Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Neuropsychology Review
Published in: Neuropsychology Review 2/2011

01-06-2011 | Review

Biobehavioral Markers of Adverse Effect in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Authors: Sandra W. Jacobson, Joseph L. Jacobson, Mark E. Stanton, Ernesta M. Meintjes, Christopher D. Molteno

Published in: Neuropsychology Review | Issue 2/2011

Login to get access

Abstract

Identification of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) is difficult because information regarding prenatal exposure is often lacking, a large proportion of affected children do not exhibit facial anomalies, and no distinctive behavioral phenotype has been identified. Castellanos and Tannock have advocated going beyond descriptive symptom-based approaches to diagnosis to identify biomarkers derived from cognitive neuroscience. Classical eyeblink conditioning and magnitude comparison are particularly promising biobehavioral markers of FASD—eyeblink conditioning because a deficit in this elemental form of learning characterizes a very large proportion of alcohol-exposed children; magnitude comparison because it is a domain of higher order cognitive function that is among the most sensitive to fetal alcohol exposure. Because the neural circuitry mediating both these biobehavioral markers is well understood, they have considerable potential for advancing understanding of the pathophysiology of FASD, which can contribute to development of treatments targeted to the specific deficits that characterize this disorder.
Literature
Abel, E. L. (1995). An update on the general incidence of FAS: FAS is not an equal opportunity deficit. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 17, 437–443.PubMedCrossRef
Anderson, C. M., Polcari, A., Lowen, S. B., Renshaw, P. F., & Teicher, M. H. (2002). Effects of methylphenidate on functional magnetic resonance relaxometry of the cerebellar vermis in boys with ADHD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1322–1328.PubMedCrossRef
Archibald, S. L., Fennema-Notestine, C., Gamst, A., Riley, E. P., Mattson, S. N., & Jernigan, T. L. (2001). Brain dysmorphology in individuals with severe prenatal alcohol exposure. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43, 148–154.PubMed
Astley, S. J., & Clarren, S. K. (2001). Measuring the facial phenotype of individuals with prenatal alcohol exposure: correlations with brain dysfunction. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 36, 147–159.PubMedCrossRef
Bauer-Moffett, C., & Altman, J. (1977). The effect of ethanol chronically administered to preweanling rats on cerebellar development: a morphological study. Brain Research, 119, 249–268.PubMedCrossRef
Bearer, C. F., Lee, S., Salvator, A. E., Minnes, S., Swick, A., Yamashita, T., et al. (1999). Ethyl linoleate in meconium: a biomarker for prenatal ethanol exposure. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 487–493.PubMed
Bearer, C. F., Jacobson, J. L., Jacobson, S. W., Barr, D., Croxford, J., Molteno, C. D., et al. (2003). Validation of a new biomarker of fetal exposure to alcohol. The Journal of Pediatrics, 143, 463–469.PubMedCrossRef
Berquin, P. C., Giedd, J. N., Jacobsen, L. K., Hamburger, S. D., Krain, A. L., Rapoport, J. L., et al. (1998). Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a morphometric MRI study. Neurology, 50, 1087–1093.PubMed
Bichenkov, E., & Ellingson, J. S. (2001). Ethanol exerts different effects on myelin basic protein and 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase expression in differentiating CG-4 oligodendrocytes. Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research, 128, 9–16.PubMedCrossRef
Bonthius, D. J., & West, J. R. (1991). Permanent neuronal deficits in rats exposed to alcohol during the brain growth spurt. Teratology, 44, 147–163.PubMedCrossRef
Brown, K. L., Calizo, L. H., & Stanton, M. E. (2008). Dose-dependent deficits in dual interstimulus interval classical eyeblink conditioning tasks following neonatal binge alcohol exposure in rats. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 32, 277–293.PubMedCrossRef
Burden, M. J., Jacobson, S. W., Sokol, R. J., & Jacobson, J. L. (2005a). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on attention and working memory at 7.5 years of age. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 443–452.CrossRef
Burden, M. J., Jacobson, S. W., & Jacobson, J. L. (2005b). The relation of prenatal alcohol exposure to cognitive processing speed and efficiency in childhood. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 1473–1483.CrossRef
Burden, M. J., Jacobson, J. L., Westerlund, A. J., Lundahl, L. H., Klorman, R., Nelson, C. A., et al. (2010). An event-related potential study of response inhibition in ADHD with and without prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 617–627.PubMedCrossRef
Butterworth, B. (1999). The mathematical brain. London: Macmillan.
Butterworth, B. (2005). The development of arithmetical abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 3–18.PubMedCrossRef
Cantlon, J. F., Brannon, E. M., Carter, E. J., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2006). Functional imaging of numerical processing in adults and 4-yr-old children. PLoS Biology, 4, e125.PubMedCrossRef
Carmichael-Olson, H., Feldman, J. J., Streissguth, A. P., Sampson, P. D., & Bookstein, F. L. (1998). Neuropsychological deficits in adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome: clinical findings. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 22, 1998–2012.
