, Nabel EG, et al. Coronary vasomotor response to acetylcholine relates to risk factors for coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1990;81:491–7.PubMed Vita JA, Treasure CB, Nabel EG, et al. Coronary vasomotor response to acetylcholine relates to risk factors for coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1990;81:491–7.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Benjamin EJ, Larson MG, Keyes MJ, et al. Clinical correlates and heritability of endothelial function in the community: the Framingham heart study. Circulation. 2004;109:613–9.PubMed Benjamin EJ, Larson MG, Keyes MJ, et al. Clinical correlates and heritability of endothelial function in the community: the Framingham heart study. Circulation. 2004;109:613–9.PubMed
30.
go back to reference Sorensen KE, Celermajer DS, Georgakopoulos D, Hatcher G, Betteridge DJ, Deanfield JE. Impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation is an early event in children with familial hypercholesterolemia and is related to the lipoprotein (a) level. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:50–5.PubMed Sorensen KE, Celermajer DS, Georgakopoulos D, Hatcher G, Betteridge DJ, Deanfield JE. Impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation is an early event in children with familial hypercholesterolemia and is related to the lipoprotein (a) level. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:50–5.PubMed
31.
go back to reference Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long- term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation. 2000;101:1899–906.PubMed Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long- term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation. 2000;101:1899–906.PubMed
32.
go back to reference Suwaidi JA, Hamasaki S, Higano ST, Nishimura RA, Holmes DR, Lerman A. Long-term follow-up of patients with mild coronary artery disease and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2000;101:948–54.PubMed Suwaidi JA, Hamasaki S, Higano ST, Nishimura RA, Holmes DR, Lerman A. Long-term follow-up of patients with mild coronary artery disease and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2000;101:948–54.PubMed
33.
go back to reference Heitzer T, Schlinzig T, Krohn K, Meinertz T, Munzel T. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2001;104:2673–8.PubMed Heitzer T, Schlinzig T, Krohn K, Meinertz T, Munzel T. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2001;104:2673–8.PubMed
34.
go back to reference Perticone F, Ceravolo R, Pujia A, et al. Prognostic significance of endothelial dysfunction in hypertensive patients. Circulation. 2001;104:191–6.PubMed Perticone F, Ceravolo R, Pujia A, et al. Prognostic significance of endothelial dysfunction in hypertensive patients. Circulation. 2001;104:191–6.PubMed
35.
go back to reference Gokce N, Keaney Jr JF, Menzoian JO, et al. Risk stratification for postoperative cardiovascular events via noninvasive assessment of endothelial function. Circulation. 2002;105:1567–72.PubMed Gokce N, Keaney Jr JF, Menzoian JO, et al. Risk stratification for postoperative cardiovascular events via noninvasive assessment of endothelial function. Circulation. 2002;105:1567–72.PubMed
36.
go back to reference Halcox JP, Schenke WH, Zalos G, et al. Prognostic value of coronary vascular endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2002;106:653–8.PubMed Halcox JP, Schenke WH, Zalos G, et al. Prognostic value of coronary vascular endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2002;106:653–8.PubMed
37.
go back to reference Modena MG, Bonetti L, Coppi F, Bursi F, Rossi R. Prognostic role of reversible endothelial dysfunction in hypertensive postmenopausal women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:505–10.PubMed Modena MG, Bonetti L, Coppi F, Bursi F, Rossi R. Prognostic role of reversible endothelial dysfunction in hypertensive postmenopausal women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:505–10.PubMed
38.
go back to reference Huang AL, Silver AE, Shvenke E, et al. Predictive value of reactive hyperemia for cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral arterial disease undergoing vascular surgery. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27:2113–9.PubMed Huang AL, Silver AE, Shvenke E, et al. Predictive value of reactive hyperemia for cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral arterial disease undergoing vascular surgery. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27:2113–9.PubMed
39.
go back to reference Johnstone MT, Creager SJ, Scales KM, Cusco JA, Lee BK, Creager MA. Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 1993;88:2510–6.PubMed Johnstone MT, Creager SJ, Scales KM, Cusco JA, Lee BK, Creager MA. Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 1993;88:2510–6.PubMed
40.
go back to reference Nicolls MR, Haskins K, Flores SC. Oxidant stress, immune dysregulation, and vascular function in type I diabetes. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2007;9:879–89.PubMed Nicolls MR, Haskins K, Flores SC. Oxidant stress, immune dysregulation, and vascular function in type I diabetes. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2007;9:879–89.PubMed
41.
go back to reference McVeigh GE, Brennan GM, Johnston GD, et al. Impaired endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation in patients with type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1992;35:771–6.PubMed McVeigh GE, Brennan GM, Johnston GD, et al. Impaired endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation in patients with type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1992;35:771–6.PubMed
42.
go back to reference Ting HH, Timimi FK, Boles KS, Creager SJ, Ganz P, Creager MA. Vitamin C improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:22–8.PubMed Ting HH, Timimi FK, Boles KS, Creager SJ, Ganz P, Creager MA. Vitamin C improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:22–8.PubMed
43.
go back to reference Williams SB, Cusco JA, Roddy MA, Johnstone MT, Creager MA. Impaired nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:567–74.PubMed Williams SB, Cusco JA, Roddy MA, Johnstone MT, Creager MA. Impaired nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:567–74.PubMed
44.
go back to reference Steinberg HO, Chaker H, Leaming R, Johnson A, Brechtel G, Baron AD. Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:2601–10.PubMed Steinberg HO, Chaker H, Leaming R, Johnson A, Brechtel G, Baron AD. Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:2601–10.PubMed
45.
go back to reference Hamdy O, Ledbury S, Mullooly C, et al. Lifestyle modification improves endothelial function in obese subjects with the insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:2119–25.PubMed Hamdy O, Ledbury S, Mullooly C, et al. Lifestyle modification improves endothelial function in obese subjects with the insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:2119–25.PubMed
46.
go back to reference Gokce N, Vita JA, Donnell M, et al. Effect of medical and surgical weight loss on endothelial vasomotor function in obese patients. Am J Cardiol. 2005;95:266–8.PubMed Gokce N, Vita JA, Donnell M, et al. Effect of medical and surgical weight loss on endothelial vasomotor function in obese patients. Am J Cardiol. 2005;95:266–8.PubMed
47.
go back to reference Lteif AA, Han K, Mather KJ. Obesity, insulin resistance, and the metabolic syndrome: determinants of endothelial dysfunction in whites and blacks. Circulation. 2005;112:32–8.PubMed Lteif AA, Han K, Mather KJ. Obesity, insulin resistance, and the metabolic syndrome: determinants of endothelial dysfunction in whites and blacks. Circulation. 2005;112:32–8.PubMed
48.
go back to reference Hamburg NM, Larson MG, Vita JA, et al. Metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and brachial artery vasodilator function in framingham offspring participants without clinical evidence of cardiovascular disease. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101:82–8.PubMed Hamburg NM, Larson MG, Vita JA, et al. Metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and brachial artery vasodilator function in framingham offspring participants without clinical evidence of cardiovascular disease. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101:82–8.PubMed
49.
go back to reference DeSouza CA, Shapiro LF, Clevenger CM, et al. Regular aerobic exercise prevents and restores age-related declines in endothelium-dependent vasodilation in healthy men. Circulation. 2000;102:1351–7.PubMed DeSouza CA, Shapiro LF, Clevenger CM, et al. Regular aerobic exercise prevents and restores age-related declines in endothelium-dependent vasodilation in healthy men. Circulation. 2000;102:1351–7.PubMed
50.
go back to reference Keaney Jr JF, Massaro JM, Larson MG, et al. Heritability and correlates of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in the Framingham Offspring Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:168–73.PubMed Keaney Jr JF, Massaro JM, Larson MG, et al. Heritability and correlates of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in the Framingham Offspring Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:168–73.PubMed
51.
go back to reference Meigs JB, Mittleman MA, Nathan DM, et al. Hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and impaired hemostasis: the Framingham Offspring Study. JAMA. 2000;283:221–8.PubMed Meigs JB, Mittleman MA, Nathan DM, et al. Hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and impaired hemostasis: the Framingham Offspring Study. JAMA. 2000;283:221–8.PubMed
52.
go back to reference Meigs JB, Hu FB, Rifai N, Manson JE. Biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2004;291:1978–86.PubMed Meigs JB, Hu FB, Rifai N, Manson JE. Biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2004;291:1978–86.PubMed
53.
go back to reference de Jongh RT, Serne EH, IJzerman RG, de Vries G, Stehouwer CD. Impaired microvascular function in obesity: implications for obesity-associated microangiopathy, hypertension, and insulin resistance. Circulation. 2004;109:2529–35.PubMed de Jongh RT, Serne EH, IJzerman RG, de Vries G, Stehouwer CD. Impaired microvascular function in obesity: implications for obesity-associated microangiopathy, hypertension, and insulin resistance. Circulation. 2004;109:2529–35.PubMed
54.
go back to reference Balletshofer BM, Rittig K, Enderle MD, et al. Endothelial dysfunction is detectable in young normotensive first-degree relatives of subjects with type 2 diabetes in association with insulin resistance. Circulation. 2000;101:1780–4.PubMed Balletshofer BM, Rittig K, Enderle MD, et al. Endothelial dysfunction is detectable in young normotensive first-degree relatives of subjects with type 2 diabetes in association with insulin resistance. Circulation. 2000;101:1780–4.PubMed
55.
