Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Journal of the International AIDS Society
Published in: Journal of the International AIDS Society 1/2011

Open Access 01-12-2011 | Review

HIV and incarceration: prisons and detention

Authors: Ralf Jürgens, Manfred Nowak, Marcus Day

Published in: Journal of the International AIDS Society | Issue 1/2011

Login to get access

Abstract

The high prevalence of HIV infection among prisoners and pre-trial detainees, combined with overcrowding and sub-standard living conditions sometimes amounting to inhuman or degrading treatment in violation of international law, make prisons and other detention centres a high risk environment for the transmission of HIV. Ultimately, this contributes to HIV epidemics in the communities to which prisoners return upon their release.
We reviewed the evidence regarding HIV prevalence, risk behaviours and transmission in prisons. We also reviewed evidence of the effectiveness of interventions and approaches to reduce the risk behaviours and, consequently, HIV transmission in prisons.
A large number of studies report high levels of risk behaviour in prisons, and HIV transmission has been documented. There is a large body of evidence from countries around the world of what prison systems can do to prevent HIV transmission. In particular, condom distribution programmes, accompanied by measures to prevent the occurrence of rape and other forms of non-consensual sex, needle and syringe programmes and opioid substitution therapies, have proven effective at reducing HIV risk behaviours in a wide range of prison environments without resulting in negative consequences for the health of prison staff or prisoners.
The introduction of these programmes in prisons is therefore warranted as part of comprehensive programmes to address HIV in prisons, including HIV education, voluntary HIV testing and counselling, and provision of antiretroviral treatment for HIV-positive prisoners. In addition, however, action to reduce overcrowding and improve conditions in detention is urgently needed.
Literature
1.
Nowak M: Fact-finding on torture and ill-treatment and conditions of detention. J Human Rights Practice 2009,1(1):101–119.CrossRef
2.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Denmark. UN Doc. A/HRC/10/44/Add.2; 18 February 2009
3.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Nepal. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/6/Add.5; 9 January 2006
4.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Equatorial Guinea. UN Doc. A/HRC/13/39/Add.4; 7 January 2010
5.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Sri Lanka. UN Doc. A/HRC/7/3/Add.6; 26 February 2008
6.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Jordan. UN Doc. A/HRC/4/33/Add.3; 5 January 2007
7.
8.
9.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Nigeria. UN Doc. A/HRC/7/3/Add.4; 22 November 2007
10.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Paraguay. UN Doc. A/HRC/7/3/Add.3; 1 October 2007
11.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Uruguay. UN Doc. A/HRC/13/39/Add.2; 21 December 2009
12.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Mongolia. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/6/Add.4; 20 December 2005
13.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Georgia. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/6/Add.3; 23 September 2005
14.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to Moldova. UN Doc. A/HRC/10/44/Add.3; 12 February 2009
15.
UN Special Rapporteur on Torture: Mission to China. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/6/Add.6; 10 March 2006
16.
Interim report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. UN Doc. A/64/215; 3 August 2009, para. 39
17.
Dolan J, Kite B, Aceijas C, Stimson GV: HIV in prison in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet Infect Dis 2007, 7:32–43.PubMedCrossRef
18.
WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS: Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Comprehensive review (Evidence for Action Technical Paper). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
19.
Macalino GE, Hou JC, Kumar MS, Taylor LE, Sumantera IG, Rich JD: Hepatitis C infection and incarcerated populations. International Journal of Drug Policy 2004, 15:103–114.CrossRef
