Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Pediatric Nephrology 10/2009

Open Access 01-10-2009 | Educational Feature

Treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents

Authors: Marc B. Lande, Joseph T. Flynn

Published in: Pediatric Nephrology | Issue 10/2009

Login to get access

Abstract

The treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents has been markedly changed in recent years by several factors, including the publication of new consensus recommendations, the obesity epidemic, and the increased availability of information on efficacy and safety of antihypertensive medications in the young. In this review we present an updated approach to the outpatient management of hypertension in the child or adolescent, utilizing representative cases to illustrate important principles as well as possible controversies.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
go back to reference Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT Jr, Roccella EJ, Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee (2003) The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. J Am Med Assoc 289:2560–2572CrossRef Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT Jr, Roccella EJ, Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee (2003) The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. J Am Med Assoc 289:2560–2572CrossRef
2.
go back to reference National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents (2005) The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. National heart, lung, and blood institute, Bethesda, Maryland. National institute of health, NIH publication 05:5267 National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents (2005) The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. National heart, lung, and blood institute, Bethesda, Maryland. National institute of health, NIH publication 05:5267
3.
go back to reference Stergiou GS, Yiannes NJ, Rarra VC, Alamara CV (2005) White-coat hypertension and masked hypertension in children. Blood Press Monit 10:297–300PubMedCrossRef Stergiou GS, Yiannes NJ, Rarra VC, Alamara CV (2005) White-coat hypertension and masked hypertension in children. Blood Press Monit 10:297–300PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference Flynn JT, Daniels SR (2006) Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents. J Pediatr 149:746–754PubMedCrossRef Flynn JT, Daniels SR (2006) Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents. J Pediatr 149:746–754PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group (2002) Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs. diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). J Am Med Assoc 288:2981–2997CrossRef ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group (2002) Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs. diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). J Am Med Assoc 288:2981–2997CrossRef
6.
go back to reference Laos C, Metzl JD (2006) Performance-enhancing drug use in young athletes. Adolesc Med Clin 17:719–731PubMed Laos C, Metzl JD (2006) Performance-enhancing drug use in young athletes. Adolesc Med Clin 17:719–731PubMed
7.
go back to reference American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness (1997) Adolescents and anabolic steroids: a subject review. Pediatrics 99:904–908CrossRef American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness (1997) Adolescents and anabolic steroids: a subject review. Pediatrics 99:904–908CrossRef
8.
go back to reference Gaziano JM (2006) Nonnarcotic analgesics and hypertension. Am J Cardiol 97 [Suppl]:10E–16ECrossRef Gaziano JM (2006) Nonnarcotic analgesics and hypertension. Am J Cardiol 97 [Suppl]:10E–16ECrossRef
9.
go back to reference Chasan-Taber L, Willett WC, Manson JE, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, Curhan G, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ (1996) Prospective study of oral contraceptives and hypertension among women in the United States. Circulation 94:483–489PubMedCrossRef Chasan-Taber L, Willett WC, Manson JE, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, Curhan G, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ (1996) Prospective study of oral contraceptives and hypertension among women in the United States. Circulation 94:483–489PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Paridon SM, Alpert BS, Boas SR, Cabrera ME, Caldarera LL, Daniels SR, Kimball TR, Knilans TK, Nixon PA, Rhodes J, Yetman AT (2006) Clinical stress testing in the pediatric age group: a statement from the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in Youth. Circulation 113:1905–1920PubMedCrossRef Paridon SM, Alpert BS, Boas SR, Cabrera ME, Caldarera LL, Daniels SR, Kimball TR, Knilans TK, Nixon PA, Rhodes J, Yetman AT (2006) Clinical stress testing in the pediatric age group: a statement from the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in Youth. Circulation 113:1905–1920PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Pescatello LS, Franklin BA, Fagard R, Farquhar WB, Kelley GA, Ray CA (2004) American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: exercise and hypertension. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:533–553PubMedCrossRef Pescatello LS, Franklin BA, Fagard R, Farquhar WB, Kelley GA, Ray CA (2004) American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: exercise and hypertension. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:533–553PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Kaplan NM, Gidding SS, Pickering TG, Wright JT (2005) Task force 5: systemic hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 45:1346–1348PubMedCrossRef Kaplan NM, Gidding SS, Pickering TG, Wright JT (2005) Task force 5: systemic hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 45:1346–1348PubMedCrossRef
13.