go back to reference Campia U, Sullivan G, Bryant MB, Waclawiw MA, Quon MJ, Panza JA. Insulin impairs endothelium-dependent vasodilation independent of insulin sensitivity or lipid profile. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004;286:H76–82.PubMed Campia U, Sullivan G, Bryant MB, Waclawiw MA, Quon MJ, Panza JA. Insulin impairs endothelium-dependent vasodilation independent of insulin sensitivity or lipid profile. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004;286:H76–82.PubMed
56.
go back to reference Shimabukuro M, Shinzato T, Higa S, et al. Enhanced insulin response relates to acetylcholine-induced vasoconstriction in vasospastic angina. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;25:356–61.PubMed Shimabukuro M, Shinzato T, Higa S, et al. Enhanced insulin response relates to acetylcholine-induced vasoconstriction in vasospastic angina. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;25:356–61.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Shinozaki K, Hirayama A, Nishio Y, et al. Coronary endothelial dysfunction in the insulin-resistant state is linked to abnormal pteridine metabolism and vascular oxidative stress. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38:1821–8.PubMed Shinozaki K, Hirayama A, Nishio Y, et al. Coronary endothelial dysfunction in the insulin-resistant state is linked to abnormal pteridine metabolism and vascular oxidative stress. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38:1821–8.PubMed
58.
go back to reference Pasimeni G, Ribaudo MC, Capoccia D, et al. Non-invasive evaluation of endothelial dysfunction in uncomplicated obesity: relationship with insulin resistance. Microvasc Res. 2006;71:115–20.PubMed Pasimeni G, Ribaudo MC, Capoccia D, et al. Non-invasive evaluation of endothelial dysfunction in uncomplicated obesity: relationship with insulin resistance. Microvasc Res. 2006;71:115–20.PubMed
59.
go back to reference Lampinen KH, Ronnback M, Groop PH, Kaaja RJ. A relationship between insulin sensitivity and vasodilation in women with a history of preeclamptic pregnancy. Hypertension. 2008;52:394–401.PubMed Lampinen KH, Ronnback M, Groop PH, Kaaja RJ. A relationship between insulin sensitivity and vasodilation in women with a history of preeclamptic pregnancy. Hypertension. 2008;52:394–401.PubMed
60.
go back to reference Ardigo D, Franzini L, Valtuena S, Monti LD, Reaven GM, Zavaroni I. Relation of plasma insulin levels to forearm flow-mediated dilatation in healthy volunteers. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97:1250–4.PubMed Ardigo D, Franzini L, Valtuena S, Monti LD, Reaven GM, Zavaroni I. Relation of plasma insulin levels to forearm flow-mediated dilatation in healthy volunteers. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97:1250–4.PubMed
61.
go back to reference Caballero AE, Arora S, Saouaf R, et al. Microvascular and macrovascular reactivity is reduced in subjects at risk for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 1999;48:1856–62.PubMed Caballero AE, Arora S, Saouaf R, et al. Microvascular and macrovascular reactivity is reduced in subjects at risk for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 1999;48:1856–62.PubMed
62.
go back to reference Tesauro M, Rizza S, Iantorno M, et al. Vascular, metabolic, and inflammatory abnormalities in normoglycemic offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 2007;56:413–9.PubMed Tesauro M, Rizza S, Iantorno M, et al. Vascular, metabolic, and inflammatory abnormalities in normoglycemic offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 2007;56:413–9.PubMed
63.
go back to reference Meigs JB, O’Donnell CJ, Tofler GH, et al. Hemostatic markers of endothelial dysfunction and risk of incident type 2 diabetes: the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes. 2006;55:530–7.PubMed Meigs JB, O’Donnell CJ, Tofler GH, et al. Hemostatic markers of endothelial dysfunction and risk of incident type 2 diabetes: the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes. 2006;55:530–7.PubMed
64.
go back to reference Rossi R, Cioni E, Nuzzo A, Origliani G, Modena MG. Endothelial-dependent vasodilation and incidence of type 2 diabetes in a population of healthy postmenopausal women. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:702–7.PubMed Rossi R, Cioni E, Nuzzo A, Origliani G, Modena MG. Endothelial-dependent vasodilation and incidence of type 2 diabetes in a population of healthy postmenopausal women. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:702–7.PubMed
65.
go back to reference Monti LD, Barlassina C, Citterio L, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase polymorphisms are associated with type 2 diabetes and the insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes. 2003;52:1270–5.PubMed Monti LD, Barlassina C, Citterio L, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase polymorphisms are associated with type 2 diabetes and the insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes. 2003;52:1270–5.PubMed
66.
go back to reference Pistrosch F, Passauer J, Fischer S, Fuecker K, Hanefeld M, Gross P. In type 2 diabetes, rosiglitazone therapy for insulin resistance ameliorates endothelial dysfunction independent of glucose control. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:484–90.PubMed Pistrosch F, Passauer J, Fischer S, Fuecker K, Hanefeld M, Gross P. In type 2 diabetes, rosiglitazone therapy for insulin resistance ameliorates endothelial dysfunction independent of glucose control. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:484–90.PubMed
67.
go back to reference Caballero AE, Saouaf R, Lim SC, et al. The effects of troglitazone, an insulin-sensitizing agent, on the endothelial function in early and late type 2 diabetes: a placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial. Metabolism. 2003;52:173–80.PubMed Caballero AE, Saouaf R, Lim SC, et al. The effects of troglitazone, an insulin-sensitizing agent, on the endothelial function in early and late type 2 diabetes: a placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial. Metabolism. 2003;52:173–80.PubMed
68.
go back to reference Mather KJ, Verma S, Anderson TJ. Improved endothelial function with metformin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1344–50.PubMed Mather KJ, Verma S, Anderson TJ. Improved endothelial function with metformin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1344–50.PubMed
69.
go back to reference de Aguiar LG, Bahia LR, Villela N, et al. Metformin improves endothelial vascular reactivity in first-degree relatives of type 2 diabetic patients with metabolic syndrome and normal glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:1083–9.PubMed de Aguiar LG, Bahia LR, Villela N, et al. Metformin improves endothelial vascular reactivity in first-degree relatives of type 2 diabetic patients with metabolic syndrome and normal glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:1083–9.PubMed
70.
go back to reference Campia U, Matuskey LA, Panza JA. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activation with pioglitazone improves endothelium-dependent dilation in nondiabetic patients with major cardiovascular risk factors. Circulation. 2006;113:867–75.PubMed Campia U, Matuskey LA, Panza JA. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activation with pioglitazone improves endothelium-dependent dilation in nondiabetic patients with major cardiovascular risk factors. Circulation. 2006;113:867–75.PubMed
71.
go back to reference Hetzel J, Balletshofer B, Rittig K, et al. Rapid effects of rosiglitazone treatment on endothelial function and inflammatory biomarkers. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:1804–9.PubMed Hetzel J, Balletshofer B, Rittig K, et al. Rapid effects of rosiglitazone treatment on endothelial function and inflammatory biomarkers. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:1804–9.PubMed
72.
go back to reference Cheetham C, Collis J, O’Driscoll G, Stanton K, Taylor R, Green D. Losartan, an angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonist, improves endothelial function in non-insulin-dependent diabetes [In Process Citation]. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:1461–6.PubMed Cheetham C, Collis J, O’Driscoll G, Stanton K, Taylor R, Green D. Losartan, an angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonist, improves endothelial function in non-insulin-dependent diabetes [In Process Citation]. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:1461–6.PubMed
73.
go back to reference O’Driscoll G, Green D, Maiorana A, Stanton K, Colreavy F, Taylor R. Improvement in endothelial function by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33:1506–11.PubMed O’Driscoll G, Green D, Maiorana A, Stanton K, Colreavy F, Taylor R. Improvement in endothelial function by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33:1506–11.PubMed
74.
go back to reference Shaul PW, Smart EJ, Robinson LJ, et al. Acylation targets emdothelial nitric-oxide synthase to plasmalemmal caveolae. J Biol Chem. 1996;271:6518–22.PubMed Shaul PW, Smart EJ, Robinson LJ, et al. Acylation targets emdothelial nitric-oxide synthase to plasmalemmal caveolae. J Biol Chem. 1996;271:6518–22.PubMed
75.
go back to reference Michel JB, Feron O, Sacks D, Michel T. Reciprocal regulation of endothelial nitric-oxide synthase by Ca2+-calmodulin and caveolin. J Biol Chem. 1997;272:15583–6.PubMed Michel JB, Feron O, Sacks D, Michel T. Reciprocal regulation of endothelial nitric-oxide synthase by Ca2+-calmodulin and caveolin. J Biol Chem. 1997;272:15583–6.PubMed
76.
go back to reference Garcia-Cardena G, Fan R, Shah V, et al. Dynamic activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by Hsp90. Nature. 1998;392:821–4.PubMed Garcia-Cardena G, Fan R, Shah V, et al. Dynamic activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by Hsp90. Nature. 1998;392:821–4.PubMed
77.
go back to reference Montagnani M, Chen H, Barr VA, Quon MJ. Insulin-stimulated activation of eNOS is independent of Ca2+ but requires phosphorylation by Akt at Ser(1179). J Biol Chem. 2001;276:30392–8.PubMed Montagnani M, Chen H, Barr VA, Quon MJ. Insulin-stimulated activation of eNOS is independent of Ca2+ but requires phosphorylation by Akt at Ser(1179). J Biol Chem. 2001;276:30392–8.PubMed
78.
go back to reference Zeng G, Nystrom FH, Ravichandran LV, et al. Roles for insulin receptor, PI3-kinase, and Akt in insulin-signaling pathways related to production of nitric oxide in human vascular endothelial cells. Circulation. 2000;101:1539–45.PubMed Zeng G, Nystrom FH, Ravichandran LV, et al. Roles for insulin receptor, PI3-kinase, and Akt in insulin-signaling pathways related to production of nitric oxide in human vascular endothelial cells. Circulation. 2000;101:1539–45.PubMed
79.
