Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Pediatric Radiology 5/2021

01-05-2021 | Magnetic Resonance Imaging | Minisymposium: Pediatric MRI quality and safety

Safety challenges related to the use of sedation and general anesthesia in pediatric patients undergoing magnetic resonance imaging examinations

Authors: Maddy Artunduaga, C. Amber Liu, Cara E. Morin, Suraj D. Serai, Unni Udayasankar, Mary-Louise C. Greer, Michael S. Gee

Published in: Pediatric Radiology | Issue 5/2021

Login to get access

Abstract

The use of sedation and general anesthesia has facilitated the significant growth of MRI use among children over the last years. While sedation and general anesthesia are considered to be relatively safe, their use poses potential risks in the short term and in the long term. This manuscript reviews the reasons why MRI examinations require sedation and general anesthesia more commonly in the pediatric population, summarizes the safety profile of sedation and general anesthesia, and discusses an amalgam of strategies that can be implemented and can ultimately lead to the optimization of sedation and general anesthesia care within pediatric radiology departments.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Dong S-Z, Zhu M, Bulas D (2019) Techniques for minimizing sedation in pediatric MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 50:1047–1054PubMedCrossRef Dong S-Z, Zhu M, Bulas D (2019) Techniques for minimizing sedation in pediatric MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 50:1047–1054PubMedCrossRef
2.
go back to reference De Amorim e Silva CJT, Mackenzie A, Hallowell LM et al (2006) Practice MRI: reducing the need for sedation and general anaesthesia in children undergoing MRI. Australas Radiol 50:319–323PubMedCrossRef De Amorim e Silva CJT, Mackenzie A, Hallowell LM et al (2006) Practice MRI: reducing the need for sedation and general anaesthesia in children undergoing MRI. Australas Radiol 50:319–323PubMedCrossRef
3.
go back to reference Kozak BM, Jaimes C, Kirsch J, Gee MS (2020) MRI techniques to decrease imaging times in children. Radiographics 40:485–502PubMedCrossRef Kozak BM, Jaimes C, Kirsch J, Gee MS (2020) MRI techniques to decrease imaging times in children. Radiographics 40:485–502PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference Janos S, Schooler GR, Ngo JS, Davis JT (2019) Free-breathing unsedated MRI in children: justification and techniques. J Magn Reson Imaging 50:365–376PubMedCrossRef Janos S, Schooler GR, Ngo JS, Davis JT (2019) Free-breathing unsedated MRI in children: justification and techniques. J Magn Reson Imaging 50:365–376PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Cravero JP, Blike GT, Beach M et al (2006) Incidence and nature of adverse events during pediatric sedation/anesthesia for procedures outside the operating room: report from the pediatric sedation research consortium. Pediatrics 118:1087–1096PubMedCrossRef Cravero JP, Blike GT, Beach M et al (2006) Incidence and nature of adverse events during pediatric sedation/anesthesia for procedures outside the operating room: report from the pediatric sedation research consortium. Pediatrics 118:1087–1096PubMedCrossRef
6.
go back to reference Davidson AJ, Morton NS, Arnup SJ et al (2015) Apnea after awake regional and general anesthesia in infants: the general anesthesia compared to spinal anesthesia study — comparing apnea and neurodevelopmental outcomes, a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 123:38–54PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Davidson AJ, Morton NS, Arnup SJ et al (2015) Apnea after awake regional and general anesthesia in infants: the general anesthesia compared to spinal anesthesia study — comparing apnea and neurodevelopmental outcomes, a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 123:38–54PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
7.
go back to reference Davidson AJ, Disma N, de Graaff JC et al (2016) Neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age after general anaesthesia and awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 387:239–250PubMedCrossRef Davidson AJ, Disma N, de Graaff JC et al (2016) Neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age after general anaesthesia and awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 387:239–250PubMedCrossRef