Castellanos, F. X., & Tannock, R. (2002). Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 3, 617–628.PubMed
Castellanos, F. X., Lee, P. P., Sharp, W., Jeffries, N. O., Greenstein, D. K., Clasen, L. S., et al. (2002). Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA, 288, 1740–1748.PubMedCrossRef
Chambers, C. D., et al. (2008). Predictors of binge drinking during pregnancy among women in Ukraine. Abstract poster presented at American Public Health Association meeting, October, 2008.
Cheng, D. T., Disterhoft, J. F., Power, J. M., Ellis, D. A., & Desmond, J. E. (2008). Neural substrates underlying human delay and trace eyeblink conditioning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 8108–8113.PubMedCrossRef
Chiappelli, F., Taylor, A. N., Espinosa de los Monteros, A., & de Vellis, J. (1991). Fetal alcohol delays the development expression of myelin basic protein and transferring in rat primary oligodendrocyte cultures. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 9, 67–75.PubMedCrossRef
Chochon, F., Cohen, L., van de Moortele, P. F., & Dehaene, S. (1999). Differential contributions of the left and right inferior parietal lobules to number processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11, 617–630.PubMedCrossRef
Christian, K. M., & Thompson, R. F. (2003). Neural substrates of eyeblink conditioning: acquisition and retention. Learning & Memory, 10, 427–455.CrossRef
Clark, R. E., & Lavond, D. G. (1993). Reversible lesions of the red nucleus during acquisition and retention of a classically conditioned behavior in rabbits. Behavioral Neuroscience, 107, 264–270.PubMedCrossRef
Clark, R. E., & Squire, L. R. (1998). Classical conditioning and brain systems: the role of awareness. Science, 280, 77–81.PubMedCrossRef
Clark, R. E., Zhang, A. A., & Lavond, D. G. (1992). Reversible lesions of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus during acquisition and retention of a classically conditioned behavior. Behavioral Neuroscience, 106, 879–888.PubMedCrossRef
Clarren, S. K. (1977). Central nervous system malformations in two offspring of alcoholic women. Birth Defects Original Article Series, 13, 151–153.PubMed
Clarren, S. K. (1986). Neuropathology and fetal alcohol syndrome. In J. R. West (Ed.), Alcohol and brain development. New York: Oxford University Press.
Clarren, S. K., & Smith, D. W. (1978). The fetal alcohol syndrome. The New England Journal of Medicine, 298, 1063–1067.PubMedCrossRef
Coffin, J. M., & Boegle, A. (2000). Failure of dyslexics to achieve eyeblink conditioning following five days of training. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 26.
Coffin, J. M., Baroody, S., Schneider, K., & O’Neill, J. (2005). Impaired cerebellar learning in children with prenatal alcohol exposure: a comparative study of eyeblink conditioning in children with ADHD and dyslexia. Cortex, 41, 389–398.PubMedCrossRef
Coles, C. D., Brown, R. T., Smith, I. E., Platzman, K. A., Erickson, S., & Falek, A. (1991). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at school age. I. Physical and cognitive development. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 13, 357–367.PubMedCrossRef
Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., Raskind-Hood, C. L., Brown, R. T., Falek, A., & Smith, I. E. (1997). A comparison of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 20, 150–161.CrossRef
Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., Lynch, M. E., & Freides, D. (2002). Auditory and visual sustained attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 26, 263–271.PubMedCrossRef
Coles, C. D., Lynch, M. E., Kable, J. A., Johnson, K. C., & Goldstein, F. C. (2010). Verbal and nonverbal memory in adults prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(5), 897–906.PubMedCrossRef
Croxford, J., & Viljoen, D. (1999). Alcohol consumption by pregnant women in the Western Cape. South African Medical Journal, 89, 962–965.PubMed
Dehaene, S., & Cohen, L. (1995). Towards an anatomical and functional model of number processing. Mathematical Cognition, 1, 83–120.
Dehaene, S., Piazza, M., Pinel, P., & Cohen, L. (2003). Three parietal circuits for number processing. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20, 487–506.PubMedCrossRef
Dehaene, S., Molko, N., Cohen, L., & Wilson, A. J. (2004). Arithmetic and the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14, 218–224.PubMedCrossRef
Dikranian, K., Qin, Y. Q., Labruyere, J., Nemmers, B., & Olney, J. W. (2005). Ethanol-induced neuroapoptosis in the developing rodent cerebellum and related brain structures. Developmental Brain Research, 155, 1–13.PubMedCrossRef
Diwadkar, V., Meintjes, E. M., Goradia, D., Dodge, N. C., Warton, C., Molteno, C., et al. (in press). Children with FAS and PFAS recruit different working memory brain regions than alcohol-exposed nonsyndromal children. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35.
Dunty, W. C., Chen, S.-Y., Zucker, R. M., Dehart, D. B., & Sulik, K. K. (2001). Selective vulnerability of embryonic cell populations to ethanol-induced apoptosis: implications for alcohol-related birth defects and neurodevelopmental disorder. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 25, 1523–1535.PubMedCrossRef
Eger, E., Sterzer, P., Russ, M. O., Giraud, A. L., & Kleinschmidt, A. (2003). A supramodal number representation in human intraparietal cortex. Neuron, 37, 719–725.PubMedCrossRef
Fletcher, P. C., Shallice, T., Frith, C. D., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Dolan, R. J. (1996). Brain activity during memory retrieval—the influence of imagery and semantic cueing. Brain, 119, 1587–1596.PubMedCrossRef