go back to reference Mitchell JH, Haskell W, Snell P, Van Camp SP (2005) Task Force 8: classification of sports. J Am Coll Cardiol 45:1364–1367PubMedCrossRef Mitchell JH, Haskell W, Snell P, Van Camp SP (2005) Task Force 8: classification of sports. J Am Coll Cardiol 45:1364–1367PubMedCrossRef
14.
go back to reference Alpert BS (2000) Exercise as a therapy to control hypertension in children. Int J Sports Med 21[suppl 2]:S 94–S 97CrossRef Alpert BS (2000) Exercise as a therapy to control hypertension in children. Int J Sports Med 21[suppl 2]:S 94–S 97CrossRef
15.
go back to reference Liebson PR, Devereux RB, Horan MJ (1987) Hypertension research: echocardiography in the measurement of left ventricular wall mass. Hypertension 9(2 Pt 2):II-2–II-5 Liebson PR, Devereux RB, Horan MJ (1987) Hypertension research: echocardiography in the measurement of left ventricular wall mass. Hypertension 9(2 Pt 2):II-2–II-5
16.
19.
go back to reference Alpert BS (1999) Exercise in hypertensive children and adolescents: any harm done? Pediatr Cardiol 20:66–69PubMedCrossRef Alpert BS (1999) Exercise in hypertensive children and adolescents: any harm done? Pediatr Cardiol 20:66–69PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness (1997) Athletic participation by children and adolescents who have systemic hypertension. Pediatrics 99:637–638CrossRef American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness (1997) Athletic participation by children and adolescents who have systemic hypertension. Pediatrics 99:637–638CrossRef
21.
go back to reference Cava JR, Danduran MJ, Fedderly RT, Sayger PL (2004) Exercise recommendations and risk factors for sudden cardiac death. Pediatr Clin North Am 51:1401–1420PubMedCrossRef Cava JR, Danduran MJ, Fedderly RT, Sayger PL (2004) Exercise recommendations and risk factors for sudden cardiac death. Pediatr Clin North Am 51:1401–1420PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Haykowsky MJ, Findlay JM, Ignaszewski AP (1996) Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage associated with weight training: three case reports. Clin J Sport Med 6:52–55PubMedCrossRef Haykowsky MJ, Findlay JM, Ignaszewski AP (1996) Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage associated with weight training: three case reports. Clin J Sport Med 6:52–55PubMedCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, Dudley JA, Dyer S, Gideon PS, Hall K, Ray WA (2006) Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Eng J Med 354:2443–2451CrossRef Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, Dudley JA, Dyer S, Gideon PS, Hall K, Ray WA (2006) Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Eng J Med 354:2443–2451CrossRef
24.
go back to reference Schaefer C (2003) Angiotensin II-receptor-antagonists: further evidence of fetotoxicity but not teratogenicity. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 67:591–594PubMedCrossRef Schaefer C (2003) Angiotensin II-receptor-antagonists: further evidence of fetotoxicity but not teratogenicity. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 67:591–594PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Fivush BA, Jabs K, Neu AM, Sullivan EK, Feld L, Kohaut E, Fine R (1998) Chronic renal insufficiency in children and adolescents: the 1996 annual report of NAPRTCS. North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study. Pediatr Nephrol 12:328–337PubMedCrossRef Fivush BA, Jabs K, Neu AM, Sullivan EK, Feld L, Kohaut E, Fine R (1998) Chronic renal insufficiency in children and adolescents: the 1996 annual report of NAPRTCS. North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study. Pediatr Nephrol 12:328–337PubMedCrossRef
27.