8.
go back to reference McCann ME, de Graaff JC, Dorris L et al (2019) Neurodevelopmental outcome at 5 years of age after general anaesthesia or awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international, multicentre, randomised, controlled equivalence trial. Lancet 393:664–677PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef McCann ME, de Graaff JC, Dorris L et al (2019) Neurodevelopmental outcome at 5 years of age after general anaesthesia or awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international, multicentre, randomised, controlled equivalence trial. Lancet 393:664–677PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
9.
go back to reference Flick RP, Katusic SK, Colligan RC et al (2011) Cognitive and behavioral outcomes after early exposure to anesthesia and surgery. Pediatrics 128:e1053–e1061PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Flick RP, Katusic SK, Colligan RC et al (2011) Cognitive and behavioral outcomes after early exposure to anesthesia and surgery. Pediatrics 128:e1053–e1061PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Clausen NG, Kähler S, Hansen TG (2018) Systematic review of the neurocognitive outcomes used in studies of paediatric anaesthesia neurotoxicity. Br J Anaesth 120:1255–1273PubMedCrossRef Clausen NG, Kähler S, Hansen TG (2018) Systematic review of the neurocognitive outcomes used in studies of paediatric anaesthesia neurotoxicity. Br J Anaesth 120:1255–1273PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Perez M, Cuscaden C, Somers JF et al (2019) Easing anxiety in preparation for pediatric magnetic resonance imaging: a pilot study using animal-assisted therapy. Pediatr Radiol 49:1000–1009PubMedCrossRef Perez M, Cuscaden C, Somers JF et al (2019) Easing anxiety in preparation for pediatric magnetic resonance imaging: a pilot study using animal-assisted therapy. Pediatr Radiol 49:1000–1009PubMedCrossRef
13.
go back to reference Rothman S, Gonen A, Vodonos A et al (2016) Does preparation of children before MRI reduce the need for anesthesia? Prospective randomized control trial. Pediatr Radiol 46:1599–1605PubMedCrossRef Rothman S, Gonen A, Vodonos A et al (2016) Does preparation of children before MRI reduce the need for anesthesia? Prospective randomized control trial. Pediatr Radiol 46:1599–1605PubMedCrossRef
14.
go back to reference Windram J, Grosse-Wortmann L, Shariat M et al (2012) Cardiovascular MRI without sedation or general anesthesia using a feed-and-sleep technique in neonates and infants. Pediatr Radiol 42:183–187PubMedCrossRef Windram J, Grosse-Wortmann L, Shariat M et al (2012) Cardiovascular MRI without sedation or general anesthesia using a feed-and-sleep technique in neonates and infants. Pediatr Radiol 42:183–187PubMedCrossRef
15.
go back to reference Jaimes C, Kirsch JE, Gee MS (2018) Fast, free-breathing and motion-minimized techniques for pediatric body magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Radiol 48:1197–1208PubMedCrossRef Jaimes C, Kirsch JE, Gee MS (2018) Fast, free-breathing and motion-minimized techniques for pediatric body magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Radiol 48:1197–1208PubMedCrossRef
16.
go back to reference Carter AJ, Greer M-LC, Gray SE, Ware RS (2010) Mock MRI: reducing the need for anaesthesia in children. Pediatr Radiol 40:1368–1374PubMedCrossRef Carter AJ, Greer M-LC, Gray SE, Ware RS (2010) Mock MRI: reducing the need for anaesthesia in children. Pediatr Radiol 40:1368–1374PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference Harned RK 2nd, Strain JD (2001) MRI-compatible audio/visual system: impact on pediatric sedation. Pediatr Radiol 31:247–250PubMedCrossRef Harned RK 2nd, Strain JD (2001) MRI-compatible audio/visual system: impact on pediatric sedation. Pediatr Radiol 31:247–250PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Uffman JC, Tumin D, Raman V et al (2017) MRI utilization and the associated use of sedation and anesthesia in a pediatric ACO. J Am Coll Radiol 14:924–930PubMedCrossRef Uffman JC, Tumin D, Raman V et al (2017) MRI utilization and the