Frings, M., Gaertner, K., Buderath, P., Gerwig, M., Christiansen, H., Schoch, B., et al. (2010). Timing of conditioned eyeblink responses is impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Experimental Brain Research, 201, 167–176.CrossRef
Fryer, S. L., Tapert, S. F., Mattson, S. N., Paulus, M. P., Spadoni, A. D., & Riley, E. P. (2007). Prenatal alcohol exposure affects frontal-striatal BOLD response during inhibitory control. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 31, 1415–1424.PubMedCrossRef
Fryer, S. L., Schweinsburg, B. C., Bjorkquist, O. A., Frank, L. R., Mattson, S. N., Spadoni, A. D., et al. (2009). Characterization of white matter microstructure in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 33, 514–521.PubMedCrossRef
Geinisman, Y., Berry, R. W., Disterhoft, J. F., Power, J. M., & Van der Zee, E. A. (2001). Associative learning elicits the formation of multiple-synapse boutons. The Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 5568–5573.PubMed
Goldschmidt, L., Richardson, G. A., Stoffer, D. S., Geva, D., & Day, N. L. (1996). Prenatal alcohol exposure and academic achievement at age six: a nonlinear fit. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 20, 763–770.PubMedCrossRef
Goodlett, C. R., Marcussen, B. L., & West, J. R. (1990). A single day of alcohol exposure during the brain growth spurt induces brain weight restriction and cerebellar Purkinje loss. Alcohol, 7, 107–114.PubMedCrossRef
Gottesman, I. I., & Gould, T. D. (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 636–645.PubMedCrossRef
Gould, E., Beylin, A., Tanapat, P., Reeves, A., & Shors, T. J. (1999). Learning enhances adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal formation. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 260–265.PubMedCrossRef
Green, J. T., Rogers, R. F., Goodlett, C. R., & Steinmetz, J. E. (2000). Impairment in eyeblink classical conditioning in adult rats exposed to ethanol as neonates. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 438–447.PubMedCrossRef
Green, J. T., Johnson, T. B., Goodlett, C. R., & Steinmetz, J. E. (2002a). Eyeblink classical conditioning and interpositus nucleus activity are disrupted in adult rats exposed to ethanol as neonates. Learning & Memory, 9, 304–320.CrossRef
Green, J. T., Tran, T., Steinmetz, J. E., & Goodlett, C. R. (2002b). Neonatal ethanol produces cerebellar deep nuclear loss and correlated disruption of eyeblink conditioning in adult rats. Brain Research, 956, 302–311.CrossRef
Gruber, O., Indefrey, P., Steinmetz, H., & Kleinschmidt, A. (2001). Dissociating neural correlates of cognitive components in mental calculation. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 350–359.PubMedCrossRef
Guerri, C., Pascual, M., & Renau-Piqueras, J. (2001). Glia and fetal alcohol syndrome. Neurotoxicology, 22, 593–599.PubMedCrossRef
Hamre, K. M., & West, J. R. (1993). The effects of the timing of ethanol exposure during the brain growth spurt on the number of cerebellar Purkinje and granule cell nuclear profiles. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 17, 610–622.PubMedCrossRef
Herbert, J. S., Eckerman, C. O., & Stanton, M. E. (2003). The ontogeny of human learning in delay, long-delay, and trace eyeblink conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience, 117, 1196–1210.PubMedCrossRef
Holzman, C., Paneth, N., Little, R., & Pinto-Martin, J. (1995). Perinatal brain injury in premature infants born to mothers using alcohol in pregnancy. Pediatrics, 95, 66–73.PubMed
Howell, K. K., Lynch, M. E., Platzman, K. A., Smith, G. H., & Coles, C. D. (2006). Prenatal alcohol exposure and ability, academic achievement, and school functioning in adolescence: a longitudinal follow-up. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 311, 16–126.
Hoyme, H. E., May, P. A., Kalberg, W. O., Kodituwakku, P., Gossage, J. P., Trujillo, P. M., et al. (2005). A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: clarification of the 1996 Institute of Medicine criteria. Pediatrics, 115, 39–47.PubMedCrossRef
Ivkovich, D., & Stanton, M. E. (2001). Effects of early hippocampal lesions on trace, delay, and long-delay eyeblink conditioning in developing rats. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 76, 426–446.PubMedCrossRef
Ivkovich, D., Paczkowski, C. M., & Stanton, M. E. (2000). Ontogeny of delay versus trace eyeblink conditioning in the rat. Developmental Psychobiology, 36, 148–160.PubMedCrossRef
Ivry, R. B., Justus, T. C., & Middleton, C. (2001). The cerebellum, timing, and language: Implications for the study of dyslexia. In M. Wolf (Ed.), Dyslexia, fluency, and the brain (pp. 189–211). Timonium: York Press.
Jacobson, S. W., Jacobson, J. L., Sokol, R. J., & Ager, J. W. (1993). Prenatal alcohol exposure and infant information processing ability. Child Development, 64, 1706–1721.PubMedCrossRef
Jacobson, S. W., Jacobson, J. L., & Sokol, R. J. (1994). Effects of fetal alcohol exposure on infant reaction time. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 18, 1125–1132.PubMedCrossRef
Jacobson, S. W., Chiodo, L. M., Sokol, R. J., & Jacobson, J. L. (2002a). Validity of maternal report of prenatal alcohol, cocaine, and smoking in relation to neurobehavioral outcome. Pediatrics, 109, 815–825.CrossRef
Jacobson, S. W., Hay, A., Molteno, C., Marais, A. S., Carter, R. C., September, M., et al. (2002b). FAS and neurobehavioral deficits in alcohol-exposed South African infants. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 26, 175A.