20.
Jürgens R, Ball A, Verster A: Interventions to reduce HIV transmission related to injecting drug use in prison. Lancet Infect Dis 2009, 9:57–66.PubMedCrossRef
21.
Reindollar RW: Hepatitis C and the correctional population. American Journal of Medicine 1999,107(6B):100S-103S.PubMedCrossRef
22.
Bird A, Gore S, Burns S: Study of infection with HIV and related risk factors in young offenders' institution. BMJ 1993, 307:228–231.PubMedCrossRef
23.
Glass G, Hausler WJ, Loeffelholz PL, Yesalis CE: Seroprevalence of HIV antibody among individuals entering the Iowa prison system. American Journal of Public Health 1988,78(4):447–449.PubMedCrossRef
24.
Martin V, Bayas IM, Laliga A: Seroepidemiology of HIV-1 infection in a Catalonian penitentiary. AIDS 1990, 4:1023–1026.PubMedCrossRef
25.
Vlahov D, Brewer TF, Castro KG: Prevalence of antibody to HIV-1 among entrants to US correctional facilities. Journal of the American Medical Association 1991, 265:1129–32.PubMedCrossRef
26.
Estebanez P: Prevalence and risk factors for HIV infection among inmates. IV International Conference on AIDS, 1988; Stockholm, Sweden Abstract no 4202
27.
Truman BI, Morse D, Mikl J: HIV seroprevalence and risk factors among prison inmates entering New York State Prisons. IV International Conference on AIDS, 1988; Stockholm Abstract no 4207
28.
Poulin C, Alary M, Lambert G, Godin G, Landry S, Gagnon H, Demers E, Morarescu E, Rochefort J, Claessens C: Prevalence of HIV and hepatitis C virus infections among inmates of Quebec provincial prisons. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2007, 177:252–256.PubMedCrossRef
29.
Calzavara L, Ramuscak L, Burchell AN, Swantee C, Myers T, Ford P, Fearon M, Raymond S: Prevalence of HIV and hepatitis C virus infections among inmates of Ontario remand facilities. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2007, 177:257–261.PubMedCrossRef
30.
Maruschak L: HIV in prisons, 2007–08. Washington: US Department of Justice; 2009.
31.
Jürgens R, Csete J, Amon JA, Baral S, Beyrer C: People who use drugs, HIV, and human rights. The Lancet 2010,376(9739):475–485.CrossRef
32.
Dolan J, Kite B, Aceijas C, Stimson GV: HIV in prison in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet Infect Dis 2007, 7:32–43.PubMedCrossRef
33.
Nagaraj SG, Sarvade M, Muthanna L, Raju R, Aju S, Sarvade NM: HIV seroprevalence and prevalent attitudes amongst the prisoners: A case study in Mysore, Karnataka state India. In XIII International AIDS Conference, July 2000. Durban, South Africa;
34.
Simooya OO, Sanjobo N, Kaetano L, Sijumbila G, Munkonze F, Tailoka F, Musonda R: "Behind walls": a study of HIV risk behaviours and seroprevalence in prisons in Zambia. AIDS 2001, 15:1741–1744.PubMedCrossRef
35.
Macalino GE, Hou JC, Kumar MS, Taylor LE, Sumantera IG, Rich JD: Hepatitis C infection and incarcerated populations. International Journal of Drug Policy 2004, 15:103–114.CrossRef
36.
Spaulding AC, Weinbaum CM, Lau DT, Sterling R, Seeff LB, Margolis HS, Hoofnagle JH: A framework for management of hepatitis C in prisons. Annals of Internal Medicine 2006,144(10):762–769.PubMed
37.
38.
Singh S, Prasad R, Mohanty A: High prevalence of sexually transmitted and blood-borne infections amongst the inmates of a district jail in Northern India. International Journal of STD & AIDS 1999,10(7):475–478.CrossRef
39.
Health Canada - Public Health Agency of Canada: Hepatitis C Virus Transmission in the Prison/Inmate Population. Canada Communicable Disease Report 2004,30(16):141–148.
40.
Pallas JR, Fariñnas-Álvarez, C, Prieto D, Llorca J, Delgado-Rodríguez M: Risk factors for monoinfections and coinfections with HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses in northern Spanish prisoners. Epidemiol Infect 1999, 123:95–102.PubMedCrossRef
41.
Veen J: Tuberculosis control in prisons. In Health in Prisons - A WHO Guide to the Essentials in Prison Health. Copenhagen: WHO; 2007.
42.
Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance and International Committee of the Red CrossGuidelines for Control of Tuberculosis in Prisons 2009.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
US National Commission on AIDS: Report: HIV Disease in Correctional Facilities. Washington, DC: The Commission; 1991.
48.