go back to reference Kuboki K, Jiang ZY, Takahara N, et al. Regulation of endothelial constitutive nitric oxide synthase gene expression in endothelial cells and in vivo: a specific vascular action of insulin. Circulation. 2000;101:676–81.PubMed Kuboki K, Jiang ZY, Takahara N, et al. Regulation of endothelial constitutive nitric oxide synthase gene expression in endothelial cells and in vivo: a specific vascular action of insulin. Circulation. 2000;101:676–81.PubMed
80.
go back to reference Dimmeler S, Fleming I, Fisslthaler B, Hermann C, Busse R, Zeiher AM. Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation. Nature. 1999;399:601–5.PubMed Dimmeler S, Fleming I, Fisslthaler B, Hermann C, Busse R, Zeiher AM. Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation. Nature. 1999;399:601–5.PubMed
81.
go back to reference Krumenacker JS, Hanafy KA, Murad F. Regulation of nitric oxide and soluble guanylyl cyclase. Brain Res Bull. 2004;62:505–15.PubMed Krumenacker JS, Hanafy KA, Murad F. Regulation of nitric oxide and soluble guanylyl cyclase. Brain Res Bull. 2004;62:505–15.PubMed
82.
go back to reference Muniyappa R, Montagnani M, Koh KK, Quon MJ. Cardiovascular actions of insulin. Endocr Rev. 2007;28:463–91.PubMed Muniyappa R, Montagnani M, Koh KK, Quon MJ. Cardiovascular actions of insulin. Endocr Rev. 2007;28:463–91.PubMed
83.
go back to reference Hartell NA, Archer HE, Bailey CJ. Insulin-stimulated endothelial nitric oxide release is calcium independent and mediated via protein kinase B. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005;69:781–90.PubMed Hartell NA, Archer HE, Bailey CJ. Insulin-stimulated endothelial nitric oxide release is calcium independent and mediated via protein kinase B. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005;69:781–90.PubMed
84.
go back to reference Federici M, Pandolfi A, De Filippis EA, et al. G972R IRS-1 variant impairs insulin regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in cultured human endothelial cells. Circulation. 2004;109:399–405.PubMed Federici M, Pandolfi A, De Filippis EA, et al. G972R IRS-1 variant impairs insulin regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in cultured human endothelial cells. Circulation. 2004;109:399–405.PubMed
85.
go back to reference Wheatcroft SB, Shah AM, Li JM, et al. Preserved glucoregulation but attenuation of the vascular actions of insulin in mice heterozygous for knockout of the insulin receptor. Diabetes. 2004;53:2645–52.PubMed Wheatcroft SB, Shah AM, Li JM, et al. Preserved glucoregulation but attenuation of the vascular actions of insulin in mice heterozygous for knockout of the insulin receptor. Diabetes. 2004;53:2645–52.PubMed
86.
go back to reference Vicent D, Ilany J, Kondo T, et al. The role of endothelial insulin signaling in the regulation of vascular tone and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 2003;111:1373–80.PubMed Vicent D, Ilany J, Kondo T, et al. The role of endothelial insulin signaling in the regulation of vascular tone and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 2003;111:1373–80.PubMed
87.
go back to reference Duncan ER, Crossey PA, Walker S, et al. Effect of endothelium-specific insulin resistance on endothelial function in vivo. Diabetes. 2008;57:3307–14.PubMed Duncan ER, Crossey PA, Walker S, et al. Effect of endothelium-specific insulin resistance on endothelial function in vivo. Diabetes. 2008;57:3307–14.PubMed
88.
go back to reference Jiang ZY, Lin YW, Clemont A, et al. Characterization of selective resistance to insulin signaling in the vasculature of obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats. J Clin Invest. 1999;104:447–57.PubMed Jiang ZY, Lin YW, Clemont A, et al. Characterization of selective resistance to insulin signaling in the vasculature of obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats. J Clin Invest. 1999;104:447–57.PubMed
89.
go back to reference Nacci C, Tarquinio M, Montagnani M. Molecular and clinical aspects of endothelial dysfunction in diabetes. Intern Emerg Med. 2009;4:107–16.PubMed Nacci C, Tarquinio M, Montagnani M. Molecular and clinical aspects of endothelial dysfunction in diabetes. Intern Emerg Med. 2009;4:107–16.PubMed
90.
go back to reference Wheatcroft SB, Williams IL, Shah AM, Kearney MT. Pathophysiological implications of insulin resistance on vascular endothelial function. Diabet Med. 2003;20:255–68.PubMed Wheatcroft SB, Williams IL, Shah AM, Kearney MT. Pathophysiological implications of insulin resistance on vascular endothelial function. Diabet Med. 2003;20:255–68.PubMed
91.
go back to reference Montagnani M, Golovchenko I, Kim I, et al. Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase enhances mitogenic actions of insulin in endothelial cells. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:1794–9.PubMed Montagnani M, Golovchenko I, Kim I, et al. Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase enhances mitogenic actions of insulin in endothelial cells. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:1794–9.PubMed
92.
go back to reference Steinberg HO, Brechtel G, Johnson A, Fineberg N, Baron AD. Insulin-mediated skeletal muscle vasodilation is nitric oxide dependent. A novel action of insulin to increase nitric oxide release. J Clin Invest. 1994;94:1172–9.PubMed Steinberg HO, Brechtel G, Johnson A, Fineberg N, Baron AD. Insulin-mediated skeletal muscle vasodilation is nitric oxide dependent. A novel action of insulin to increase nitric oxide release. J Clin Invest. 1994;94:1172–9.PubMed
93.
go back to reference Steinberg HO, Chaker H, Leaming R, Johnson A, Brechtel G, Baron AD. Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction: implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:2601–10.PubMed Steinberg HO, Chaker H, Leaming R, Johnson A, Brechtel G, Baron AD. Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction: implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:2601–10.PubMed
94.
go back to reference Baron AD, Brechtel-Hook G, Johnson A, Cronin J, Leaming R, Steinberg HO. Effect of perfusion rate on the time course of insulin-mediated skeletal muscle glucose uptake. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:E1067–72.PubMed Baron AD, Brechtel-Hook G, Johnson A, Cronin J, Leaming R, Steinberg HO. Effect of perfusion rate on the time course of insulin-mediated skeletal muscle glucose uptake. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:E1067–72.PubMed
95.
go back to reference Mather K, Laakso M, Edelman S, Hook G, Baron A. Evidence for physiological coupling of insulin-mediated glucose metabolism and limb blood flow. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2000;279:E1264–70.PubMed Mather K, Laakso M, Edelman S, Hook G, Baron A. Evidence for physiological coupling of insulin-mediated glucose metabolism and limb blood flow. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2000;279:E1264–70.PubMed
96.
go back to reference Baron AD. Insulin resistance and vascular function. J Diabetes Complications. 2002;16:92–102.PubMed Baron AD. Insulin resistance and vascular function. J Diabetes Complications. 2002;16:92–102.PubMed
97.
go back to reference Okon EB, Chung AW, Rauniyar P, et al. Compromised arterial function in human type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes. 2005;54:2415–23.PubMed Okon EB, Chung AW, Rauniyar P, et al. Compromised arterial function in human type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes. 2005;54:2415–23.PubMed
98.
go back to reference Piatti PM, Monti LD, Conti M, et al. Hypertriglyceridemia and hyperinsulinemia are potent inducers of endothelin-1 release in humans. Diabetes. 1996;45:316–21.PubMed Piatti PM, Monti LD, Conti M, et al. Hypertriglyceridemia and hyperinsulinemia are potent inducers of endothelin-1 release in humans. Diabetes. 1996;45:316–21.PubMed
99.
go back to reference Lam TY, Seto SW, Lau YM, et al. Impairment of the vascular relaxation and differential expression of caveolin-1 of the aorta of diabetic+db/+db mice. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;546:134–41.PubMed Lam TY, Seto SW, Lau YM, et al. Impairment of the vascular relaxation and differential expression of caveolin-1 of the aorta of diabetic+db/+db mice. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;546:134–41.PubMed
100.
go back to reference Bucci M, Roviezzo F, Brancaleone V, et al. Diabetic mouse angiopathy is linked to progressive sympathetic receptor deletion coupled to an enhanced caveolin-1 expression. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24(24):721–6.PubMed Bucci M, Roviezzo F, Brancaleone V, et al. Diabetic mouse angiopathy is linked to progressive sympathetic receptor deletion coupled to an enhanced caveolin-1 expression. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24(24):721–6.PubMed
101.
go back to reference Catalan V, Gomez-Ambrosi J, Rodriguez A, et al. Expression of caveolin-1 in human adipose tissue is upregulated in obesity and obesity-associated type 2 diabetes mellitus and related to inflammation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008;68:213–9. Catalan V, Gomez-Ambrosi J, Rodriguez A, et al. Expression of caveolin-1 in human adipose tissue is upregulated in obesity and obesity-associated type 2 diabetes mellitus and related to inflammation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008;68:213–9.