go back to reference Flynn J, Pierce C, Mitsnefes M, Cole S, Parekh R, Saland J, Blydt-Hansen T, Furth S, Warady B (2007) Blood pressure (BP) in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD): preliminary findings from the chronic kidney disease in children (CKiD) cohort study (abstract). E-PAS 2007:61:7920.4 Available at: https://doi.org/www.abstracts2view.com/pas Flynn J, Pierce C, Mitsnefes M, Cole S, Parekh R, Saland J, Blydt-Hansen T, Furth S, Warady B (2007) Blood pressure (BP) in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD): preliminary findings from the chronic kidney disease in children (CKiD) cohort study (abstract). E-PAS 2007:61:7920.4 Available at: https://​doi.​org/​www.​abstracts2view.​com/​pas
28.
go back to reference Mitsnefes MM, Kimball TR, Daniels SR (2003) Office and ambulatory blood pressure elevation in children with chronic renal failure. Pediatr Nephrol 18:145–149CrossRefPubMed Mitsnefes MM, Kimball TR, Daniels SR (2003) Office and ambulatory blood pressure elevation in children with chronic renal failure. Pediatr Nephrol 18:145–149CrossRefPubMed
29.
go back to reference Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE, Eknoyan G, Foley RN, Kasiske BL, Klag MJ, Mailloux LU, Manske CL, Meyer KB, Parfrey PS, Pfeffer MA, Wenger NK, Wilson PW, Wright JT Jr (1998) Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: what do we know? What do we need to learn? Where do we go from here? National Kidney Foundation Task Force on Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Kidney Dis 32:853–906PubMedCrossRef Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE, Eknoyan G, Foley RN, Kasiske BL, Klag MJ, Mailloux LU, Manske CL, Meyer KB, Parfrey PS, Pfeffer MA, Wenger NK, Wilson PW, Wright JT Jr (1998) Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: what do we know? What do we need to learn? Where do we go from here? National Kidney Foundation Task Force on Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Kidney Dis 32:853–906PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Flynn JT (2006) Cardiovascular disease in children with chronic renal failure. Growth Horm IGF Res 16:S84–S90PubMedCrossRef Flynn JT (2006) Cardiovascular disease in children with chronic renal failure. Growth Horm IGF Res 16:S84–S90PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI) (2004) Clinical practice guidelines on hypertension and antihypertensive agents in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 43 [5 Suppl 1]:S42–S64 Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI) (2004) Clinical practice guidelines on hypertension and antihypertensive agents in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 43 [5 Suppl 1]:S42–S64
32.
go back to reference Parekh RS, Carroll CE, Wolfe RA, Port FK (2002) Cardiovascular mortality in children and young adults with end-stage kidney disease. J Pediatr 141:191–197PubMedCrossRef Parekh RS, Carroll CE, Wolfe RA, Port FK (2002) Cardiovascular mortality in children and young adults with end-stage kidney disease. J Pediatr 141:191–197PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Chavers BM, Li S, Collins AJ, Herzog CA (2002) Cardiovascular disease in pediatric chronic dialysis patients. Kidney Int 62:648–653PubMedCrossRef Chavers BM, Li S, Collins AJ, Herzog CA (2002) Cardiovascular disease in pediatric chronic dialysis patients. Kidney Int 62:648–653PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Chavers BM, Herzog CA (2004) The spectrum of cardiovascular disease in children with predialysis chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 11:319–327PubMedCrossRef Chavers BM, Herzog CA (2004) The spectrum of cardiovascular disease in children with predialysis chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 11:319–327PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference Peterson JC, Adler S, Burkart JM, Greene T, Herbert LA, Hunsicker LG, King AJ, Klahr S, Massry SG, Seifter LJ (1995) Blood pressure control, proteinuria, and the progression of renal disease. The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study. Ann Intern Med 123:754–762PubMedCrossRef Peterson JC, Adler S, Burkart JM, Greene T, Herbert LA, Hunsicker LG, King AJ, Klahr S, Massry SG, Seifter LJ (1995) Blood pressure control, proteinuria, and the progression of renal disease. The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study. Ann Intern Med 123:754–762PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Mitsnefes M, Ho PL, McEnery PT (2003) Hypertension and progression of chronic renal insufficiency in children: a report of the North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study (NAPRTCS). J Am Soc Nephrol 14:2618–2622CrossRefPubMed Mitsnefes M, Ho PL, McEnery PT (2003) Hypertension and progression of chronic renal insufficiency in children: a report of the North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study (NAPRTCS). J Am Soc Nephrol 14:2618–2622CrossRefPubMed
38.