associated use of sedation and anesthesia in a pediatric ACO. J Am Coll Radiol 14:924–930PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference Pasini AM, Marjanović J, Roić G et al (2018) Correction to: melatonin as an alternative sedation method during magnetic resonance imaging in preschool children with musculoskeletal problems. Eur J Pediatr 177:1363–1366PubMedCrossRef Pasini AM, Marjanović J, Roić G et al (2018) Correction to: melatonin as an alternative sedation method during magnetic resonance imaging in preschool children with musculoskeletal problems. Eur J Pediatr 177:1363–1366PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Xu HS, Cavaliere RM, Min RJ (2020) Transforming the imaging experience while decreasing sedation rates. J Am Coll Radiol 17:46–52PubMedCrossRef Xu HS, Cavaliere RM, Min RJ (2020) Transforming the imaging experience while decreasing sedation rates. J Am Coll Radiol 17:46–52PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Brambrink AM, Evers AS, Avidan MS et al (2012) Ketamine-induced neuroapoptosis in the fetal and neonatal rhesus macaque brain. Anesthesiology 116:372–384PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Brambrink AM, Evers AS, Avidan MS et al (2012) Ketamine-induced neuroapoptosis in the fetal and neonatal rhesus macaque brain. Anesthesiology 116:372–384PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Creeley C, Dikranian K, Dissen G et al (2013) Propofol-induced apoptosis of neurones and oligodendrocytes in fetal and neonatal rhesus macaque brain. Br J Anaesth 110:i29–i38PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Creeley C, Dikranian K, Dissen G et al (2013) Propofol-induced apoptosis of neurones and oligodendrocytes in fetal and neonatal rhesus macaque brain. Br J Anaesth 110:i29–i38PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
24.
go back to reference Creeley CE, Dikranian KT, Dissen GA et al (2014) Isoflurane-induced apoptosis of neurons and oligodendrocytes in the fetal rhesus macaque brain. Anesthesiology 120:626–638PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Creeley CE, Dikranian KT, Dissen GA et al (2014) Isoflurane-induced apoptosis of neurons and oligodendrocytes in the fetal rhesus macaque brain. Anesthesiology 120:626–638PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Davidson AJ, Sun LS (2018) Clinical evidence for any effect of anesthesia on the developing brain. Anesthesiology 128:840–853PubMedCrossRef Davidson AJ, Sun LS (2018) Clinical evidence for any effect of anesthesia on the developing brain. Anesthesiology 128:840–853PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Disma N, O’Leary JD, Loepke AW et al (2018) Anesthesia and the developing brain: a way forward for laboratory and clinical research. Paediatr Anaesth 28:758–763PubMedCrossRef Disma N, O’Leary JD, Loepke AW et al (2018) Anesthesia and the developing brain: a way forward for laboratory and clinical research. Paediatr Anaesth 28:758–763PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Cravero JP, Beach ML, Blike GT et al (2009) The incidence and nature of adverse events during pediatric sedation/anesthesia with propofol for procedures outside the operating room: a report from the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. Anesth Analg 108:795–804PubMedCrossRef Cravero JP, Beach ML, Blike GT et al (2009) The incidence and nature of adverse events during pediatric sedation/anesthesia with propofol for procedures outside the operating room: a report from the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. Anesth Analg 108:795–804PubMedCrossRef
32.
go back to reference Beach ML, Cohen DM, Gallagher SM, Cravero JP (2016) Major adverse events and relationship to nil per os status in pediatric sedation/anesthesia outside the operating room: a report of the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. Anesthesiology 124:80–88PubMedCrossRef Beach ML, Cohen DM, Gallagher SM, Cravero JP (2016) Major adverse events and relationship to nil per os status in pediatric sedation/anesthesia outside the operating room: a report of the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium. Anesthesiology 124:80–88PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Kurth CD, Coté CJ (2015) Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants general anesthesia or spinal anesthesia — do we have an answer? Anesthesiology 123:15–17PubMedCrossRef Kurth CD, Coté CJ (2015) Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants general anesthesia or spinal anesthesia — do we have an answer? Anesthesiology 123:15–17PubMedCrossRef