Disease control in North West RussiaPrison Healthcare News 2003, 4:6.
49.
Ball A: Multi-centre Study on Drug Injecting and Risk of HIV Infection: a report prepared on behalf of the international collaborative group for World Health Organization Programme on Substance Abuse. Geneva: WHO; 1995.
50.
Beyrer C, Jittiwutikarn J, Teokul W: Drug use, increasing incarceration rates, and prison-associated HIV risks in Thailand. AIDS and Behavior 2003,7(2):153–161.PubMedCrossRef
51.
Gore SM, Bird AG, Burns SM, Goldberg DJ, Ross JA: Drug injection and HIV prevalence in inmates of Glenochil Prison. British Medical Journal 1995, 310:293–296.PubMedCrossRef
52.
Plourde C, Brochu S: Drugs in prison: a break in the pathway. Substance Use Misuse 2002, 37:47–63.PubMedCrossRef
53.
Hughes RA, Huby M: Life in prison: Perspectives of drug injectors. Deviant Behavior 2000,21(5):451–479.CrossRef
54.
Chu S, Peddle K: Under the skin: A people's case for prison needle and syringe programs. Toronto: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network; 2010.
55.
56.
DiCenso A, Dias G, Gahagan J: Unlocking Our Futures: A National Study on Women, Prisons HIV, and Hepatitis C. Toronto: PASAN; 2003.
57.
Elwood Martin R, Gold F, Murphy W, Remple V, Berkowitz J: Drug use and risk of bloodborne infections: A survey of female prisoners in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2005,96(2):97–101.
58.
Rowhani-Rahbar A, Tabatabee-Yazdi A, Panahi M: Prevalence of common blood-borne infections among imprisoned injection drug users in Mashhad, North-East Iran. Archives of Iranian Medicine 2004,7(3):190–194.
59.
Frost L, Tchertkov V: Prisoner risk taking in the Russian Federation. AIDS Education and Prevention 2002,14(Suppl B):7–23.PubMedCrossRef
60.
Drobniewski FA, Balabanova YM, Ruddy MC, Graham C, Kuznetzov SI, Gusarova GI, Zakharova SM, Melentyev AS, Fedorin IM: Tuberculosis, HIV seroprevalence and intravenous drug abuse in prisoners. Eur Respir J 2005,26(2):298–304.PubMedCrossRef
61.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime & Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network: Accessibility of HIV Prevention, Treatment and Care Services for People who Use Drugs and Incarcerated People in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan: Legislative and Policy Analysis and Recommendations for Reform. Ashgabat: UNODC Regional Office for Central Asia; 2010.
62.
Godinho J: Reversing the Tide: Priorities for HIV/AIDS Prevention in Central Asia. >Washington: The World Bank; 2005.
63.
Cravioto P, Medina-Mora ME, de la Rosa B, Galván F, Tapia-Conyer R: Patterns of heroin consumption in a jail on the northern Mexican border: barriers to treatment access. Salud Publica de Mexico 2003, 45:181–190.PubMedCrossRef
64.
Adjei AA, Armah HB, Gbagbo F, Ampofo WK, Quaye IKE, Hesse IFA, Mensah G: Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and syphilis among prison inmates and officers at Nsawam and Accra, Ghana. Journal of Medical Microbiology 2006, 55:593–597.PubMedCrossRef
65.
Pearson M: Voluntary screening for hepatitis C in a Canadian federal penitentiary for men. Canadian Communicable Disease Report 1995,21(14):F4-F5.
66.
Rotily M, Weilandt C, Bird SM, Kall K, Van Haastrecht HJA, Landolo E, Rousseau S: Surveillance of HIV infection and related risk behaviour in European prisons. A multicentre pilot study. Eur J Public Health 2001,11(3):243–250.PubMedCrossRef
67.
Strang J, Heuston J, Gossop M, Green J, Maden T: HIV/AIDS risk behaviour among adult male prisoners (Research Findings No. 82). London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate; 1998.
68.
Simooya O, Sanjobo N: Study in Zambia showed that robust response is needed in prisons. British Medical Journal 2002, 324:850. (6 April)PubMedCrossRef
69.
Marins JR, Page-Shafer K, Berti de Azevedo Barros M, Hudes ES, Chen S, Hearst N: Seroprevalence and risk factors for HIV infection among incarcerated men in Sorocaba, Brazil. AIDS and Behavior 2000,4(1):121–128.CrossRef
70.
Correctional Service Canada: 1995 National Inmate Survey: Final Report. Ottawa: CSC (Correctional Research and Development), No SR-02; 1996.
71.
Albov AP, Issaev DD: Ministry of Internal Affairs, Dep. of Reformatory Affairs, St. Petersburg, Russia: Homosexual contacts among male prison inmates in Russia. Int Conf AIDS 1994,10(2):53. Aug 7–12