Jacobson, S. W., Jacobson, J. L., Sokol, R. J., Chiodo, L. M., & Corobana, R. (2004). Maternal age, alcohol abuse history, and quality of parenting as moderators of the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on 7.5-year intellectual function. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 1732–1745.PubMedCrossRef
Jacobson, J. L., Jacobson, S. W., Molteno, C. D., & Odendaal, H. (2006a). A prospective examination of the incidence of heavy drinking during pregnancy among Cape Coloured South African women. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 233A.CrossRef
Jacobson, S. W., Carr, L. G., Croxford, J., Sokol, R. J., Li, T.-K., & Jacobson, J. L. (2006b). Protective effects of the alcohol dehydrogenase-ADH1B allele in African American children exposed to alcohol during pregnancy. The Journal of Pediatrics, 148, 30–37.CrossRef
Jacobson, S. W., Stanton, M. E., Molteno, C. D., Burden, M. J., Fuller, D. S., Hoyme, H. E., et al. (2008). Impaired eyeblink conditioning in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 32, 365–372.PubMedCrossRef
Jacobson, J. L., Jacobson, S. W., Dodge, N. C., Klorman, R., & Burden, M. J. (2011a). Number processing in adolescents with prenatal alcohol exposure and ADHD: differences in the neurobehavioral phenotype. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 35, 431–442.CrossRef
Jacobson, S. W., Stanton, M. E., Dodge, N. C., Fuller, D. S., Molteno, C. D., Meintjes, E. M., et al. (2011b). Impaired short delay and trace eyeblink conditioning in school-age children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 35, 250–264.CrossRef
Jirikowic, T. L., McCoy, S. W., Price, R., Dellon, B., Vilnai, A. L., Ciol, M., et al. (2010). Sensorimotor Training to Affect Balance Engagement and Learning (STABEL). Taking the new step: Innovative interventions for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, Emory University, Atlanta, GA.
Jones, K. L., & Smith, D. W. (1973). Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet, 2, 999–1001.CrossRef
Kable, J. A., Coles, C. D., & Taddeo, E. (2007). Socio-cognitive habilitation using the math interactive learning experience program for alcohol-affected children. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 31, 1425–1434.PubMedCrossRef
Kaemingk, K. L., Mulvaney, S., & Halverson, P. T. (2003). Learning following prenatal alcohol exposure: performance on verbal and visual multitrial tasks. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18, 33–47.PubMed
Kaufman, L., Koppelstaetter, F., Siedentopf, C., Haala, I., Haberlandt, E., Zimmerhackl, L., et al. (2006). Neural correlates of the number-size interference task in children. Neuroreport, 17, 587–591.CrossRef
Kawashima, R., Taira, M., Okita, K., Inoue, K., Tajima, N., Yoshida, H., et al. (2004). A functional MRI study of simple arithmetic—a comparison between children and adults. Cognitive Brain Research, 18, 225–231.CrossRef
Kerns, K. A., Don, A., Mateer, C. A., & Streissguth, A. P. (1997). Cognitive deficits in nonretarded adults with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 685–693.PubMedCrossRef
Kim, J. J., & Thompson, R. F. (1997). Cerebellar circuits and synaptic mechanisms involved in classical eyeblink conditioning. Trends in Neuroscience, 20, 177–181.CrossRef
Kim, J. J., Clark, R. E., & Thompson, R. F. (1995). Hippocampectomy impairs the memory of recently, but not remotely, acquired trace eyeblink conditioned responses. Behavioral Neuroscience, 109, 195–203.PubMedCrossRef
Kirschen, M. P., Chen, S. H. A., Schraedley-Desmond, P., & Desmond, J. E. (2005). Load- and practice-dependent increases in cerebro-cerebellar activation in verbal working memory: an fMRI study. Neuroimage, 24, 462–472.PubMedCrossRef
Klingenberg, C. P., Wetherill, L., Rogers, J., Moore, E., Ward, R., Autti-Ramo, I., et al. (2010). Prenatal alcohol exposure alters the patterns of facial asymmetry. Alcohol, 44, 649–657.PubMedCrossRef
Klintsova, A. Y., Cowell, R. M., Swain, R. A., Napper, R. M. A., Goodlett, C. R., & Greenough, W. T. (1998). Therapeutic effects of complex motor training on motor performance deficits induced by neonatal binge-like alcohol exposure in rats: I. Behavioral results. Brain Research, 800, 48–61.PubMedCrossRef
Kodituwakku, P. W., & Kodituwakku, E. L. (2011). From research to practice: An integrative framework for the development of interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology Review, 21.
Kodituwakku, P. W., Handmaker, N. S., Cutler, S. K., Weathersby, E. K., & Handmaker, S. D. (1995). Specific impairments in self-regulation in children exposed to alcohol prenatally. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 19, 1558–1564.PubMedCrossRef
Koekkoek, S. K. E., Hulscher, H. C., Dortland, B. R., Hensbroek, R. A., Elgersma, Y., Ruigrok, T. J. H., et al. (2003). Cerebellar LTD and learning-dependent timing of conditioned eyelid responses. Science, 301, 1736–1739.PubMedCrossRef
Kooistra, L., Crawford, S., Gibbard, B., Ramage, B., & Kaplan, B. J. (2010). Differentiating attention deficits in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder or attention-deficit–hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 52, 205–211.PubMedCrossRef
Kopera-Frye, K., Dehaene, S., & Streissguth, A. P. (1996). Impairments of number processing induced by prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuropsychologia, 34, 1187–1196.PubMedCrossRef
Krupa, D. J., Thompson, J. K., & Thompson, R. F. (1993). Localization of a memory trace in the mammalian brain. Science, 260, 989–991.PubMedCrossRef
Kucian, K., Loenneker, T., Dietrich, T., Dosch, M., Martin, E., & von Aster, M. (2006). Impaired neural networks for approximate calculation in dyscalculic children: a functional MRI study. Behavioral Brain Functions, 2, 31–48.CrossRef