35.
go back to reference Emrath ET, Stockwell JA, McCracken CE et al (2014) Provision of deep procedural sedation by a pediatric sedation team at a freestanding imaging center. Pediatr Radiol 44:1020–1025PubMedCrossRef Emrath ET, Stockwell JA, McCracken CE et al (2014) Provision of deep procedural sedation by a pediatric sedation team at a freestanding imaging center. Pediatr Radiol 44:1020–1025PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference Jenkins E, Hebbar KB, Karaga KK et al (2017) Experience with the use of propofol for radiologic imaging in infants younger than 6 months of age. Pediatr Radiol 47:974–983PubMedCrossRef Jenkins E, Hebbar KB, Karaga KK et al (2017) Experience with the use of propofol for radiologic imaging in infants younger than 6 months of age. Pediatr Radiol 47:974–983PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Cravero JP (2012) Pediatric sedation with propofol — continuing evolution of procedural sedation practice. J Pediatr 160:714–716PubMedCrossRef Cravero JP (2012) Pediatric sedation with propofol — continuing evolution of procedural sedation practice. J Pediatr 160:714–716PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Robertson RL, Silk S, Ecklund K et al (2018) Imaging optimization in children. J Am Coll Radiol 15:440–443PubMedCrossRef Robertson RL, Silk S, Ecklund K et al (2018) Imaging optimization in children. J Am Coll Radiol 15:440–443PubMedCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Bharti B, Malhi P, Khandelwal N (2016) MRI customized play therapy in children reduces the need for sedation — a randomized controlled trial. Indian J Pediatr 83:209–213PubMedCrossRef Bharti B, Malhi P, Khandelwal N (2016) MRI customized play therapy in children reduces the need for sedation — a randomized controlled trial. Indian J Pediatr 83:209–213PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Greer M-LC, Vasanawala SS (2020) Invited commentary: reducing sedation and anesthesia in pediatric patients at MRI. Radiographics 40:503–504PubMedCrossRef Greer M-LC, Vasanawala SS (2020) Invited commentary: reducing sedation and anesthesia in pediatric patients at MRI. Radiographics 40:503–504PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Antonov NK, Ruzal-Shapiro CB, Morel KD et al (2017) Feed and wrap MRI technique in infants. Clin Pediatr 56:1095–1103CrossRef Antonov NK, Ruzal-Shapiro CB, Morel KD et al (2017) Feed and wrap MRI technique in infants. Clin Pediatr 56:1095–1103CrossRef
44.
go back to reference Sanborn PA, Michna E, Zurakowski D et al (2005) Adverse cardiovascular and respiratory events during sedation of pediatric patients for imaging examinations. Radiology 237:288–294PubMedCrossRef Sanborn PA, Michna E, Zurakowski D et al (2005) Adverse cardiovascular and respiratory events during sedation of pediatric patients for imaging examinations. Radiology 237:288–294PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Serai SD, Hu HH, Ahmad R et al (2020) Newly developed methods for reducing motion artifacts in pediatric abdominal MRI: tips and pearls. AJR Am J Roentgenol 214:1042–1053PubMedCrossRef Serai SD, Hu HH, Ahmad R et al (2020) Newly developed methods for reducing motion artifacts in pediatric abdominal MRI: tips and pearls. AJR Am J Roentgenol 214:1042–1053PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Krishnamurthy R, Wang DJJ, Cervantes B et al (2019) Recent advances in pediatric brain, spine, and neuromuscular magnetic resonance imaging techniques. Pediatr Neurol 96:7–23PubMedCrossRef Krishnamurthy R, Wang DJJ, Cervantes B et al (2019) Recent advances in pediatric brain, spine, and neuromuscular magnetic resonance imaging techniques. Pediatr Neurol 96:7–23PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference Glockner JF, Hu HH, Stanley DW et al (2005) Parallel MR imaging: a user’s guide. Radiographics 25:1279–1297PubMedCrossRef Glockner JF, Hu HH, Stanley DW et al (2005) Parallel MR imaging: a user’s guide. Radiographics 25:1279–1297PubMedCrossRef