102.
go back to reference Lei H, Venkatakrishnan A, Yu S, Kazlauskas A. Protein kinase A-dependent translocation of Hsp90 alpha impairs endothelial nitric-oxide synthase activity in high glucose and diabetes. J Biol Chem. 2007;282:9364–71.PubMed Lei H, Venkatakrishnan A, Yu S, Kazlauskas A. Protein kinase A-dependent translocation of Hsp90 alpha impairs endothelial nitric-oxide synthase activity in high glucose and diabetes. J Biol Chem. 2007;282:9364–71.PubMed
103.
go back to reference Boger RH. The emerging role of asymmetric dimethylarginine as a novel cardiovascular risk factor. Cardiovasc Res. 2003;59:824–33.PubMed Boger RH. The emerging role of asymmetric dimethylarginine as a novel cardiovascular risk factor. Cardiovasc Res. 2003;59:824–33.PubMed
104.
go back to reference Tesfamariam B, Cohen RA. Free radicals mediate endothelial cell dysfunction caused by elevated glucose. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:H321–6.PubMed Tesfamariam B, Cohen RA. Free radicals mediate endothelial cell dysfunction caused by elevated glucose. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:H321–6.PubMed
105.
go back to reference Davda RK, Stepniakowski KT, Lu G, Ullian ME, Goodfriend TL, Egan BM. Oleic acid inhibits endothelial nitric oxide synthase by a protein kinase C-independent mechanism. Hypertension. 1995;26:764–70.PubMed Davda RK, Stepniakowski KT, Lu G, Ullian ME, Goodfriend TL, Egan BM. Oleic acid inhibits endothelial nitric oxide synthase by a protein kinase C-independent mechanism. Hypertension. 1995;26:764–70.PubMed
106.
go back to reference Stocker R, Keaney Jr JF. The role of oxidative modifications in atherosclerosis. Physiol Rev. 2004;84:1381–478.PubMed Stocker R, Keaney Jr JF. The role of oxidative modifications in atherosclerosis. Physiol Rev. 2004;84:1381–478.PubMed
107.
go back to reference Tomasian D, Keaney Jr JF, Vita JA. Antioxidants and the bioactivity of endothelium-derived nitric oxide. Cardiovasc Res. 2000;47:426–35.PubMed Tomasian D, Keaney Jr JF, Vita JA. Antioxidants and the bioactivity of endothelium-derived nitric oxide. Cardiovasc Res. 2000;47:426–35.PubMed
108.
go back to reference Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:C1424–37.PubMed Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:C1424–37.PubMed
109.
go back to reference Zou MH, Shi C, Cohen RA. Oxidation of the zinc-thiolate complex and uncoupling of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by peroxynitrite. J Clin Invest. 2002;109:817–26.PubMed Zou MH, Shi C, Cohen RA. Oxidation of the zinc-thiolate complex and uncoupling of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by peroxynitrite. J Clin Invest. 2002;109:817–26.PubMed
110.
go back to reference Munzel T, Daiber A, Ullrich V, Mulsch A. Vascular consequences of endothelial nitric oxide synthase uncoupling for the activity and expression of the soluble guanylyl cyclase and the cGMP-dependent protein kinase. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:1551–7.PubMed Munzel T, Daiber A, Ullrich V, Mulsch A. Vascular consequences of endothelial nitric oxide synthase uncoupling for the activity and expression of the soluble guanylyl cyclase and the cGMP-dependent protein kinase. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:1551–7.PubMed
111.
go back to reference Guzik TJ, Mussa S, Gastaldi D, et al. Mechanisms of increased vascular superoxide production in human diabetes mellitus: role of NAD(P)H oxidase and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circulation. 2002;105:1656–62.PubMed Guzik TJ, Mussa S, Gastaldi D, et al. Mechanisms of increased vascular superoxide production in human diabetes mellitus: role of NAD(P)H oxidase and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circulation. 2002;105:1656–62.PubMed
112.
go back to reference Hamburg NM, Vita JA. Endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis: Mechanisms of impaired nitric oxide bioactivity. In: Loscalzo J, editor. Molecular mechanisms of atherosclerosis. London: Taylor & Francis; 2006. p. 95–110. Hamburg NM, Vita JA. Endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis: Mechanisms of impaired nitric oxide bioactivity. In: Loscalzo J, editor. Molecular mechanisms of atherosclerosis. London: Taylor & Francis; 2006. p. 95–110.
113.
go back to reference Tong X, Evangelista A, Cohen RA. Targeting the redox regulation of SERCA in vascular physiology and disease. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2009. Tong X, Evangelista A, Cohen RA. Targeting the redox regulation of SERCA in vascular physiology and disease. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2009.
114.
go back to reference San Martin A, Du P, Dikalova A, et al. Reactive oxygen species-selective regulation of aortic inflammatory gene expression in Type 2 diabetes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;292:H2073–82.PubMed San Martin A, Du P, Dikalova A, et al. Reactive oxygen species-selective regulation of aortic inflammatory gene expression in Type 2 diabetes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;292:H2073–82.PubMed
115.
go back to reference Gao L, Mann GE. Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activation in diabetes: a double-edged sword in redox signalling. Cardiovasc Res. 2009;82:9–20.PubMed Gao L, Mann GE. Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase activation in diabetes: a double-edged sword in redox signalling. Cardiovasc Res. 2009;82:9–20.PubMed
116.
go back to reference Maloney E, Sweet IR, Hockenbery DM, et al. Activation of NF-kappaB by palmitate in endothelial cells: a key role for NADPH oxidase-derived superoxide in response to TLR4 activation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29:1370–5.PubMed Maloney E, Sweet IR, Hockenbery DM, et al. Activation of NF-kappaB by palmitate in endothelial cells: a key role for NADPH oxidase-derived superoxide in response to TLR4 activation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29:1370–5.PubMed
117.
go back to reference Rajagopalan S, Harrison DG. Reversing endothelial dysfunction with ACE inhibitors: a new trend? Circulation. 1996;94:240–3.PubMed Rajagopalan S, Harrison DG. Reversing endothelial dysfunction with ACE inhibitors: a new trend? Circulation. 1996;94:240–3.PubMed
118.
go back to reference Henriksen EJ. Improvement of insulin sensitivity by antagonism of the renin-angiotensin system. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007;293:R974–80.PubMed Henriksen EJ. Improvement of insulin sensitivity by antagonism of the renin-angiotensin system. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007;293:R974–80.PubMed
119.
go back to reference Oak JH, Cai H. Attenuation of angiotensin II signaling recouples eNOS and inhibits nonendothelial NOX activity in diabetic mice. Diabetes. 2007;56:118–26.PubMed Oak JH, Cai H. Attenuation of angiotensin II signaling recouples eNOS and inhibits nonendothelial NOX activity in diabetic mice. Diabetes. 2007;56:118–26.PubMed
120.
go back to reference Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P, et al. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998;95:9220–5.PubMed Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P, et al. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998;95:9220–5.PubMed
121.
go back to reference Pieper GM. Acute amelioration of diabetic endothelial dysfunction with a derivative of the nitric oxide synthase cofactor, tetrahydrobiopterin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1997;29:8–15.PubMed Pieper GM. Acute amelioration of diabetic endothelial dysfunction with a derivative of the nitric oxide synthase cofactor, tetrahydrobiopterin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1997;29:8–15.PubMed
122.
go back to reference Alp NJ, Mussa S, Khoo J, et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent preservation of nitric oxide-mediated endothelial function in diabetes by targeted transgenic GTP-cyclohydrolase I overexpression. J Clin Invest. 2003;112:725–35.PubMed Alp NJ, Mussa S, Khoo J, et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent preservation of nitric oxide-mediated endothelial function in diabetes by targeted transgenic GTP-cyclohydrolase I overexpression. J Clin Invest. 2003;112:725–35.PubMed
123.
go back to reference Heitzer T, Krohn K, Albers S, Meinertz T. Tetrahydrobiopterin improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation by increasing nitric oxide activity in patients with Type II diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 2000;43:1435–8.PubMed Heitzer T, Krohn K, Albers S, Meinertz T. Tetrahydrobiopterin improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation by increasing nitric oxide activity in patients with Type II diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 2000;43:1435–8.PubMed
124.
go back to reference Brownlee M. Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature. 2001;414:813–20.PubMed Brownlee M. Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature. 2001;414:813–20.PubMed
125.
go back to reference Meigs JB, Larson MG, Fox CS, Keaney Jr JF, Vasan RS, Benjamin EJ. Association of oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and diabetes risk phenotypes: the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:2529–35.PubMed Meigs JB, Larson MG, Fox CS, Keaney Jr JF, Vasan RS, Benjamin EJ. Association of oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and diabetes risk phenotypes: the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:2529–35.PubMed
126.
go back to reference Keaney Jr JF, Larson MG, Vasan RS, et al. Obesity and systemic oxidative stress: clinical correlates of oxidative stress in the Framingham Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23:434–9.PubMed Keaney Jr JF, Larson MG, Vasan RS, et al. Obesity and systemic oxidative stress: clinical correlates of oxidative stress in the Framingham Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23:434–9.PubMed
127.
go back to reference Beckman JA, Goldfine AB, Gordon MB, Garrett LA, Keaney JF, Creager MA. Oral antioxidant therapy improves endothelial function in type 1 but not type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2003;285:H2392–8.PubMed Beckman JA, Goldfine AB, Gordon MB, Garrett LA, Keaney JF, Creager MA. Oral antioxidant therapy improves endothelial function in type 1 but not type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2003;285:H2392–8.PubMed
128.
go back to reference Lonn E, Yusuf S, Hoogwerf B, et al. Effects of vtamin E on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in high-risk patients with diabetes: results of the HOPE Study and MICRO-HOPE Substudy. Diabetes Care. 2002;25:1919–27.PubMed Lonn E, Yusuf S, Hoogwerf B, et al. Effects of vtamin E on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in high-risk patients with diabetes: results of the HOPE Study and MICRO-HOPE Substudy. Diabetes Care. 2002;25:1919–27.PubMed
129.
go back to reference MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002;360:23-33. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002;360:23-33.