Lavond, D. G., & Steinmetz, J. E. (1989). Acquisition of classical conditioning without cerebellar cortex. Behavioral Brain Research, 33, 113–164.CrossRef
Lavond, D. G., Kim, J. J., & Thompson, R. F. (1993). Mammalian brain substrates of aversive classical conditioning. Annual Reviews in Psychology, 44, 317–342.CrossRef
Lebel, C., Rasmussen, C., Wyper, K., Walker, L., Andrew, G., Yager, J., et al. (2008). Brain diffusion abnormalities in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 22, 1–9.
Lebel, C., Rasmussen, C., Wyper, K., Andrew, G., & Beaulieu, C. (2010). Brain microstructure is related to math ability in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 354–363.PubMedCrossRef
Lebel, C., Roussotte, F., & Sowell, E. R. (2011). Imaging the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure on the structure of the developing brain. Neuropsychology Review, 21.
Lemoine, P., Harousseau, H., Borteyru, J. P., & Menuet, J. C. (1968). Les enfants de parents alcooliques: anomalies observées. A propos de 127 cas [Children of alcoholic parents: abnormalities observed in 127 cases]. Ouest Medical, 21, 476–482.
Li, L., Coles, C. D., Lynch, M. E., & Hu, X. (2009). Voxelwise and skeleton-based region of interest analysis of fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in young adults. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 3265–3274.PubMedCrossRef
Logan, C. G., & Grafton, S. T. (1995). Functional anatomy of human eyeblink conditioning determined with regional cerebral glucose metabolism and positron-emission tomography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 92, 7500–7504.PubMedCrossRef
Ma, X., Coles, C. D., Lynch, M. E., LaConte, S. M., Zurkiya, O., Wang, D., et al. (2005). Evaluation of corpus callosum anisotropy in young adults with fetal alcohol syndrome according to diffusion tensor imaging. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 1214–1222.PubMedCrossRef
Maier, S. E., & West, J. R. (2001). Regional differences in cell loss associated with binge-like alcohol exposure during the first two trimesters equivalent in the rat. Alcohol, 23, 49–57.PubMedCrossRef
Maier, S. E., Miller, J. A., Blackwell, J. M., & West, J. R. (1999). Fetal alcohol exposure and temporal vulnerability: regional differences in cell loss as a function of the timing of binge-like alcohol exposure during brain development. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 726–734.PubMed
Marcussen, B. L., Goodlett, C. R., Mahoney, J. C., & West, J. R. (1994). Developing rat Purkinje cells are more vulnerable to alcohol-induced depletion during differentiation than during neurogenesis. Alcohol, 11, 147–156.PubMedCrossRef
Markham, M. R., Miller, W. R., & Arciniega, L. (1993). BaCCus 2.01 computer software for quantifying alcohol consumption. Behavioral Research Methods: Instruments and Computers, 25, 420–421.CrossRef
Mattson, S. N., & Roebuck, T. M. (2002). Acquisition and retention of verbal and nonverbal information in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 26, 875–882.PubMedCrossRef
Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Delis, D. C., Stern, C., & Jones, K. L. (1996). Verbal learning and memory in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 20, 810–816.PubMedCrossRef
Mattson, S. N., Goodman, A. M., Caine, C., Delis, D. C., & Riley, E. P. (1999). Executive functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 1808–1815.PubMedCrossRef
Mattson, S. N., Crocker, N., & Nguyen, T. T. (2011). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Neuropsychological and behavioral features. Neuropsychology Review, 21 doi:10.​1007/​s11065-011-9167-9.
May, P. A., Brooke, L., Gossage, J. P., Croxford, J., Adnams, C., Jones, K. L., et al. (2000). Epidemiology of fetal alcohol syndrome in a South African community in the Western Cape Province. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1905–1912.PubMedCrossRef
McCormick, D. A., & Thompson, R. F. (1984). Neuronal responses of the rabbit cerebellum during acquisition and performance of a classically conditioned nictitating membrane-eyelid response. The Journal of Neuroscience, 4, 2811–2822.PubMed
McEchron, M. D., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1997). Sequence of single neuron changes in CA1 hippocampus of rabbits during acquisition of trace eyeblink conditioned responses. Journal of Neurophysiology, 78, 1030–1044.PubMed
McGlinchey-Berroth, R., Carillo, M. C., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Brawn, C. M., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1997). Impaired trace eyeblink conditioning in bilateral, medial-temporal lobe amnesia. Behavioral Neuroscience, 111, 873–882.PubMedCrossRef
McGlinchey-Berroth, R., Brawn, C., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1999). Temporal discrimination learning in severe amnesic patients reveals an alteration in the timing of eyeblink conditioned responses. Behavioral Neuroscience, 113, 10–18.PubMedCrossRef
Meintjes, E. M., Jacobson, S. W., Molteno, C. D., Gatenby, J. C., Warton, C., Cannistraci, C. J., et al. (2010a). An fMRI study of number processing in children. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 28, 351–362.PubMedCrossRef
Meintjes, E. M., Jacobson, S. W., Molteno, C. D., Gatenby, J. C., Warton, C., Cannistraci, C. J., et al. (2010b). An fMRI study of number processing in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 1450–1464.PubMed
Menon, V., Rivera, S. M., White, C. D., Glover, G. H., & Reiss, A. L. (2000). Dissociating prefrontal and parietal cortex activation during arithmetic processing. Neuroimage, 12, 357–365.PubMedCrossRef