go back to reference Shatat IF, Flynn JT (2005) Hypertension in children with chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 12:378–384PubMedCrossRef Shatat IF, Flynn JT (2005) Hypertension in children with chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 12:378–384PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Wuhl E, Mehls O, Schaefer F, ESCAPE Trial Group (2004) Antihypertensive and antiproteinuric efficacy of ramipril in children with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 66:768–776PubMedCrossRef Wuhl E, Mehls O, Schaefer F, ESCAPE Trial Group (2004) Antihypertensive and antiproteinuric efficacy of ramipril in children with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 66:768–776PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Ellis D, Moritz ML, Vats A, Janosky JE (2004) Antihypertensive and renoprotective efficacy and safety of losartan; a long-term study in children with renal disorders. Am J Hypertens 17:928–935PubMed Ellis D, Moritz ML, Vats A, Janosky JE (2004) Antihypertensive and renoprotective efficacy and safety of losartan; a long-term study in children with renal disorders. Am J Hypertens 17:928–935PubMed
41.
go back to reference Nakao N, Yoshimura A, Morita H, Takada M, Kayano T, Ideura T (2003) Combination treatment of angiotensin-II receptor blocker and angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor in non-diabetic renal disease (COOPERATE): a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 361:117–124CrossRefPubMed Nakao N, Yoshimura A, Morita H, Takada M, Kayano T, Ideura T (2003) Combination treatment of angiotensin-II receptor blocker and angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor in non-diabetic renal disease (COOPERATE): a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 361:117–124CrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Russo D, Minutolo R, Pisani A, Esposito R, Signoriello G, Andreucci M, Balletta MM (2001) Coadministration of losartan and enalapril exerts additive antiproteinuric effect in IgA nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis 38:18–25PubMedCrossRef Russo D, Minutolo R, Pisani A, Esposito R, Signoriello G, Andreucci M, Balletta MM (2001) Coadministration of losartan and enalapril exerts additive antiproteinuric effect in IgA nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis 38:18–25PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Ellis D (2002) Combined use of enalapril and losartan to reduce proteinuria: a question of safety. Am J Kidney Dis 39:209–211PubMedCrossRef Ellis D (2002) Combined use of enalapril and losartan to reduce proteinuria: a question of safety. Am J Kidney Dis 39:209–211PubMedCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Sarafidis PA, Khosla N, Bakris GL (2007) Antihypertensive therapy in the presence of proteinuria. Am J Kidney Dis 49:12–26PubMedCrossRef Sarafidis PA, Khosla N, Bakris GL (2007) Antihypertensive therapy in the presence of proteinuria. Am J Kidney Dis 49:12–26PubMedCrossRef
45.
go back to reference Kaito H, Nozu K, Iijima K, Nakanishi K, Yoshiya K, Kanda K, Przybyslaw Krol R, Yoshikawa N, Matsuo M (2006) The effect of aldosterone blockade in patients with Alport syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 21:1824–1829PubMedCrossRef Kaito H, Nozu K, Iijima K, Nakanishi K, Yoshiya K, Kanda K, Przybyslaw Krol R, Yoshikawa N, Matsuo M (2006) The effect of aldosterone blockade in patients with Alport syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 21:1824–1829PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Gashti CN, Bakris GL (2004) The role of calcium antagonists in chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 13:155–161PubMedCrossRef Gashti CN, Bakris GL (2004) The role of calcium antagonists in chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 13:155–161PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Woroniecki RP, Flynn JT (2005) How are hypertensive children evaluated and managed? A survey of North American pediatric nephrologists. Pediatr Nephrol 20:791–797CrossRefPubMed Woroniecki RP, Flynn JT (2005) How are hypertensive children evaluated and managed? A survey of North American pediatric nephrologists. Pediatr Nephrol 20:791–797CrossRefPubMed
49.