49.
50.
go back to reference Zhang T, Grafendorfer T, Cheng JY et al (2016) A semiflexible 64-channel receive-only phased array for pediatric body MRI at 3T. Magn Reson Med 76:1015–1021PubMedCrossRef Zhang T, Grafendorfer T, Cheng JY et al (2016) A semiflexible 64-channel receive-only phased array for pediatric body MRI at 3T. Magn Reson Med 76:1015–1021PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Obele CC, Glielmi C, Ream J et al (2015) Simultaneous multislice accelerated free-breathing diffusion-weighted imaging of the liver at 3T. Abdom Imaging 40:2323–2330PubMedCrossRef Obele CC, Glielmi C, Ream J et al (2015) Simultaneous multislice accelerated free-breathing diffusion-weighted imaging of the liver at 3T. Abdom Imaging 40:2323–2330PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference Pipe JG (1999) Periodically rotated overlapping parallel lines with enhanced reconstruction (PROPELLER) MRI: application to motion correction. In: Proceedings of the International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, pp 242–743 Pipe JG (1999) Periodically rotated overlapping parallel lines with enhanced reconstruction (PROPELLER) MRI: application to motion correction. In: Proceedings of the International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, pp 242–743
55.
go back to reference Lustig M, Donoho D, Pauly JM (2007) Sparse MRI: the application of compressed sensing for rapid MR imaging. Magn Reson Med 58:1182–1195PubMedCrossRef Lustig M, Donoho D, Pauly JM (2007) Sparse MRI: the application of compressed sensing for rapid MR imaging. Magn Reson Med 58:1182–1195PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Chandarana H, Feng L, Ream J, Wang A (2015) Respiratory motion-resolved compressed sensing reconstruction of free-breathing radial acquisition for dynamic liver MRI. Investig Radiol 50:749–756CrossRef Chandarana H, Feng L, Ream J, Wang A (2015) Respiratory motion-resolved compressed sensing reconstruction of free-breathing radial acquisition for dynamic liver MRI. Investig Radiol 50:749–756CrossRef
57.
go back to reference Cheng JY, Zhang T, Ruangwattanapaisarn N et al (2015) Free-breathing pediatric MRI with nonrigid motion correction and acceleration. J Magn Reson Imaging 42:407–420PubMedCrossRef Cheng JY, Zhang T, Ruangwattanapaisarn N et al (2015) Free-breathing pediatric MRI with nonrigid motion correction and acceleration. J Magn Reson Imaging 42:407–420PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Zhu B, Liu JZ, Cauley SF et al (2018) Image reconstruction by domain-transform manifold learning. Nature 555:487–492PubMedCrossRef Zhu B, Liu JZ, Cauley SF et al (2018) Image reconstruction by domain-transform manifold learning. Nature 555:487–492PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Mansfield P, Glover PM, Beaumont J (1998) Sound generation in gradient coil structures for MRI. Magn Reson Med 39:539–550PubMedCrossRef Mansfield P, Glover PM, Beaumont J (1998) Sound generation in gradient coil structures for MRI. Magn Reson Med 39:539–550PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference McJury M, Blug A, Joerger C et al (1994) Acoustic noise levels during magnetic resonance imaging scanning at 1.5 T. Br J Radiol 67:413–415PubMedCrossRef McJury M, Blug A, Joerger C et al (1994) Acoustic noise levels during magnetic resonance imaging scanning at 1.5 T. Br J Radiol 67:413–415PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference McJury MJ (1995) Acoustic noise levels generated during high field MR imaging. Clin Radiol 50:331–334PubMedCrossRef McJury MJ (1995) Acoustic noise levels generated during high field MR imaging. Clin Radiol 50:331–334PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Quirk ME, Letendre AJ, Ciottone RA, Lingley JF (1989) Anxiety in patients undergoing MR imaging. Radiology 17:463–466CrossRef Quirk ME, Letendre AJ, Ciottone RA, Lingley JF (1989) Anxiety in patients undergoing MR imaging. Radiology 17:463–466CrossRef
64.