130.
go back to reference Münzel T, Keaney Jr JF. Are ACE-inhibitors a “magic bullet” against oxidative stress? Circulation. 2001;104:1571–4.PubMed Münzel T, Keaney Jr JF. Are ACE-inhibitors a “magic bullet” against oxidative stress? Circulation. 2001;104:1571–4.PubMed
131.
go back to reference Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:145–53.PubMed Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:145–53.PubMed
132.
go back to reference Huang AL, Vita JA. Effects of systemic inflammation on endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2006;16:15–20.PubMed Huang AL, Vita JA. Effects of systemic inflammation on endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2006;16:15–20.PubMed
133.
go back to reference Verma S, Wang CH, Li SH, et al. A self-fulfilling prophecy: C-reactive protein attenuates nitric oxide production and inhibits angiogenesis. Circulation. 2002;106:913–9.PubMed Verma S, Wang CH, Li SH, et al. A self-fulfilling prophecy: C-reactive protein attenuates nitric oxide production and inhibits angiogenesis. Circulation. 2002;106:913–9.PubMed
134.
go back to reference Zhang J, Patel JM, Li YD, Block ER. Proinflammatory cytokines downregulate gene expression and activity of constitutive nitric oxide synthase in porcine pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol. 1997;96:71–87.PubMed Zhang J, Patel JM, Li YD, Block ER. Proinflammatory cytokines downregulate gene expression and activity of constitutive nitric oxide synthase in porcine pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol. 1997;96:71–87.PubMed
135.
go back to reference Hingorani AD, Cross J, Kharbanda RK, et al. Acute systemic inflammation impairs endothelium-dependent dilatation in humans. Circulation. 2000;102:994–9.PubMed Hingorani AD, Cross J, Kharbanda RK, et al. Acute systemic inflammation impairs endothelium-dependent dilatation in humans. Circulation. 2000;102:994–9.PubMed
136.
go back to reference Bhagat K, Moss R, Collier J, Vallance P. Endothelial “stunning” following a brief exposure to endotoxin: a mechanism to link infection and infarction? Cardiovasc Res. 1996;32:822–9.PubMed Bhagat K, Moss R, Collier J, Vallance P. Endothelial “stunning” following a brief exposure to endotoxin: a mechanism to link infection and infarction? Cardiovasc Res. 1996;32:822–9.PubMed
137.
go back to reference Vallance P, Collier J, Bhagat K. Infection, inflammation, and infarction: does acute endothelial dysfunction provide a link? Lancet. 1997;349:1391–2.PubMed Vallance P, Collier J, Bhagat K. Infection, inflammation, and infarction: does acute endothelial dysfunction provide a link? Lancet. 1997;349:1391–2.PubMed
138.
go back to reference Beckman JA, Creager MA, Libby P. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. JAMA. 2002;287:2570–81.PubMed Beckman JA, Creager MA, Libby P. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. JAMA. 2002;287:2570–81.PubMed
139.
go back to reference Pieper GM. Riaz uH. Activation of nuclear factor-kappaB in cultured endothelial cells by increased glucose concentration: prevention by calphostin C. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1997;30:528–32.PubMed Pieper GM. Riaz uH. Activation of nuclear factor-kappaB in cultured endothelial cells by increased glucose concentration: prevention by calphostin C. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1997;30:528–32.PubMed
140.
go back to reference Piga R, Naito Y, Kokura S, Handa O, Yoshikawa T. Short-term high glucose exposure induces monocyte-endothelial cells adhesion and transmigration by increasing VCAM-1 and MCP-1 expression in human aortic endothelial cells. Atherosclerosis. 2007;193:328–34.PubMed Piga R, Naito Y, Kokura S, Handa O, Yoshikawa T. Short-term high glucose exposure induces monocyte-endothelial cells adhesion and transmigration by increasing VCAM-1 and MCP-1 expression in human aortic endothelial cells. Atherosclerosis. 2007;193:328–34.PubMed
141.
go back to reference Festa A, D’Agostino Jr R, Howard G, Mykkanen L, Tracy RP, Haffner SM. Chronic subclinical inflammation as part of the insulin resistance syndrome: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Circulation. 2000;102:42–7.PubMed Festa A, D’Agostino Jr R, Howard G, Mykkanen L, Tracy RP, Haffner SM. Chronic subclinical inflammation as part of the insulin resistance syndrome: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Circulation. 2000;102:42–7.PubMed
142.
go back to reference Dandona P, Weinstock R, Thusu K, Abdel-Rahman E, Aljada A, Wadden T. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha in sera of obese patients: fall with weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:2907–10.PubMed Dandona P, Weinstock R, Thusu K, Abdel-Rahman E, Aljada A, Wadden T. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha in sera of obese patients: fall with weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:2907–10.PubMed
143.
go back to reference Vozarova B, Weyer C, Hanson K, Tataranni PA, Bogardus C, Pratley RE. Circulating interleukin-6 in relation to adiposity, insulin action, and insulin secretion. Obes Res. 2001;9:414–7.PubMed Vozarova B, Weyer C, Hanson K, Tataranni PA, Bogardus C, Pratley RE. Circulating interleukin-6 in relation to adiposity, insulin action, and insulin secretion. Obes Res. 2001;9:414–7.PubMed
144.
go back to reference Schulze MB, Rimm EB, Li T, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. C-reactive protein and incident cardiovascular events among men with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:889–94.PubMed Schulze MB, Rimm EB, Li T, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. C-reactive protein and incident cardiovascular events among men with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:889–94.PubMed
145.
go back to reference Pradhan AD, Manson JE, Rifai N, Buring JE, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2001;286:327–34.PubMed Pradhan AD, Manson JE, Rifai N, Buring JE, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2001;286:327–34.PubMed
146.
go back to reference Schmidt MI, Duncan BB, Sharrett AR, et al. Markers of inflammation and prediction of diabetes mellitus in adults (Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study): a cohort study. Lancet. 1999;353:1649–52.PubMed Schmidt MI, Duncan BB, Sharrett AR, et al. Markers of inflammation and prediction of diabetes mellitus in adults (Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study): a cohort study. Lancet. 1999;353:1649–52.PubMed
147.
go back to reference Duncan BB, Schmidt MI, Pankow JS, et al. Low-grade systemic inflammation and the development of type 2 diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Diabetes. 2003;52:1799–805.PubMed Duncan BB, Schmidt MI, Pankow JS, et al. Low-grade systemic inflammation and the development of type 2 diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Diabetes. 2003;52:1799–805.PubMed
148.
go back to reference Shoelson SE, Lee J, Goldfine AB. Inflammation and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 2006;116:1793–801.PubMed Shoelson SE, Lee J, Goldfine AB. Inflammation and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 2006;116:1793–801.PubMed
149.
go back to reference Read MA, Whitley MZ, Williams AJ, Collins T. NF-kappa B and I kappa B alpha: an inducible regulatory system in endothelial activation. J Exp Med. 1994;179:503–12.PubMed Read MA, Whitley MZ, Williams AJ, Collins T. NF-kappa B and I kappa B alpha: an inducible regulatory system in endothelial activation. J Exp Med. 1994;179:503–12.PubMed
150.
go back to reference Kim F, Gallis B, Corson MA. TNF-alpha inhibits flow and insulin signaling leading to NO production in aortic endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2001;280:C1057–65.PubMed Kim F, Gallis B, Corson MA. TNF-alpha inhibits flow and insulin signaling leading to NO production in aortic endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2001;280:C1057–65.PubMed
151.
go back to reference Bierhaus A, Chevion S, Chevion M, et al. Advanced glycation end product-induced activation of NF-kappaB is suppressed by alpha-lipoic acid in cultured endothelial cells. Diabetes. 1997;46:1481–90.PubMed Bierhaus A, Chevion S, Chevion M, et al. Advanced glycation end product-induced activation of NF-kappaB is suppressed by alpha-lipoic acid in cultured endothelial cells. Diabetes. 1997;46:1481–90.PubMed
152.
go back to reference Bierhaus A, Schiekofer S, Schwaninger M, et al. Diabetes-associated sustained activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB. Diabetes. 2001;50:2792–808.PubMed Bierhaus A, Schiekofer S, Schwaninger M, et al. Diabetes-associated sustained activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB. Diabetes. 2001;50:2792–808.PubMed
153.
go back to reference de Alvaro C, Teruel T, Hernandez R, Lorenzo M. Tumor necrosis factor alpha produces insulin resistance in skeletal muscle by activation of inhibitor kappaB kinase in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:17070–8.PubMed de Alvaro C, Teruel T, Hernandez R, Lorenzo M. Tumor necrosis factor alpha produces insulin resistance in skeletal muscle by activation of inhibitor kappaB kinase in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:17070–8.PubMed
154.
go back to reference Yuan M, Konstantopoulos N, Lee J, et al. Reversal of obesity- and diet-induced insulin resistance with salicylates or targeted disruption of Ikkbeta. Science. 2001;293:1673–7.PubMed Yuan M, Konstantopoulos N, Lee J, et al. Reversal of obesity- and diet-induced insulin resistance with salicylates or targeted disruption of Ikkbeta. Science. 2001;293:1673–7.PubMed
155.
go back to reference Kim F, Tysseling KA, Rice J, et al. Free fatty acid impairment of nitric oxide production in endothelial cells is mediated by IKK{beta}. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:989–94.PubMed Kim F, Tysseling KA, Rice J, et al. Free fatty acid impairment of nitric oxide production in endothelial cells is mediated by IKK{beta}. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:989–94.PubMed
156.
go back to reference Kim F, Pham M, Maloney E, et al. Vascular inflammation, insulin resistance, and reduced nitric oxide production precede the onset of peripheral insulin resistance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1982–8.PubMed Kim F, Pham M, Maloney E, et al. Vascular inflammation, insulin resistance, and reduced nitric oxide production precede the onset of peripheral insulin resistance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1982–8.PubMed
157.