72.
Butler T, Milner L: The 2001 inmate health survey. Sydney: NSW Corrections Health Service; 2001.
73.
Zachariah R, Harries AD, Chantulo AS, Yaddi AE, Nkhoma W, Maganga O: Sexually transmitted infections among prison inmates in a rural district of Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2002,96(6):617–619.PubMedCrossRef
74.
Human Rights Watch: No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons. New York: Human Rights Watch; 2001.
75.
Observatoire international des prisons: Le guide du prisonnier. Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières; 1996.
76.
Schoub BD: AIDS and HIV in Perspective: A Guide to Understanding the Virus and its Consequences. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1995.
77.
Dolan K, Rutter S, Wodak A: Prison-based syringe exchange programs: a review of international research and development. Addiction 2003, 98:153–158.PubMedCrossRef
78.
Richardson C, Ancelle-Park R, Papaevangelou G: Factors associated with HIV seropositivity in European injecting drug users. AIDS 1993, 7:1485–1491.PubMedCrossRef
79.
Koulierakis G, Gnardellis C, Agrafiotis D, Power KG: HIV risk behaviour correlates among injecting drug users in Greek prisons. Addiction 2000,95(8):1207–16.PubMedCrossRef
80.
Davies AG, Dominy NJ, Peters A, Bath GE, Burns SM, Richardson AM: HIV and injecting drug users in Edinburgh: Prevalence and correlates. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Human-Retroviral 1995, 8:399–405.
81.
Granados A, Miranda MJ, Martin L: HIV seropositivity in Spanish prisons. In VI International AIDS Conference. San Francisco; 1990. Abstract no Th.D.116
82.
Martin V, Cayla JA, Moris ML, Alonso LE, Perez R: Predictive factors of HIV-infection in injecting drug users upon incarceration. European Journal of Epidemiology 1998,14(4):327–331.PubMedCrossRef
83.
Estebanez PE, Russel NK, Aguilar D, Beland F, Zunzunegui MV: Women, drugs and HIV/AIDS: results of a multicentre European study. International Journal of Epidemiology 2000, 29:734–43.PubMedCrossRef
84.
Heimer R: Imprisonment as risk for HIV in the Russian Federation: evidence for change. In 16th International Conference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm. Belfast; 2005.
85.
Calzavara LM, Ramuscak N, Burchell AN: Prevalence and predictors of HIV and hepatitis C in Ontario jails and detention centres. Final report. HIV Social, Behavioural, and Epidemiological Studies Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto; 2005.
86.
Hacker MA, Friedman SR, Telles PR, Teixeira SL, Bongertz V, Morgado MG, Bastos FI: The role of "long-term" and "new" injectors in a declining HIV/AIDS epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Subst Use Misuse 2005,40(1):99–123.PubMedCrossRef
87.
Zamani S, Kihara M, Gouya MM, Vazirian M, Ono-Kihara M, Razzaghi EM, Ichikawa S: Prevalence of and factors associated with HIV-1 infection among drug users visiting treatment centres in Tehran, Iran. AIDS 2005,19(7):709–716.PubMedCrossRef
88.
Choopanya K, Vanichseni S, Des ]arlais DC: Risk factors and HIV seropositivity among injecting drug users in Bangkok. AIDS 1991, 5:1509–1513.PubMedCrossRef
89.
Taylor A, Goldberg D: Outbreak of HIV infection in a Scottish prison: why did it happen? Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Newsletter 1996,2(3):13–14.
90.
Dolan K, Hall W, Wodak A, Gaughwin M: Evidence of HIV transmission in an Australian prison. Medical Journal of Australia 1994,160(11):734.PubMed
91.
Bobrik A, Danishevski K, Eroshina K, McKee M: Prison health in Russia: the larger picture. Journal of Public Health Policy 2005, 26:30–59.PubMedCrossRef
92.
MacDonald M: A Study of Health Care Provision, Existing Drug Services and Strategies Operating in Prisons in Ten Countries from Central and Eastern Europe. Finland: Heuni; 2005.
93.
Dolan K, Kite B, Black E, Lowe J, Agaliotis M, MacDonald M, Aceijas C, Stimson GV, Hickman M, Valencia G: Review of injection drug users and HIV infection in prisons in developing and transitional countries. UN Reference Group on HIV/AIDS Prevention and Care among IDUs in Developing and Transitional Countries; 2004.
94.
Krebs CP, Simmons M: Intraprison HIV transmission: an assessment of whether it occurs, how it occurs, and who is at risk. AIDS Education and Prevention 2002,14(Suppl B):53–64. (2002)PubMedCrossRef