Mick, E., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Sayer, J., & Kleinman, S. (2002). Case-control study of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use during pregnancy. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 378–385.PubMedCrossRef
Miller, M. W., & Al-Rabiai, S. (1994). Effects of prenatal exposure to ethanol on the number of axons in the pyramidal tract of the rat. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 18, 346–354.PubMedCrossRef
Miller, M. W., & Robertson, S. (1993). Prenatal exposure to ethanol alters the postnatal development and transformation of radial glia to astrocytes in the cortex. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 337, 253–266.PubMedCrossRef
Miller, M. J., Chen, N., Li, L., Tom, B., Weiss, C., Disterhoft, J. F., et al. (2003). FMRI of the conscious rabbit during unilateral classical eyeblink conditioning reveals bilateral cerebellar activation. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 11753–11758.PubMed
Miller, L. C., Chan, W., Litvinova, A., Rubin, A., Comfort, K., Tirella, L., et al. (2006). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in children residing in Russian orphanages: a phenotypic survey. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 531–538.PubMedCrossRef
Mix, K., Huttenlocher, J., & Levine, S. (2002). Math without words: Quantitative development in infancy and early childhood. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRef
Molchan, S. E., Sunderland, T., McIntosh, A. R., Herscovitch, P., & Schreurs, B. G. (1994). A functional anatomical study of associative learning in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 8122–8126.PubMedCrossRef
Molteno, C. D., Bromley, K., Thomas, K. G. F., Meintjes, E. M., Jacobson, J. L., & Jacobson, S. W. (in press). Role of processing speed in fetal alcohol impairment of reading comprehension. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35.
Moore, E., Ward, R., Wetherill, L. F., Rogers, J. L., Autti-Ramo, I., Fagerlund, A., et al. (2007). Unique facial features distinguish fetal alcohol syndrome patients and controls in diverse ethnic populations. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31, 1707–1713.CrossRef
Moyer, J. R., Deyo, R. A., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1990). Hippocampectomy disrupts trace eye-blink conditioning in rabbits. Behavioral Neuroscience, 104, 243–252.PubMedCrossRef
Moyer, J. R., Thompson, L. T., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1996). Trace eyeblink conditioning increases CA1 excitability in a transient and learning-specific manner. The Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 5536–5546.PubMed
Naccache, L., & Dehaene, S. (2001). The priming method: imaging unconscious repetition priming reveals an abstract representation of number in the parietal lobes. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 966–974.PubMedCrossRef
O’Hare, E. D., Lu, L. H., Houston, S. M., Bookheimer, S. Y., Mattson, S. N., O’Connor, M. J., et al. (2009). Altered frontal-parietal functioning during verbal working memory in children and adolescents with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 3200–3208.PubMedCrossRef
O’Leary, C. E., Thomas, K. G. F., Molteno, C. D., Jacobson, J. L., & Jacobson, S. W. (in press). Verbal learning and memory in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Findings from Cape Town and Detroit. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35.
Ohyama, T., Nores, W. L., Murphy, M., & Mauk, M. D. (2003). What the cerebellum computes. Trends in Neuroscience, 26, 222–227.CrossRef
Perrett, S. P., Ruiz, B. P., & Mauk, M. D. (1993). Cerebellar cortex lesions disrupt learning-dependent timing of conditioned eyelid responses. The Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 1708–1718.PubMed
Pesenti, M., Thioux, M., Seron, X., & De Volder, A. (2000). Neuroanatomical substrates of Arabic number processing, numerical comparison, and simple addition: a PET study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 461–479.PubMedCrossRef
Pinel, P., Piazza, M., Le Bihan, D., & Dehaene, S. (2004). Distributed and overlapping cerebral representations of number, size, and luminance during comparative judgments. Neuroimage, 41, 983–993.
Port, R. L., Romano, A. G., Steinmetz, J. E., Mikhail, A. A., & Patterson, M. M. (1986). Retention and acquisition of classical trace conditioned responses by rabbits with hippocampal lesions. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100, 745–752.PubMedCrossRef
Power, J. M., Thompson, L. T., Moyer, J. M., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1997). Enhanced synaptic transmission in CA1 hippocampus after eyeblink conditioning. Journal of Neurophysiology, 78, 1184–1187.PubMed
Rasmussen, C., & Bisanz, J. (2009). Exploring mathematics difficulties in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Child Development Perspectives, 3, 125–130.CrossRef
Ridderinkhof, K. R., Ullsperger, M., Crone, E. A., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2004). The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control. Science, 306, 443–447.PubMedCrossRef
Ross, S. M., & Ross, L. E. (1971). Comparison of trace and delay classical eyelid conditioning as a function of interstimulus interval. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 91, 165–167.PubMedCrossRef
Santhanam, P., Li, Z., Hu, X., Lynch, M. E., & Coles, C. D. (2009). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on brain activation during an arithmetic task: an fMRI study. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 33, 1901–1908.PubMedCrossRef