go back to reference Oğurlu M, Orhan ME, Çinar S et al (2012) Effect of headphones on sevoflurane requirement for MRI. Pediatr Radiol 42:1432–1436PubMedCrossRef Oğurlu M, Orhan ME, Çinar S et al (2012) Effect of headphones on sevoflurane requirement for MRI. Pediatr Radiol 42:1432–1436PubMedCrossRef
65.
66.
go back to reference Vanderby SA, Babyn PS, Carter MW et al (2010) Effect of anesthesia and sedation on pediatric MR imaging patient flow. Radiology 256:229–237PubMedCrossRef Vanderby SA, Babyn PS, Carter MW et al (2010) Effect of anesthesia and sedation on pediatric MR imaging patient flow. Radiology 256:229–237PubMedCrossRef
67.
go back to reference Jaimes C, Murcia DJ, Miguel K et al (2018) Identification of quality improvement areas in pediatric MRI from analysis of patient safety reports. Pediatr Radiol 48:66–73PubMedCrossRef Jaimes C, Murcia DJ, Miguel K et al (2018) Identification of quality improvement areas in pediatric MRI from analysis of patient safety reports. Pediatr Radiol 48:66–73PubMedCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Ashmore J, Di Pietro J, Williams K et al (2019) A free virtual reality experience to prepare pediatric patients for magnetic resonance imaging: cross-sectional questionnaire study. JMIR Pediatr Parent 2:e11684PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Ashmore J, Di Pietro J, Williams K et al (2019) A free virtual reality experience to prepare pediatric patients for magnetic resonance imaging: cross-sectional questionnaire study. JMIR Pediatr Parent 2:e11684PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
70.
go back to reference O’Sullivan B, Alam F, Matava C (2018) Creating low-cost 360-degree virtual reality videos for hospitals: a technical paper on the dos and don’ts. J Med Internet Res 20:e239PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef O’Sullivan B, Alam F, Matava C (2018) Creating low-cost 360-degree virtual reality videos for hospitals: a technical paper on the dos and don’ts. J Med Internet Res 20:e239PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Kuriakose S, Lahiri U (2017) Design of a physiology-sensitive VR-based social communication platform for children with autism. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 25:1180–1191PubMedCrossRef Kuriakose S, Lahiri U (2017) Design of a physiology-sensitive VR-based social communication platform for children with autism. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 25:1180–1191PubMedCrossRef
72.
go back to reference Lee D, Greer PB, Ludbrook J et al (2016) Audiovisual biofeedback improves cine–magnetic resonance imaging measured lung tumor motion consistency. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 94:628–636PubMedCrossRef Lee D, Greer PB, Ludbrook J et al (2016) Audiovisual biofeedback improves cine–magnetic resonance imaging measured lung tumor motion consistency. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 94:628–636PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Pressdee D, May L, Eastman E, Grier D (1997) The use of play therapy in the preparation of children undergoing MR imaging. Clin Radiol 52:945–947PubMedCrossRef Pressdee D, May L, Eastman E, Grier D (1997) The use of play therapy in the preparation of children undergoing MR imaging. Clin Radiol 52:945–947PubMedCrossRef
74.
go back to reference Hallowell LM, Stewart SE, de Amorim E Silva CT, Ditchfield MR (2008) Reviewing the process of preparing children for MRI. Pediatr Radiol 38:271–279PubMedCrossRef Hallowell LM, Stewart SE, de Amorim E Silva CT, Ditchfield MR (2008) Reviewing the process of preparing children for MRI. Pediatr Radiol 38:271–279PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Safety challenges related to the use of sedation and general anesthesia in pediatric patients undergoing magnetic resonance imaging examinations
Authors
Maddy Artunduaga
C. Amber Liu
Cara E. Morin
Suraj D. Serai
Unni Udayasankar
Mary-Louise C. Greer
Michael S. Gee
Publication date
01-05-2021
Publisher
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in
Pediatric Radiology / Issue 5/2021
Print ISSN: 0301-0449
Electronic ISSN: 1432-1998
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-021-05044-5

Other articles of this Issue 5/2021

Pediatric Radiology 5/2021 Go to the issue

Minisymposium: Pediatric MRI quality and safety

Introduction