95.
Jürgens R, Betteridge B: Prisoners who inject drugs: public health and human rights imperatives. Health & Human Rights 2005,8(2):47–74.
96.
Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners. UN GA Res. 45/111 annex, 45 UN GAOR Supp (No 49A) at 200, UN Doc A/45/49; 1990
97.
World Health Organization: WHO Guidelines on HIV Infection and AIDS in Prisons. Geneva: WHO; 1993.
98.
International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights. UNCHR Res. 1997/33, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1997/150 (1997), para. 29(e)
99.
UNODC & WHO: Policy Brief: HIV Testing and counselling in prisons and other closed settings. Vienna & Geneva: UNODC & WHO; 2009.
100.
Harding TW, Schaller G: HIV/AIDS and Prisons: Updating and Policy Review. A Survey Covering 55 Prison Systems in 31 Countries. Geneva: WHO Global Programme on AIDS; 1992.
101.
WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS: Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Prevention of sexual transmission. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
102.
WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS: Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Needle and syringe programmes and decontamination strategies. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
103.
Lines R, Jürgens R, Betteridge G, Stöver H, Latishevschi D, Nelles J: Prison Needle Exchange: A Review of International Evidence and Experience. 2nd edition. Montreal: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network; 2006.
104.
Menoyo C, Zulaica D, Parras F: Needle exchange in prisons in Spain. Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Review 2000,5(4):20–21.
105.
Stöver H: Evaluation of needle exchange pilot project shows positive results. Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Newsletter 2000,5(2/3):60–64.
106.
Hoover J, Jürgens R: Harm Reduction in Prison: The Moldova Model. New York: Open Society Institute; 2009.
107.
Normand J, Vlahov D, Moses LE: Preventing HIV transmission: the role of sterile needles and bleach. Washington DC: National Academy Press; 1995.
108.
WHO: Effectiveness of Sterile Needle and Syringe Programming in Reducing HIV/AIDS among Injecting Drug Users. Geneva: WHO; 2004.
109.
Kapadia F, Vlahov D, Des Jarlais Don C, Strathdee SA, Ouellet L, Kerndt P, Morse E, Edward V, Williams I, Garfein RS: Does bleach disinfection of syringes protect against hepatitis C infection among young adult injection drug users? Epidemiology 2002,13(6):738–741.PubMedCrossRef
110.
Hagan H, Thiede H, Weiss NS: Sharing of the drug preparation equipment as a risk factor for hepatitis C infection among young adult injection drug users? Epidemiology 2001,13(6):738–741.
111.
European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA): The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe. Annual Report 2009. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Community; 2009.
112.
Jürgens R, Cook C, Lines R: Out of sight, out of mind? Harm reduction in prisons and other places of detention. In The global state of harm reduction 2010. Edited by: Cook C. London: International Harm Reduction Association; 2010.
113.
WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS: Interventions to Address HIV in Prisons: Drug Dependence Treatments. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
114.
Black E, Dolan K, Wodak A: Supply, Demand and Harm Reduction Strategies in Australian Prisons: Implementation, Cost and Evaluation. A report prepared for the Australian National Council on Drugs. Sydney: Australian National Council on Drugs; 2004.
115.
Stöver H, Casselman J, Hennebel L: Substitution treatment in European prisons: A study of policies and practices in 18 European countries. International Journal of Prisoner Health 2006,2(1):3–12.CrossRef
116.
Zurhold H, Stöver H, Haasen C: Female Drug Users in European Prisons - Best Practice for Relapse Prevention and Reintegration. Hamburg: Centre for Interdisciplinary Addiction Research, University of Hamburg; 2004.
117.
Magura S, Rosenblum A, Lewis C, Joseph H: The effectiveness of in-jail methadone maintenance. Journal of Drug Issues 1993,23(1):75–99.
118.