Schreurs, B. G., Mcintosh, A. R., Bahro, M., Herscovitch, P., Sunderland, T., & Molchan, S. E. (1997). Lateralization and behavioral correlation of changes in regional cerebral blood flow with classical conditioning of the human eyeblink response. Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 2153–2163.PubMed
Shors, T. J., Miesegaes, G., Beylin, A., Zhao, M., Rydel, T., & Gould, E. (2001). Neurogenesis in the adult is involved in the formation of trace memories. Nature, 410, 372–376.PubMedCrossRef
Simon, O., Mangin, J. F., Cohen, L., Le Bihan, D., & Dehaene, S. (2002). Topographical layout of hand, eye, calculation, and language-related areas in the human parietal lobe. Neuron, 33, 475–487.PubMedCrossRef
Sokol, R., Martier, S., & Ernhart, C. (1985). Identification of alcohol abuse in the prenatal clinic. In N. C. Chang, & H. M. Chao (Eds.), Early identification of alcohol abuse. Rockville, MD: Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Research Monograph No. 17.
Solomon, P. R., Vander Schaaf, E. R., Thompson, R. F., & Weisz, D. J. (1986). Hippocampus and trace conditioning of the rabbit’s classically conditioned nictitating membrane response. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100, 729–744.PubMedCrossRef
Sowell, E. R., Mattson, S. N., Thompson, P. M., Jernigan, T. L., Riley, E. P., & Toga, A. W. (2001a). Mapping callosal morphology and cognitive correlates: effects of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurology, 57, 235–244.
Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Mattson, S. N., Tessner, K. D., Jernigan, T. L., Riley, E. P., et al. (2001b). Voxel-based morphometric analyses of the brain in children and adolescents prenatally exposed to alcohol. Neuroreport, 12, 515–523.CrossRef
Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Mattson, S. N., Tessner, K. D., Jernigan, T. L., Riley, E. P., et al. (2002). Regional brain shape abnormalities persist into adolescence after heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Cerebral Cortex, 12, 856–865.PubMedCrossRef
Sowell, E. R., Mattson, S. N., Kan, E., Thompson, P. M., Riley, E. R., & Toga, A. W. (2008a). Abnormal cortical thickness and brain-behavior correlation patterns in individuals with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Cerebral Cortex, 18, 126–144.
Sowell, E. R., Johnson, A., Kan, E., Lu, L. H., Van Horn, J. D., Toga, A. W., et al. (2008b). Mapping white matter integrity and neurobehavioral correlates in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 1313–1319.CrossRef
Spottiswoode, B. S., Meintjes, E. M., Anderson, A. W., Molteno, C. D., Stanton, M. E., Dodge, N. C., et al. (in press). Diffusion tensor imaging of the cerebellum and eyeblink conditioning in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.
Stanton, M. E. (2000). Multiple memory systems, development, and conditioning. Behavioral Brain Research, 110, 25–37.CrossRef
Stanton, M. E., & Freeman, J. H. (1994). Eyeblink conditioning in the developing rat: an animal model of learning in developmental neurotoxicology. Environmental Health Perspectives, 102, 131–139.PubMedCrossRef
Stanton, M. E., & Freeman, J. H. (2000). Developmental studies of eyeblink conditioning in the rat. In D. S. Woodruff-Pak & J. H. Steinmetz (Eds.), Eyeblink classical conditioning, vol. 2, animal models (pp. 17–49). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Stanton, M. E., & Goodlett, C. R. (1998). Neonatal ethanol exposure impairs eyeblink conditioning in weanling rats. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 22, 270–275.PubMedCrossRef
Stanton, M. E., Claflin, D. I., & Herbert, J. S. (2010). Ontogeny of multiple memory systems: Eyeblink conditioning in rodents and humans. In M. S. Blumberg, J. H. Freeman, & S. R. Robinson (Eds.), Oxford handbook of developmental behavioral neuroscience (pp. 501–526). New York: Oxford University Press.
Steinmetz, J. E. (2000). Brain substrates of classical eyeblink conditioning: a highly localized but also distributed system. Behavioural Brain Research, 110, 13–24.PubMedCrossRef
Stratton, K., Howe, C., & Battaglia, F. (1996). Fetal alcohol syndrome: Diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., & Sampson, P. D. (1990). Moderate prenatal alcohol exposure: effects on child IQ and learning problems at age 7 1/2 years. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 14, 662–669.PubMedCrossRef
Streissguth, A. P., Aase, J. M., Clarren, S. K., Randels, S. P., LaDue, R. A., & Smith, D. F. (1991). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome in adolescents and adults. JAMA, 265, 1961–1967.PubMedCrossRef
Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., Carmichael-Olson, H., Sampson, P. D., Bookstein, F. L., & Burgess, D. M. (1994). Drinking during pregnancy decreases Word Attack and Arithmetic scores on standardized tests: adolescent data from a population-based prospective study. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 18, 248–254.PubMedCrossRef
Temple, E., & Posner, M. I. (1998). Brain mechanisms of quantity are similar in 5-year-old children and adults. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95, 7836–7841.PubMedCrossRef
Thomas, J. D., Goodlett, C. R., & West, J. R. (1998). Alcohol-induced Purkinje cell loss depends on developmental timing of alcohol exposure and correlates with motor performance. Developmental Brain Research, 105, 159–166.PubMedCrossRef
Thompson, R. F. (2005). In search of memory traces. Annual Reviews in Psychology, 56, 1–23.CrossRef