go back to reference Fleischman A, Shoelson SE, Bernier R, Goldfine AB. Salsalate improves glycemia and inflammatory parameters in obese young adults. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:289–94.PubMed Fleischman A, Shoelson SE, Bernier R, Goldfine AB. Salsalate improves glycemia and inflammatory parameters in obese young adults. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:289–94.PubMed
158.
go back to reference Donato AJ, Eskurza I, Silver AE, et al. Direct evidence of endothelial oxidative stress with aging in humans: relation to impaired endothelium-dependent dilation and upregulation of nuclear factor-kappaB. Circ Res. 2007;100:1659–66.PubMed Donato AJ, Eskurza I, Silver AE, et al. Direct evidence of endothelial oxidative stress with aging in humans: relation to impaired endothelium-dependent dilation and upregulation of nuclear factor-kappaB. Circ Res. 2007;100:1659–66.PubMed
159.
go back to reference Donato AJ, Black AD, Jablonski KL, Gano LB, Seals DR. Aging is associated with greater nuclear NFkappaB, reduced IkappaBalpha, and increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines in vascular endothelial cells of healthy humans. Aging Cell. 2008;7:805–12.PubMed Donato AJ, Black AD, Jablonski KL, Gano LB, Seals DR. Aging is associated with greater nuclear NFkappaB, reduced IkappaBalpha, and increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines in vascular endothelial cells of healthy humans. Aging Cell. 2008;7:805–12.PubMed
160.
go back to reference Pierce GL, Lesniewski LA, Lawson BR, Beske SD, Seals DR. Nuclear factor-{kappa}B activation contributes to vascular endothelial dysfunction via oxidative stress in overweight/obese middle-aged and older humans. Circulation. 2009;119:1284–92.PubMed Pierce GL, Lesniewski LA, Lawson BR, Beske SD, Seals DR. Nuclear factor-{kappa}B activation contributes to vascular endothelial dysfunction via oxidative stress in overweight/obese middle-aged and older humans. Circulation. 2009;119:1284–92.PubMed
161.
go back to reference Das EN, King GL. The role of protein kinase C activation and the vascular complications of diabetes. Pharmacol Res. 2007;55:498–510. Das EN, King GL. The role of protein kinase C activation and the vascular complications of diabetes. Pharmacol Res. 2007;55:498–510.
162.
go back to reference He Z, King GL. Protein kinase Cbeta isoform inhibitors: a new treatment for diabetic cardiovascular diseases. Circulation. 2004;110:7–9.PubMed He Z, King GL. Protein kinase Cbeta isoform inhibitors: a new treatment for diabetic cardiovascular diseases. Circulation. 2004;110:7–9.PubMed
163.
go back to reference Inoguchi T, Battan R, Handler E, Sportsman JR, Heath W, King GL. Preferential elevation of protein kinase C isoform beta II and diacylglycerol levels in the aorta and heart of diabetic rats: differential reversibility to glycemic control by islet cell transplantation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89:11059–63.PubMed Inoguchi T, Battan R, Handler E, Sportsman JR, Heath W, King GL. Preferential elevation of protein kinase C isoform beta II and diacylglycerol levels in the aorta and heart of diabetic rats: differential reversibility to glycemic control by islet cell transplantation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89:11059–63.PubMed
164.
go back to reference Xia P, Inoguchi T, Kern TS, Engerman RL, Oates PJ, King GL. Characterization of the mechanism for the chronic activation of diacylglycerol-protein kinase C pathway in diabetes and hypergalactosemia. Diabetes. 1994;43:1122–9.PubMed Xia P, Inoguchi T, Kern TS, Engerman RL, Oates PJ, King GL. Characterization of the mechanism for the chronic activation of diacylglycerol-protein kinase C pathway in diabetes and hypergalactosemia. Diabetes. 1994;43:1122–9.PubMed
165.
go back to reference Morino K, Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance in humans and their potential links with mitochondrial dysfunction. Diabetes. 2006;55:S9–S15.PubMed Morino K, Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance in humans and their potential links with mitochondrial dysfunction. Diabetes. 2006;55:S9–S15.PubMed
166.
go back to reference Tesfamariam B, Brown ML, Cohen RA. Elevated glucose impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation by activating protein kinase C. J Clin Invest. 1991;87:1643–8.PubMed Tesfamariam B, Brown ML, Cohen RA. Elevated glucose impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation by activating protein kinase C. J Clin Invest. 1991;87:1643–8.PubMed
167.
go back to reference Goel A, Zhang Y, Anderson L, Rahimian R. Gender difference in rat aorta vasodilation after acute exposure to high glucose: involvement of protein kinase C beta and superoxide but not of Rho kinase. Cardiovasc Res. 2007;76:351–60.PubMed Goel A, Zhang Y, Anderson L, Rahimian R. Gender difference in rat aorta vasodilation after acute exposure to high glucose: involvement of protein kinase C beta and superoxide but not of Rho kinase. Cardiovasc Res. 2007;76:351–60.PubMed
168.
go back to reference Rask-Madsen C, King GL. Proatherosclerotic mechanisms involving protein kinase C in diabetes and insulin resistance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:487–96.PubMed Rask-Madsen C, King GL. Proatherosclerotic mechanisms involving protein kinase C in diabetes and insulin resistance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:487–96.PubMed
169.
go back to reference Itani SI, Ruderman NB, Schmieder F, Boden G. Lipid-induced insulin resistance in human muscle is associated with changes in diacylglycerol, protein kinase C, and IkappaB-alpha. Diabetes. 2002;51:2005–11.PubMed Itani SI, Ruderman NB, Schmieder F, Boden G. Lipid-induced insulin resistance in human muscle is associated with changes in diacylglycerol, protein kinase C, and IkappaB-alpha. Diabetes. 2002;51:2005–11.PubMed
170.
go back to reference Naruse K, Rask-Madsen C, Takahara N, et al. Activation of vascular protein kinase C-beta inhibits Akt-dependent endothelial nitric oxide synthase function in obesity-associated insulin resistance. Diabetes. 2006;55:691–8.PubMed Naruse K, Rask-Madsen C, Takahara N, et al. Activation of vascular protein kinase C-beta inhibits Akt-dependent endothelial nitric oxide synthase function in obesity-associated insulin resistance. Diabetes. 2006;55:691–8.PubMed
171.
go back to reference Cotter MA, Jack AM, Cameron NE. Effects of the protein kinase C beta inhibitor LY333531 on neural and vascular function in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Clin Sci (Lond). 2002;103:311–21. Cotter MA, Jack AM, Cameron NE. Effects of the protein kinase C beta inhibitor LY333531 on neural and vascular function in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Clin Sci (Lond). 2002;103:311–21.
172.
go back to reference Hink U, Li H, Mollnau H, et al. Mechanisms underlying endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Circ Res. 2001;88:E14–22.PubMed Hink U, Li H, Mollnau H, et al. Mechanisms underlying endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Circ Res. 2001;88:E14–22.PubMed
173.
go back to reference Ishii H, Jirousek MR, Koya D, et al. Amelioration of vascular dysfunctions in diabetic rats by an oral PKC beta inhibitor. Science. 1996;272:728–31.PubMed Ishii H, Jirousek MR, Koya D, et al. Amelioration of vascular dysfunctions in diabetic rats by an oral PKC beta inhibitor. Science. 1996;272:728–31.PubMed
174.
go back to reference Kouroedov A, Eto M, Joch H, Volpe M, Luscher TF, Cosentino F. Selective inhibition of protein kinase Cbeta2 prevents acute effects of high glucose on vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in human endothelial cells. Circulation. 2004;110:91–6.PubMed Kouroedov A, Eto M, Joch H, Volpe M, Luscher TF, Cosentino F. Selective inhibition of protein kinase Cbeta2 prevents acute effects of high glucose on vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in human endothelial cells. Circulation. 2004;110:91–6.PubMed
175.
go back to reference Beckman JA, Goldfine AB, Gordon MB, Garrett LA, Creager MA. Inhibition of protein kinase C beta prevents impaired endothelium- dependent vasodilation caused by hyperglycemia in humans. Circ Res. 2002;90:107–11.PubMed Beckman JA, Goldfine AB, Gordon MB, Garrett LA, Creager MA. Inhibition of protein kinase C beta prevents impaired endothelium- dependent vasodilation caused by hyperglycemia in humans. Circ Res. 2002;90:107–11.PubMed
176.
go back to reference Mehta NN, Sheetz M, Price K, et al. Selective PKC beta inhibition with ruboxistaurin and endothelial function in type-2 diabetes mellitus. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2009;23:17–24.PubMed Mehta NN, Sheetz M, Price K, et al. Selective PKC beta inhibition with ruboxistaurin and endothelial function in type-2 diabetes mellitus. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2009;23:17–24.PubMed
177.
go back to reference Duchen MR. Roles of mitochondria in health and disease. Diabetes. 2004;53:S96–102.PubMed Duchen MR. Roles of mitochondria in health and disease. Diabetes. 2004;53:S96–102.PubMed
178.
go back to reference Rizzuto R, Pozzan T, Carafoli E. Ca2+ on the move: ways and means to translate a multifarious signal. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2002;23:348–50.PubMed Rizzuto R, Pozzan T, Carafoli E. Ca2+ on the move: ways and means to translate a multifarious signal. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2002;23:348–50.PubMed
179.