Dolan K, Shearer J, White B, Zhou J, Kaldor J, Wodak A: Four-year follow-up of imprisoned male heroin users and methadone treatment: mortality, re-incarceration and hepatitis C infection. Addictions 2005,100(6):820–828.CrossRef
119.
Brooke D, Taylor C, Gunn J, Maden A: Substance misusers remanded to prison: a treatment opportunity? Addiction 1998,93(12):1851–1856.PubMedCrossRef
120.
Cohen JE, Amon JJ: Health and human rights concerns of drug users in detention in Guangxi Province, China. PLoS Med 2008,5(12):e234.PubMedCrossRef
121.
UNODC: HIV/AIDS in Prisons. A Toolkit for Policy Makers, Prison Managers and Prison Staff. Vienna: UNODC; 2008.
122.
Hughes RA: Illicit drug and injecting equipment markets inside English prisons: a qualitative study. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 2003,37(3/4):47–64.CrossRef
123.
Edgar K, O'Donnell I: Mandatory Drug Testing in Prisons: The Relationship Between MDT and the Level and Nature of Drug Misuse. (Home Office Research Study 189). London: Home Office; 1998.
124.
Singleton N, Pendry E, Taylor C, Farrell M, Marsden J: The Impact of Mandatory Drug Testing in Prisons. UK: Home Office Online Report 03/05; 2005.
125.
Scottish Prison Service: Seventh Prison Survey. Edinburgh: SPS; 2004.
126.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection-drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV in the United States. MMWR 2005,54(RR02):1–20.
127.
WHO ILO: Guidelines for the Use of Occupational and Non-occupational Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) to Prevent Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection. Geneva: WHO & ILO; 2007.
128.
Lurie P, Miller S, Hecht F, Chesney M, Lo B: Postexposure prophylaxis after nonoccupational HIV exposure: clinical ethical, and policy considerations. JAMA 1998, 280:1769–1773.PubMedCrossRef
129.
Myles JE, Hirozawa A, Katz MH, Kimmerling R, Bamberger JD: Postexposure prophylaxis for HIV after sexual assault. JAMA 2000, 284:1516–1518.PubMedCrossRef
130.
Fong C: Post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV infection after sexual assault: when is it indicated? Emerg Med J 2001, 18:242–245.PubMedCrossRef
131.
O'Sullivan B, Levy MH, Dolan KA, Post JJ, Barton SG, Dwyer DE, Kaldor JM, Grulich AE: Hepatitis C transmission and HIV post-exposure prophylaxis after needle-and syringe-sharing in Australian prisons. Medical Journal of Australia 2003,178(11):546–549.PubMed
132.
UNAIDS: HIV/AIDS in Prisons - Statement by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Geneva: UNAIDS; 1996.
133.
WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS: Interventions to Address HIV in Prisons: HIV Care, Treatment and Support. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
134.
Springer SA, Pesanti E, Hodges J, Macura T, Doros G, Altice FL: Effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected prisoners: reincarceration and the lack of sustained benefit after release to the community. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2004, 38:1754–1760.PubMedCrossRef
135.
Pontali E: Antiretroviral treatment in correctional facilities. HIV Clinical Trials 2005,6(1):25–37.PubMedCrossRef
136.
National Commission on Correctional Health Care: Administrative management of HIV in correctional institutions. [Position statement - first adopted on 8 Nov 1987; revised 9 Oct 2005]. Chicago: The Commission; 2005.
137.
Correctional Service Canada: A health care needs assessment of federal inmates in Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2004,95(suppl 1):S1-S63.
138.
Editorial: Health care for prisoners: implications of "Kalk's refusal.". The Lancet 1991, 337:647–648. March 16
139.
UNAIDS: Prisons and AIDS: UNAIDS Point of View. Geneva: UNAIDS; 1997.
140.
UNODC & UNAIDS: Women and HIV in Prison Settings. Vienna: UNODC; 2008.
141.
World Health Organization: Statement from the Consultation on Prevention and Control of AIDS in Prisons, Global Programme on AIDS. Geneva: WHO; 1987.
Metadata
Title
HIV and incarceration: prisons and detention
Authors
Ralf Jürgens
Manfred Nowak
Marcus Day
Publication date
01-12-2011
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Journal of the International AIDS Society / Issue 1/2011
Electronic ISSN: 1758-2652
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-2652-14-26