Van der Zee, E., Kronforst-Collins, M. A., Maizels, E. T., Hunziger-Dunn, M., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1997). Gammaisoform-selective changes in PKC immunoreactivity after trace eyeblink conditioning in the rabbit hippocampus. Hippocampus, 7, 271–285.PubMedCrossRef
Vaurio, L., Riley, E. P., & Mattson, S. M. (2008). Differences in executive functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure or attention-deficit ⁄ hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 119–129.PubMedCrossRef
Venkatraman, V., Ansari, D., & Chee, M. W. L. (2005). Neural correlates of symbolic and non-symbolic arithmetic. Neuropsychologia, 43, 744–753.PubMedCrossRef
Wager, T. D., & Smith, E. E. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 255–274.CrossRef
Watari, H., Born, D. E., & Gleason, C. A. (2006). Effects of first trimester binge alcohol exposure on developing white matter in fetal sheep. Pediatric Research, 59, 560–564.PubMedCrossRef
Weiss, C., Kronforst-Collins, M. A., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1996). Activity of hippocampal pyramidal neurons during trace eyeblink conditioning. Hippocampus, 6, 192–209.PubMedCrossRef
Weiss, C., Bouwmeester, H., Power, J. M., & Disterhoft, J. F. (1999). Hippocampal lesions prevent trace eyeblink conditioning in the freely moving rat. Behavioral Brain Research, 99, 123–132.CrossRef
Werden, D., & Ross, L. E. (1972). A comparison of the trace and delay classical conditioning performance of normal children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 14, 126–132.PubMedCrossRef
Willford, J. A., Richardson, G. A., Leech, S. L., & Day, N. L. (2004). Verbal and visuospatial learning and memory function in children with moderate prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 497–507.PubMedCrossRef
Woodruff-Pak, D. S., & Disterhoft, J. F. (2008). Where is the trace in trace conditioning? Trends in Neuroscience, 31, 105–112.CrossRef
Woodruff-Pak, D. S., & Steinmetz, J. E. (2000a). Eyeblink classical conditioning: Volume I—Applications in humans. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Woodruff-Pak, D. S., & Steinmetz, J. E. (2000b). Eyeblink classical conditioning: Volume II—Applications in animals. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Wozniak, J. R., & Muetzel, R. L. (2011). What does diffusion tensor imaging reveal about the brain and cognition in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders? Neuropsychology Review, 21.
Wozniak, J. R., Mueller, B. A., Chang, P., Muetzel, R. L., Caros, L., & Lim, K. O. (2006). Diffusion tensor imaging in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 1799–1806.PubMedCrossRef
Wozniak, J. R., Muetzel, R. L., Mueller, B. A., McGee, C. L., Freerks, M. A., Ward, E. E., et al. (2009). Microstructural corpus callosum anomalies in children with prenatal alcohol exposure: an extension of previous diffusion tensor imaging findings. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 1825–1835.CrossRef
Wynn, K. (1995). Origins of numerical knowledge. Mathematical Cognition, 1, 35–60.
Wynn, K. (1996). Infants’ individuation and enumeration of sequential actions. Psychological Science, 7, 164–169.CrossRef
Wynn, K., & Chiang, W. C. (1998). Limits to infants’ knowledge of objects: the case of magical appearance. Psychological Science, 9, 448–455.CrossRef
Wynn, K., Bloom, P., & Chiang, W. C. (2002). Enumeration of collective entities by 5-month-old infant. Cognition, 83, B55–B62.PubMedCrossRef
Zago, L., Pesenti, M., Mellet, E., Crivello, F., Mazoyer, B., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2001). Neural correlates of simple and complex mental calculation. Neuroimage, 13, 314–327.PubMedCrossRef
Zago, L., Petit, L., Turbelin, M., Andersson, F., Vigneau, M., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2008). How verbal and spatial manipulation networks contribute to calculation: an fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2403–2414.PubMedCrossRef
Zoeller, R. T., Butnariu, O. V., Fletcher, D. L., & Riley, E. P. (1994). Limited postnatal ethanol exposure permanently alters the expression of mRNAS encoding myelin basic protein and myelin-associated glycoprotein in cerebellum. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 18, 909–916.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Biobehavioral Markers of Adverse Effect in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
Authors
Sandra W. Jacobson
Joseph L. Jacobson
Mark E. Stanton
Ernesta M. Meintjes
Christopher D. Molteno
Publication date
01-06-2011
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Neuropsychology Review / Issue 2/2011
Print ISSN: 1040-7308
Electronic ISSN: 1573-6660
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-011-9169-7

Other articles of this Issue 2/2011

Neuropsychology Review 2/2011 Go to the issue

Review

Magnetic Resonance-Based Imaging in Animal Models of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

Erratum

Erratum to: Rehabilitation Treatments for Adults with Behavioral and Psychosocial Disorders Following Acquired Brain Injury: A Systematic Review

Review

Functional Neuroimaging in the Examination of Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure

Review

From Research to Practice: An Integrative Framework for the Development of Interventions for Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Review

The Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure on Behavior: Rodent and Primate Studies

Review

What Does Diffusion Tensor Imaging Reveal About the Brain and Cognition in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders?