Top

European Journal of Applied Physiology

Published in:

Open Access 01-05-2020 | Original Article

Gross and delta efficiencies during uphill running and cycling among elite triathletes

Authors: Magnus Carlsson, Viktor Wahrenberg, Marie S. Carlsson, Rasmus Andersson, Tomas Carlsson

Published in: European Journal of Applied Physiology | Issue 5/2020

Abstract

Purpose

To investigate the gross efficiency (GE) and delta efficiency (DE) during cycling and running in elite triathletes.

Methods

Five male and five female elite triathletes completed two incremental treadmill tests with an inclination of 2.5° to determine their GE and DE during cycling and running. The speed increments between the 5-min stages were 2.4 and 0.6 km h⁻¹ during the cycling and running tests, respectively. For each test, GE was calculated as the ratio between the mechanical work rate (MWR) and the metabolic rate (MR) at an intensity corresponding to a net increase in blood-lactate concentration of 1 mmol l⁻¹. DE was calculated by dividing the delta increase in MWR by the delta increase in MR for each test. Pearson correlations and paired-sample t tests were used to investigate the relationships and differences, respectively.

Results

There was a correlation between GE_cycle and GE_run (r = 0.66; P = 0.038; R² = 0.44), but the correlation between DE_cycle and DE_run was not statistically significant (r = − 0.045; P = 0.90; R² = 0.0020). There were differences between GE_cycle and GE_run (t = 80.8; P < 0.001) as well as between DE_cycle and DE_run (t = 27.8; P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Elite triathletes with high GE during running also have high GE during cycling, when exercising at a treadmill inclination of 2.5°. For a moderate uphill incline, elite triathletes are more energy efficient during cycling than during running, independent of work rate.

Anderson T (1996) Biomechanics and running economy. Sports Med 22:76–89. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199622020-00003 CrossRefPubMed

Barnes KR, Kilding AE (2015) Running economy: measurement, norms, and determining factors. Sports Med Open 1:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-015-0007-y CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Bergh U (1987) The influence of body mass in cross-country skiing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 19:324–331CrossRef

Bertucci WM, Betik AC, Duc S, Grappe F (2012) Gross efficiency and cycling economy are higher in the field as compared with on an axiom stationary ergometer. J Appl Biomech 28:636–644. https://doi.org/10.1123/jab.28.6.636 CrossRefPubMed

Bijker KE, De Groot G, Hollander AP (2001) Delta efficiencies of running and cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33:1546–1551. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200109000-00019 CrossRefPubMed

Bijker KE, de Groot G, Hollander AP (2002) Differences in leg muscle activity during running and cycling in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 87:556–561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-002-0663-8 CrossRefPubMed

Borg G (1970) Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress. Scand J Rehabil Med 2:92–98PubMed

Carlsson M, Carlsson T, Wedholm L, Nilsson M, Malm C, Tonkonogi M (2016) Physiological demands of competitive sprint and distance performance in elite female cross-country skiing. J Strength Cond Res 30:2138–2144. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000001327 CrossRefPubMed

Cavagna GA, Heglund NC, Willems PA (2005) Effect of an increase in gravity on the power output and the rebound of the body in human running. J Exp Biol 208:2333–2346. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.01661 CrossRefPubMed

Cohen JW (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale

Connolly JW (2016) Understanding the magic of the bicycle. Morgan & Claypool, Bristol

Coyle EF, Feltner ME, Kautz SA, Hamilton MT, Montain SJ, Baylor AM, Abraham LD, Petrek GW (1991) Physiological and biomechanical factors associated with elite endurance cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23:93–107. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199101000-00015 CrossRefPubMed

Coyle EF, Sidossis LS, Horowitz JF, Beltz JD (1992) Cycling efficiency is related to the percentage of type I muscle fibers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24:782–788. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199207000-00008 CrossRefPubMed

Daniels JT, Scardina N, Foley P (1984) VO_2max during five modes of exercise. In: Bachl N, Prokop L, Suckert R (eds) Proceedings of the world congress on sports medicine. Urban & Schwartzenberg, Vienna, pp 604–615

Dengel DR, Flynn MG, Costill DL, Kirwan JP (1989) Determinants of success during triathlon competition. Res Q Exerc Sport 60:234–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1989.10607445 CrossRefPubMed

Ettema G, Lorås HW (2009) Efficiency in cycling: a review. Eur J Appl Physiol 106:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-009-1008-7 CrossRefPubMed

Fintelman DM, Sterling M, Hemida H, Li FX (2016) Effect of different aerodynamic time trial cycling positions on muscle activation and crank torque. Scand J Med Sci Sports 26:528–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12479 CrossRefPubMed

Folland JP, Allen SJ, Black MI, Handsaker JC, Forrester SE (2017) Running technique is an important component of running economy and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 49:1412–1423. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000001245 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Gaesser GA, Brooks GA (1975) Muscular efficiency during steady-rate exercise: effects of speed and work rate. J Appl Physiol 38:1132–1141CrossRef

Gottschall JS, Kram R (2005) Ground reaction forces during downhill and uphill running. J Biomech 38:445–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.04.023 CrossRefPubMed

Hamner SR, Seth A, Delp SL (2010) Muscle contributions to propulsion and support during running. J Biomech 43:2709–2716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.06.025 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Hoogkamer W, Taboga P, Kram R (2014) Applying the cost of generating force hypothesis to uphill running. Peerj. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.482 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Hopker J, Passfield L, Coleman D, Jobson S, Edwards L, Carter H (2009) The effects of training on gross efficiency in cycling: a review. Int J Sports Med 30:845–850. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1237712 CrossRefPubMed

Hopker J, Jobson S, Carter H, Passfield L (2010) Cycling efficiency in trained male and female competitive cyclists. J Sports Sci Med 9:332–337PubMedPubMedCentral

Jones AM, Carter H (2000) The effect of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitness. Sports Med 29:373–386. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200029060-00001 CrossRefPubMed

Joyner MJ, Coyle EF (2008) Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions. J Physiol 586:35–44. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.143834 CrossRefPubMed

Lacour JR, Bourdin M (2015) Factors affecting the energy cost of level running at submaximal speed. Eur J Appl Physiol 115:651–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-015-3115-y CrossRefPubMed

Landers GJ, Blanksby BA, Ackland TR, Smith D (2000) Morphology and performance of world championship triathletes. Ann Hum Biol 27:387–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/03014460050044865 CrossRefPubMed

Le Meur Y, Hausswirth C, Dorel S, Bignet F, Brisswalter J, Bernard T (2009) Influence of gender on pacing adopted by elite triathletes during a competition. Eur J Appl Physiol 106:535–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-009-1043-4 CrossRefPubMed

Lundby C, Montero D, Gehrig S, Hall UA, Kaiser P, Boushel R, Lundby AKM, Kirk N, Valdivieso P, Fluck M, Secher NH, Edin F, Hein T, Madsen K (2017) Physiological, biochemical, anthropometric, and biomechanical influences on exercise economy in humans. Scand J Med Sci Sports 27:1627–1637. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12849 CrossRefPubMed

Lusk G (1928) The elements of the science of nutrition, 4th edn. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadephia

Menzies P, Menzies C, McIntyre L, Paterson P, Wilson J, Kemi OJ (2010) Blood lactate clearance during active recovery after an intense running bout depends on the intensity of the active recovery. J Sports Sci 28:975–982. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.481721 CrossRefPubMed

Minetti AE, Moia C, Roi GS, Susta D, Ferretti G (2002) Energy cost of walking and running at extreme uphill and downhill slopes. J Appl Physiol 93:1039–1046. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01177.2001 CrossRefPubMed

Miura H, Kitagawa K, Ishiko T (1997) Economy during a simulated laboratory test triathlon is highly related to Olympic distance triathlon. Int J Sports Med 18:276–280. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-972633 CrossRefPubMed

Ofoghi B, Zeleznikow J, Macmahon C, Rehula J, Dwyer DB (2016) Performance analysis and prediction in triathlon. J Sports Sci 34:607–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1065341 CrossRefPubMed

Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Telford RD, Hawley JA (2004) Factors affecting running economy in trained distance runners. Sports Med 34:465–485. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434070-00005 CrossRefPubMed

Schabort EJ, Killian SC, Gibson AS, Hawley JA, Noakes TD (2000) Prediction of triathlon race time from laboratory testing in national triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:844–849. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200004000-00018 CrossRefPubMed

Sleivert GG, Rowlands DS (1996) Physical and physiological factors associated with success in the triathlon. Sports Med 22:8–18. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199622010-00002 CrossRefPubMed

Swinnen W, Kipp S, Kram R (2018) Comparison of running and cycling economy in runners, cyclists, and triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 118:1331–1338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-018-3865-4 CrossRefPubMed

Tartaruga MP, Brisswalter J, Peyre-Tartaruga LA, Avila AO, Alberton CL, Coertjens M, Cadore EL, Tiggemann CL, Silva EM, Kruel LF (2012) The relationship between running economy and biomechanical variables in distance runners. Res Q Exerc Sport 83:367–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2012.10599870 CrossRefPubMed

Tucker R (2013) Economy. In: Friel JG, Vance JS (eds) Triathlon Science. Human Kinetics Press, Champaign.

van Ingen Schenau GJ, Vanwoensel W, Boots PJM, Snackers RW, Degroot G (1990) Determination and interpretation of mechanical power in human movement: application to ergometer cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 61:11–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00236687 CrossRefPubMed

Title: Gross and delta efficiencies during uphill running and cycling among elite triathletes
Authors: Magnus Carlsson
Viktor Wahrenberg
Marie S. Carlsson
Rasmus Andersson
Tomas Carlsson
Publication date: 01-05-2020
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: European Journal of Applied Physiology / Issue 5/2020
Print ISSN: 1439-6319
Electronic ISSN: 1439-6327
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-020-04312-w

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

Springer Medicine

Gross and delta efficiencies during uphill running and cycling among elite triathletes

Abstract

Purpose

Methods

Results

Conclusions

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Purpose

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 5/2020

A focused review of myokines as a potential contributor to muscle hypertrophy from resistance-based exercise

Evaluation of fat-free mass hydration in athletes and non-athletes

Effects of 21 days of bed rest and whey protein supplementation on plantar flexor muscle fatigue resistance during repeated shortening contractions

Blood volume expansion does not explain the increase in peak oxygen uptake induced by 10 weeks of endurance training

Adaptations in mechanical muscle function, muscle morphology, and aerobic power to high-intensity endurance training combined with either traditional or power strength training in older adults: a randomized clinical trial

Effect of regular precooling on adaptation to training in the heat