Other articles of this Issue 1/2011

Journal of the International AIDS Society 1/2011 Go to the issue

Review

HIV treatment for prevention

Research

Trends in detectable viral load by calendar year in the Australian HIV observational database

Review

What works to meet the sexual and reproductive health needs of women living with HIV/AIDS

Research

The Global Fund's resource allocation decisions for HIV programmes: addressing those in need

Research

Nutrition and inflammation serum biomarkers are associated with 12-week mortality among malnourished adults initiating antiretroviral therapy in Zambia

Commentary

Concurrency revisited: increasing and compelling epidemiological evidence
Live Webinar | 27-06-2024 | 18:00 (CEST)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Reserve your place

Live: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)

WHO estimates that half of all patients worldwide are non-adherent to their prescribed medication. The consequences of poor adherence can be catastrophic, on both the individual and population level.

Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.

Prof. Kevin Dolgin
Prof. Florian Limbourg
Prof. Anoop Chauhan
Developed by: Springer Medicine
Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

Read more

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Highlights from the ACC 2024 Congress

Year in Review: Pediatric cardiology

Pediatric Cardiology Video

Watch Dr. Anne Marie Valente present the last year's highlights in pediatric and congenital heart disease in the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Pulmonary vascular disease

Cardiopulmonary Comorbidity Video

The last year's highlights in pulmonary vascular disease are presented by Dr. Jane Leopold in this official video from ACC.24.

Year in Review: Valvular heart disease

Valvular Heart Disease Video

Watch Prof. William Zoghbi present the last year's highlights in valvular heart disease from the official ACC.24 Year in Review session.

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Heart Failure Video

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discusses last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

ACC 2024 Congress Coverage

Year in Review: Heart failure and cardiomyopathies

Heart Failure Video

Watch this official video from ACC.24. Dr. Biykem Bozkurt discusses last year's major advances in heart failure and cardiomyopathies.

Watch now

Semaglutide benefits people with type 2 diabetes and obesity-related heart failure

16-04-2024 Type 2 Diabetes News

Incentivised to exercise

11-04-2024 Lifestyle Modifications News

New intervention for STEMI-related cardiogenic shock

10-04-2024 Myocardial Infarction News

» View more highlights on the ACC 2024 congress hub page

Image Credits