go back to reference Speiser PW, Rudolf MC, Anhalt H, Camacho-Hubner C, Chiarelli F, Eliakim A, Freemark M, Gruters A, Hershkovitz E, Iughetti L, Krude H, Latzer Y, Lustig RH, Pescovitz OH, Pinhas-Hamiel O, Rogol AD, Shalitin S, Sultan C, Stein D, Vardi P, Werther GA, Zadik Z, Zuckerman-Levin N, Hochberg Z, Obesity Consensus Working Group (2005) Childhood obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:1871–1887PubMedCrossRef Speiser PW, Rudolf MC, Anhalt H, Camacho-Hubner C, Chiarelli F, Eliakim A, Freemark M, Gruters A, Hershkovitz E, Iughetti L, Krude H, Latzer Y, Lustig RH, Pescovitz OH, Pinhas-Hamiel O, Rogol AD, Shalitin S, Sultan C, Stein D, Vardi P, Werther GA, Zadik Z, Zuckerman-Levin N, Hochberg Z, Obesity Consensus Working Group (2005) Childhood obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:1871–1887PubMedCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Sorof JM, Lai D, Turner J, Poffenbarger T, Portman RJ (2004) Overweight, ethnicity, and the prevalence of hypertension in school-aged children. Pediatrics 113:475–482CrossRefPubMed Sorof JM, Lai D, Turner J, Poffenbarger T, Portman RJ (2004) Overweight, ethnicity, and the prevalence of hypertension in school-aged children. Pediatrics 113:475–482CrossRefPubMed
51.
go back to reference Flynn JT (2005) Hypertension in childhood and adolescence. In: Kaplan NM (ed) Kaplan’s clinical hypertension, 9th edn. Lippincott-Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 465–488 Flynn JT (2005) Hypertension in childhood and adolescence. In: Kaplan NM (ed) Kaplan’s clinical hypertension, 9th edn. Lippincott-Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 465–488
52.
go back to reference Landsberg L (2001) Insulin-mediated sympathetic stimulation: role in the pathogenesis of obesity-related hypertension (or, how insulin affects blood pressure, and why). J Hypertens 19:523–528PubMedCrossRef Landsberg L (2001) Insulin-mediated sympathetic stimulation: role in the pathogenesis of obesity-related hypertension (or, how insulin affects blood pressure, and why). J Hypertens 19:523–528PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference Rahmouni K, Haynes WG (2004) Leptin and the cardiovascular system. Recent Prog Horm Res 59:225–244PubMedCrossRef Rahmouni K, Haynes WG (2004) Leptin and the cardiovascular system. Recent Prog Horm Res 59:225–244PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference Sorof JM, Poffenbarger T, Franco K, Bernard L, Portman RJ (2002) Isolated systolic hypertension, obesity, and hyperkinetic hemodynamic states in children. J Pediatr 140:660–666PubMedCrossRef Sorof JM, Poffenbarger T, Franco K, Bernard L, Portman RJ (2002) Isolated systolic hypertension, obesity, and hyperkinetic hemodynamic states in children. J Pediatr 140:660–666PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Schillaci G, Pirro M, Vaudo G, Gemelli F, Marchesi S, Porcellati C, Mannarino E (2004) Prognostic value of the metabolic syndrome in essential hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 43:1817–1822PubMedCrossRef Schillaci G, Pirro M, Vaudo G, Gemelli F, Marchesi S, Porcellati C, Mannarino E (2004) Prognostic value of the metabolic syndrome in essential hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 43:1817–1822PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Jones KL (2006) The dilemma of the metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents: disease or distraction? Pediatr Diabetes 7:311–321PubMedCrossRef Jones KL (2006) The dilemma of the metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents: disease or distraction? Pediatr Diabetes 7:311–321PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Litwin M, Śladowska J, Antoniewicz J, Niemirska A, Wierzbicka A, Daszkowska J, Wawer ZT, Janas R, Grenda R (2007) Metabolic abnormalities, insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome in children with primary hypertension. Am J Hypertens 20:875–882PubMedCrossRef Litwin M, Śladowska J, Antoniewicz J, Niemirska A, Wierzbicka A, Daszkowska J, Wawer ZT, Janas R, Grenda R (2007) Metabolic abnormalities, insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome in children with primary hypertension. Am J Hypertens 20:875–882PubMedCrossRef
59.