go back to reference Darley-Usmar V. The powerhouse takes control of the cell; the role of mitochondria in signal transduction. Free Radic Biol Med. 2004;37:753–4.PubMed Darley-Usmar V. The powerhouse takes control of the cell; the role of mitochondria in signal transduction. Free Radic Biol Med. 2004;37:753–4.PubMed
180.
go back to reference Chance B, Sies H, Boveris A. Hydroperoxide metabolism in mammalian organs. Physiol Rev. 1979;59:527–605.PubMed Chance B, Sies H, Boveris A. Hydroperoxide metabolism in mammalian organs. Physiol Rev. 1979;59:527–605.PubMed
181.
go back to reference Ramachandran A, Levonen AL, Brookes PS, et al. Mitochondria, nitric oxide, and cardiovascular dysfunction. Free Radic Biol Med. 2002;33:1465–74.PubMed Ramachandran A, Levonen AL, Brookes PS, et al. Mitochondria, nitric oxide, and cardiovascular dysfunction. Free Radic Biol Med. 2002;33:1465–74.PubMed
182.
go back to reference Brand MD, Affourtit C, Esteves TC, et al. Mitochondrial superoxide: production, biological effects, and activation of uncoupling proteins. Free Radic Biol Med. 2004;37:755–67.PubMed Brand MD, Affourtit C, Esteves TC, et al. Mitochondrial superoxide: production, biological effects, and activation of uncoupling proteins. Free Radic Biol Med. 2004;37:755–67.PubMed
183.
go back to reference Green DR, Kroemer G. The pathophysiology of mitochondrial cell death. Science. 2004;305:626–9.PubMed Green DR, Kroemer G. The pathophysiology of mitochondrial cell death. Science. 2004;305:626–9.PubMed
184.
go back to reference Chen K, Thomas SR, Albano A, Murphy MP, Keaney Jr JF. Mitochondrial function is required for hydrogen peroxide-induced growth factor receptor transactivation and downstream signaling. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:35079–86.PubMed Chen K, Thomas SR, Albano A, Murphy MP, Keaney Jr JF. Mitochondrial function is required for hydrogen peroxide-induced growth factor receptor transactivation and downstream signaling. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:35079–86.PubMed
185.
go back to reference Quintero M, Colombo SL, Godfrey A, Moncada S. Mitochondria as signaling organelles in the vascular endothelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103:5379–84.PubMed Quintero M, Colombo SL, Godfrey A, Moncada S. Mitochondria as signaling organelles in the vascular endothelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103:5379–84.PubMed
186.
go back to reference Zou MH, Kirkpatrick SS, Davis BJ, et al. Activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase by the anti-diabetic drug metformin in vivo: Role of mitochondrial reactive nitrogen species. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:43940–51.PubMed Zou MH, Kirkpatrick SS, Davis BJ, et al. Activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase by the anti-diabetic drug metformin in vivo: Role of mitochondrial reactive nitrogen species. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:43940–51.PubMed
187.
go back to reference Liu Y, Zhao H, Li H, Kalyanaraman B, Nicolosi AC, Gutterman DD. Mitochondrial sources of H2O2 generation play a key role in flow-mediated dilation in human coronary resistance arteries. Circ Res. 2003;93:573–80.PubMed Liu Y, Zhao H, Li H, Kalyanaraman B, Nicolosi AC, Gutterman DD. Mitochondrial sources of H2O2 generation play a key role in flow-mediated dilation in human coronary resistance arteries. Circ Res. 2003;93:573–80.PubMed
188.
go back to reference El Midaoui A, de Champlain J. Prevention of hypertension, insulin resistance, and oxidative stress by alpha-lipoic acid. Hypertension. 2002;39:303–7.PubMed El Midaoui A, de Champlain J. Prevention of hypertension, insulin resistance, and oxidative stress by alpha-lipoic acid. Hypertension. 2002;39:303–7.PubMed
189.
go back to reference Hagen TM, Ingersoll RT, Lykkesfeldt J, et al. (R)-alpha-lipoic acid-supplemented old rats have improved mitochondrial function, decreased oxidative damage, and increased metabolic rate. FASEB J. 1999;13:411–8.PubMed Hagen TM, Ingersoll RT, Lykkesfeldt J, et al. (R)-alpha-lipoic acid-supplemented old rats have improved mitochondrial function, decreased oxidative damage, and increased metabolic rate. FASEB J. 1999;13:411–8.PubMed
190.
go back to reference Smith AR, Hagen TM. Vascular endothelial dysfunction in aging: loss of Akt-dependent endothelial nitric oxide synthase phosphorylation and partial restoration by (R)-alpha-lipoic acid. Biochem Soc Trans. 2003;31:1447–9.PubMed Smith AR, Hagen TM. Vascular endothelial dysfunction in aging: loss of Akt-dependent endothelial nitric oxide synthase phosphorylation and partial restoration by (R)-alpha-lipoic acid. Biochem Soc Trans. 2003;31:1447–9.PubMed
191.
go back to reference Heitzer T, Finckh B, Albers S, Krohn K, Kohlschutter A, Meinertz T. Beneficial effects of alpha-lipoic acid and ascorbic acid on endothelium-dependent, nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation in diabetic patients: relation to parameters of oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med. 2001;31:53–61.PubMed Heitzer T, Finckh B, Albers S, Krohn K, Kohlschutter A, Meinertz T. Beneficial effects of alpha-lipoic acid and ascorbic acid on endothelium-dependent, nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation in diabetic patients: relation to parameters of oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med. 2001;31:53–61.PubMed
192.
go back to reference Twig G, Hyde B, Shirihai OS. Mitochondrial fusion, fission and autophagy as a quality control axis: the bioenergetic view. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2008;1777:1092–7.PubMed Twig G, Hyde B, Shirihai OS. Mitochondrial fusion, fission and autophagy as a quality control axis: the bioenergetic view. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2008;1777:1092–7.PubMed
193.
go back to reference Brooks C, Wei Q, Cho SG, Dong Z. Regulation of mitochondrial dynamics in acute kidney injury in cell culture and rodent models. J Clin Invest. 2009;119:1275–85.PubMed Brooks C, Wei Q, Cho SG, Dong Z. Regulation of mitochondrial dynamics in acute kidney injury in cell culture and rodent models. J Clin Invest. 2009;119:1275–85.PubMed
194.
go back to reference Suen DF, Norris KL, Youle RJ. Mitochondrial dynamics and apoptosis. Genes Dev. 2008;22:1577–90.PubMed Suen DF, Norris KL, Youle RJ. Mitochondrial dynamics and apoptosis. Genes Dev. 2008;22:1577–90.PubMed
195.
go back to reference Nisoli E, Clementi E, Paolucci C, et al. Mitochondrial biogenesis in mammals: the role of endogenous nitric oxide. Science. 2003;299:896–9.PubMed Nisoli E, Clementi E, Paolucci C, et al. Mitochondrial biogenesis in mammals: the role of endogenous nitric oxide. Science. 2003;299:896–9.PubMed
196.
go back to reference Nisoli E, Falcone S, Tonello C, et al. Mitochondrial biogenesis by NO yields functionally active mitochondria in mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:16507–12.PubMed Nisoli E, Falcone S, Tonello C, et al. Mitochondrial biogenesis by NO yields functionally active mitochondria in mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:16507–12.PubMed
197.
go back to reference Nisoli E, Clementi E, Carruba MO, Moncada S. Defective mitochondrial biogenesis: a hallmark of the high cardiovascular risk in the metabolic syndrome? Circ Res. 2007;100:795–806.PubMed Nisoli E, Clementi E, Carruba MO, Moncada S. Defective mitochondrial biogenesis: a hallmark of the high cardiovascular risk in the metabolic syndrome? Circ Res. 2007;100:795–806.PubMed
198.
go back to reference Nisoli E, Tonello C, Cardile A, et al. Calorie restriction promotes mitochondrial biogenesis by inducing the expression of eNOS. Science. 2005;310:314–7.PubMed Nisoli E, Tonello C, Cardile A, et al. Calorie restriction promotes mitochondrial biogenesis by inducing the expression of eNOS. Science. 2005;310:314–7.PubMed
199.
go back to reference Menzies RA, Gold PH. The turnover of mitochondria in a variety of tissues of young adult and aged rats. J Biol Chem. 1971;246:2425–9.PubMed Menzies RA, Gold PH. The turnover of mitochondria in a variety of tissues of young adult and aged rats. J Biol Chem. 1971;246:2425–9.PubMed
200.
go back to reference Twig G, Elorza A, Molina AJ, et al. Fission and selective fusion govern mitochondrial segregation and elimination by autophagy. EMBO J. 2008;27:433–46.PubMed Twig G, Elorza A, Molina AJ, et al. Fission and selective fusion govern mitochondrial segregation and elimination by autophagy. EMBO J. 2008;27:433–46.PubMed
201.
go back to reference Yu T, Sheu SS, Robotham JL, Yoon Y. Mitochondrial fission mediates high glucose-induced cell death through elevated production of reactive oxygen species. Cardiovasc Res. 2008;79:341–51.PubMed Yu T, Sheu SS, Robotham JL, Yoon Y. Mitochondrial fission mediates high glucose-induced cell death through elevated production of reactive oxygen species. Cardiovasc Res. 2008;79:341–51.PubMed
202.
go back to reference Yu T, Robotham JL, Yoon Y. Increased production of reactive oxygen species in hyperglycemic conditions requires dynamic change of mitochondrial morphology. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103:2653–8.PubMed Yu T, Robotham JL, Yoon Y. Increased production of reactive oxygen species in hyperglycemic conditions requires dynamic change of mitochondrial morphology. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103:2653–8.PubMed
203.
go back to reference Lowell BB, Shulman GI. Mitochondrial dysfunction and type 2 diabetes. Science. 2005;307:384–7.PubMed Lowell BB, Shulman GI. Mitochondrial dysfunction and type 2 diabetes. Science. 2005;307:384–7.PubMed
204.
go back to reference Kim JA, Wei Y, Sowers JR. Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin resistance. Circ Res. 2008;102:401–14.PubMed Kim JA, Wei Y, Sowers JR. Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin resistance. Circ Res. 2008;102:401–14.PubMed
205.
go back to reference Zorzano A, Liesa M, Palacin M. Role of mitochondrial dynamics proteins in the pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2009;41:1846–54.PubMed Zorzano A, Liesa M, Palacin M. Role of mitochondrial dynamics proteins in the pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2009;41:1846–54.PubMed
206.
go back to reference Nishikawa T, Edelstein D, Du XL, et al. Normalizing mitochondrial superoxide production blocks three pathways of hyperglycaemic damage. Nature. 2000;404:787–90.PubMed Nishikawa T, Edelstein D, Du XL, et al. Normalizing mitochondrial superoxide production blocks three pathways of hyperglycaemic damage. Nature. 2000;404:787–90.PubMed
207.
go back to reference Li B, Nolte LA, Ju JS, et al. Skeletal muscle respiratory uncoupling prevents diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance in mice. Nat Med. 2000;6:1115–20.PubMed Li B, Nolte LA, Ju JS, et al. Skeletal muscle respiratory uncoupling prevents diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance in mice. Nat Med. 2000;6:1115–20.PubMed
208.
go back to reference Goldman S, Zhang Y, Jin S. Autophagy and adipogenesis: implications in obesity and type II diabetes. Autophagy. 2010;6:179–81.PubMed Goldman S, Zhang Y, Jin S. Autophagy and adipogenesis: implications in obesity and type II diabetes. Autophagy. 2010;6:179–81.PubMed
209.
go back to reference Milne JC, Lambert PD, Schenk S, et al. Small molecule activators of SIRT1 as therapeutics for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Nature. 2007;450:712–6.PubMed Milne JC, Lambert PD, Schenk S, et al. Small molecule activators of SIRT1 as therapeutics for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Nature. 2007;450:712–6.PubMed
210.
go back to reference Petersen KF, Befroy D, Dufour S, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in the elderly: possible role in insulin resistance. Science. 2003;300:1140–2.PubMed Petersen KF, Befroy D, Dufour S, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in the elderly: possible role in insulin resistance. Science. 2003;300:1140–2.PubMed
211.
go back to reference Petersen KF, Dufour S, Befroy D, Garcia R, Shulman GI. Impaired mitochondrial activity in the insulin-resistant offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:664–71.PubMed Petersen KF, Dufour S, Befroy D, Garcia R, Shulman GI. Impaired mitochondrial activity in the insulin-resistant offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:664–71.PubMed
212.
go back to reference Patti ME, Butte AJ, Crunkhorn S, et al. Coordinated reduction of genes of oxidative metabolism in humans with insulin resistance and diabetes: potential role of PGC1 and NRF1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:8466–71.PubMed Patti ME, Butte AJ, Crunkhorn S, et al. Coordinated reduction of genes of oxidative metabolism in humans with insulin resistance and diabetes: potential role of PGC1 and NRF1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:8466–71.PubMed
213.
go back to reference Mootha VK, Lindgren CM, Eriksson KF, et al. PGC-1alpha-responsive genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation are coordinately downregulated in human diabetes. Nat Genet. 2003;34:267–73.PubMed Mootha VK, Lindgren CM, Eriksson KF, et al. PGC-1alpha-responsive genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation are coordinately downregulated in human diabetes. Nat Genet. 2003;34:267–73.PubMed
214.
go back to reference Morino K, Petersen KF, Dufour S, et al. Reduced mitochondrial density and increased IRS-1 serine phosphorylation in muscle of insulin-resistant offspring of type 2 diabetic parents. J Clin Invest. 2005;115:3587–93.PubMed Morino K, Petersen KF, Dufour S, et al. Reduced mitochondrial density and increased IRS-1 serine phosphorylation in muscle of insulin-resistant offspring of type 2 diabetic parents. J Clin Invest. 2005;115:3587–93.PubMed
215.
go back to reference Kelley DE, He J, Menshikova EV, Ritov VB. Dysfunction of mitochondria in human skeletal muscle in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2002;51:2944–50.PubMed Kelley DE, He J, Menshikova EV, Ritov VB. Dysfunction of mitochondria in human skeletal muscle in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2002;51:2944–50.PubMed
216.
go back to reference Ritov VB, Menshikova EV, He J, Ferrell RE, Goodpaster BH, Kelley DE. Deficiency of subsarcolemmal mitochondria in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2005;54:8–14.PubMed Ritov VB, Menshikova EV, He J, Ferrell RE, Goodpaster BH, Kelley DE. Deficiency of subsarcolemmal mitochondria in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2005;54:8–14.PubMed
217.
go back to reference Pilegaard H, Saltin B, Neufer PD. Exercise induces transient transcriptional activation of the PGC-1alpha gene in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 2003;546:851–8.PubMed Pilegaard H, Saltin B, Neufer PD. Exercise induces transient transcriptional activation of the PGC-1alpha gene in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 2003;546:851–8.PubMed
218.
go back to reference Widlansky ME, Vita JA, Wang J, Kizhakekuttu TJ, Arthur EIL, Gutterman DD. Mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization and reduced mitochondrial mass characterize the arteriolar endothelium and mononuclear cells of humans with Type 2 diabetes mellitus- in vivo and in vitro assessment of mitochondrial function [abstr]. Circulation. 2009;120:S1107. Widlansky ME, Vita JA, Wang J, Kizhakekuttu TJ, Arthur EIL, Gutterman DD. Mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization and reduced mitochondrial mass characterize the arteriolar endothelium and mononuclear cells of humans with Type 2 diabetes mellitus- in vivo and in vitro assessment of mitochondrial function [abstr]. Circulation. 2009;120:S1107.
219.
go back to reference McCulloch DK. Overview of medical care in adults with diabetes mellitus. In: Holman RR, Mulder JE, editors. UpToDate Online. Boston; 2009. McCulloch DK. Overview of medical care in adults with diabetes mellitus. In: Holman RR, Mulder JE, editors. UpToDate Online. Boston; 2009.
220.
go back to reference Pearson TA, Blair SN, Daniels SR, et al. AHA guidelines for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke: 2002 update: consensus panel guide to comprehensive risk reduction for adult patients without coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular diseases. American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee. Circulation. 2002;106:388–91.PubMed Pearson TA, Blair SN, Daniels SR, et al. AHA guidelines for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke: 2002 update: consensus panel guide to comprehensive risk reduction for adult patients without coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular diseases. American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee. Circulation. 2002;106:388–91.PubMed
221.
go back to reference Buse JB, Ginsberg HN, Bakris GL, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases in people with diabetes mellitus: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Circulation. 2007;115:114–26.PubMed Buse JB, Ginsberg HN, Bakris GL, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases in people with diabetes mellitus: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Circulation. 2007;115:114–26.PubMed
222.
go back to reference Preis SR, Hwang SJ, Coady S, et al. Trends in all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality among women and men with and without diabetes mellitus in the Framingham Heart Study, 1950 to 2005. Circulation. 2009;119:1728–35.PubMed Preis SR, Hwang SJ, Coady S, et al. Trends in all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality among women and men with and without diabetes mellitus in the Framingham Heart Study, 1950 to 2005. Circulation. 2009;119:1728–35.PubMed
223.
go back to reference Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2560–72.PubMed Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2560–72.PubMed
224.
go back to reference Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2545–59.PubMed Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2545–59.PubMed
225.
go back to reference Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:129–39.PubMed Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:129–39.PubMed
226.
go back to reference Skyler JS, Bergenstal R, Bonow RO, et al. Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA diabetes trials: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a scientific statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;119:351–7.PubMed Skyler JS, Bergenstal R, Bonow RO, et al. Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA diabetes trials: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a scientific statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;119:351–7.PubMed
227.
go back to reference Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2457–71.PubMed Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2457–71.PubMed
228.
go back to reference Singh S, Loke YK, Furberg CD. Long-term risk of cardiovascular events with rosiglitazone: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2007;298:1189–95.PubMed Singh S, Loke YK, Furberg CD. Long-term risk of cardiovascular events with rosiglitazone: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2007;298:1189–95.PubMed
229.
go back to reference Goldfine AB. Assessing the cardiovascular safety of diabetes therapies. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1092–5.PubMed Goldfine AB. Assessing the cardiovascular safety of diabetes therapies. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1092–5.PubMed
230.
go back to reference Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, Bosch J, Sleight P. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:154–60.PubMed Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, Bosch J, Sleight P. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:154–60.PubMed
Metadata
Title
Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus: Molecular mechanisms and clinical implications
Authors
Corey E. Tabit
William B. Chung
Naomi M. Hamburg
Joseph A. Vita
Publication date
01-03-2010
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders / Issue 1/2010
Print ISSN: 1389-9155
Electronic ISSN: 1573-2606
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-010-9134-4

Other articles of this Issue 1/2010

Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders 1/2010 Go to the issue
Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Highlights from the ACC 2024 Congress

Year in Review: Pediatric cardiology

Watch Dr. Anne Marie Valente present the last year's highlights in pediatric and congenital heart disease in the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Pulmonary vascular disease

The last year's highlights in pulmonary vascular disease are presented by Dr. Jane Leopold in this official video from ACC.24.

Year in Review: Valvular heart disease

Watch Prof. William Zoghbi present the last year's highlights in valvular heart disease from the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discusses last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.