go back to reference Monzavi R, Dreimane D, Geffner ME, Braun S, Conrad B, Klier M, Kaufman FR (2006) Improvement in risk factors for metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance in overweight youth who are treated with lifestyle intervention. Pediatrics 117:e1111–e1118PubMedCrossRef Monzavi R, Dreimane D, Geffner ME, Braun S, Conrad B, Klier M, Kaufman FR (2006) Improvement in risk factors for metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance in overweight youth who are treated with lifestyle intervention. Pediatrics 117:e1111–e1118PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Chen AK, Roberts CK, Barnard RJ (2006) Effect of a short-term diet and exercise intervention on metabolic syndrome in overweight children. Metabolism 55:871–878PubMedCrossRef Chen AK, Roberts CK, Barnard RJ (2006) Effect of a short-term diet and exercise intervention on metabolic syndrome in overweight children. Metabolism 55:871–878PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, Nathan DM, Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (2002) Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 346:393–403PubMedCrossRef Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, Nathan DM, Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (2002) Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 346:393–403PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Puri M, Flynn JT (2006) Management of hypertension in children and adolescents with the metabolic syndrome. J Cardiometab Syndr 1:259–268PubMedCrossRef Puri M, Flynn JT (2006) Management of hypertension in children and adolescents with the metabolic syndrome. J Cardiometab Syndr 1:259–268PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Mason JM, Dickinson HO, Nicolson DJ, Campbell F, Ford GA, Williams B (2005) The diabetogenic potential of thiazide-type diuretic and beta-blocker combinations in patients with hypertension. J Hypertens 23:1777–1781PubMedCrossRef Mason JM, Dickinson HO, Nicolson DJ, Campbell F, Ford GA, Williams B (2005) The diabetogenic potential of thiazide-type diuretic and beta-blocker combinations in patients with hypertension. J Hypertens 23:1777–1781PubMedCrossRef
64.
go back to reference Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kahonen M, Taittonen L, Laitinen T, Maki-Torkko N, Jarvisalo MJ, Uhari M, Jokinen E, Ronnemaa T, Akerblom HK, Viikari JS (2003) Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. J Am Med Assoc 290:2277–2283CrossRef Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kahonen M, Taittonen L, Laitinen T, Maki-Torkko N, Jarvisalo MJ, Uhari M, Jokinen E, Ronnemaa T, Akerblom HK, Viikari JS (2003) Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. J Am Med Assoc 290:2277–2283CrossRef
65.
go back to reference Flynn JT (2006) What is the significance of increased carotid intima media thickness in hypertensive adolescents? Hypertension 48:23–24PubMedCrossRef Flynn JT (2006) What is the significance of increased carotid intima media thickness in hypertensive adolescents? Hypertension 48:23–24PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents
Authors
Marc B. Lande
Joseph T. Flynn
Publication date
01-10-2009
Publisher
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in
Pediatric Nephrology / Issue 10/2009
Print ISSN: 0931-041X
Electronic ISSN: 1432-198X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-007-0573-4

Other articles of this Issue 10/2009

Pediatric Nephrology 10/2009 Go to the issue