Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports 9/2013

01-09-2013 | Attention-Deficit Disorder (R Bussing, Section Editor)

Globalization and Cognitive Enhancement: Emerging Social and Ethical Challenges for ADHD Clinicians

Authors: Ilina Singh, Angela M. Filipe, Imre Bard, Meredith Bergey, Lauren Baker

Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports | Issue 9/2013

Login to get access

Abstract

Globalization of ADHD and the rise of cognitive enhancement have raised fresh concerns about the validity of ADHD diagnosis and the ethics of stimulant drug treatment. We review the literature on these two emerging phenomena, with a focus on the corresponding social, scientific and ethical debates over the universality of ADHD and the use of stimulant drug treatments in a global population of children and adolescents. Drawing on this literature, we reflect on the importance of ethically informed, ecologically sensitive clinical practices in relation to ADHD diagnosis and treatment.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Conrad P. Identifying hyperactive children: The medicalization of deviant behaviour. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books; 1976. Conrad P. Identifying hyperactive children: The medicalization of deviant behaviour. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books; 1976.
2.
go back to reference Conrad P. The medicalization of society: On the transformation of human conditions into treatable disorders. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins UP;2007. Conrad P. The medicalization of society: On the transformation of human conditions into treatable disorders. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins UP;2007.
3.
go back to reference Shrag P, Divoky D. The myth of the hyperactive child and other means of child control. New York: Pantheon;1975. Shrag P, Divoky D. The myth of the hyperactive child and other means of child control. New York: Pantheon;1975.
4.
go back to reference Barkley R. Issues in the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Brain Dev. 2003;25:77–83.PubMedCrossRef Barkley R. Issues in the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Brain Dev. 2003;25:77–83.PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Malacrida C. Medicalization, Ambivalence and Social Control: Mothers’ Descriptions of Educators and ADD/ADHD. Health (London). 2004;8(1):61–80.CrossRef Malacrida C. Medicalization, Ambivalence and Social Control: Mothers’ Descriptions of Educators and ADD/ADHD. Health (London). 2004;8(1):61–80.CrossRef
6.
go back to reference Horwitz A. Creating mental illness. Chicago: Chicago UP; 2002. Horwitz A. Creating mental illness. Chicago: Chicago UP; 2002.
7.
go back to reference Sonuga-Barke EJ, Schlotz W, Kreppner J. Differentiating developmental trajectories for conduct, emotion and peer problems following early deprivation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 2010;75:102–24.PubMedCrossRef Sonuga-Barke EJ, Schlotz W, Kreppner J. Differentiating developmental trajectories for conduct, emotion and peer problems following early deprivation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 2010;75:102–24.PubMedCrossRef
9.
go back to reference Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J. ADHD and the Rise in Stimulant Use Among Children. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2008;16:151–66.PubMedCrossRef Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J. ADHD and the Rise in Stimulant Use Among Children. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2008;16:151–66.PubMedCrossRef
10.
11.
go back to reference • Parens E. On good and bad forms of medicalization. Bioethics. 2013;27(1):28–35. An important development in the medicalization debates that moves the concept on from older versions into interesting and useful new territory.PubMedCrossRef • Parens E. On good and bad forms of medicalization. Bioethics. 2013;27(1):28–35. An important development in the medicalization debates that moves the concept on from older versions into interesting and useful new territory.PubMedCrossRef
13.
go back to reference Worthman CM, Protsky PM, Schechter DS, Cummings CA. Formative experiences: The interaction of caregiving, culture and developmental biology. Cambridge, UK: CUP; 2010.CrossRef Worthman CM, Protsky PM, Schechter DS, Cummings CA. Formative experiences: The interaction of caregiving, culture and developmental biology. Cambridge, UK: CUP; 2010.CrossRef
14.
go back to reference Layard R, Dunn J. A Good Childhood. London: Penguin; 2009. Layard R, Dunn J. A Good Childhood. London: Penguin; 2009.
15.
go back to reference American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) – 5. Virginia, USA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) – 5. Virginia, USA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
16.
go back to reference Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Mental health surveillance among children- United States, 2005–2011. Atlanta, GA: US Dept of Health and Human Services; 2013. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Mental health surveillance among children- United States, 2005–2011. Atlanta, GA: US Dept of Health and Human Services; 2013.
17.
go back to reference Schwarz A, Cohen S. A.D.H.D. Seen in 11% of U.S. Children as Diagnoses Rise. The New York Times March. 2013(31). Schwarz A, Cohen S. A.D.H.D. Seen in 11% of U.S. Children as Diagnoses Rise. The New York Times March. 2013(31).
18.
go back to reference Scheffler RM, Hinshaw SP, Modrek S, Levine P. The global market for ADHD medications. Health Aff. 2007;26:450–7.CrossRef Scheffler RM, Hinshaw SP, Modrek S, Levine P. The global market for ADHD medications. Health Aff. 2007;26:450–7.CrossRef
19.
go back to reference Cornejo JW, Osio O, Sanchez Y, et al. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Columbian children and teenagers. Rev Neurol. 2005;40(12):716–22 [in Spanish].PubMed Cornejo JW, Osio O, Sanchez Y, et al. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Columbian children and teenagers. Rev Neurol. 2005;40(12):716–22 [in Spanish].PubMed
20.
go back to reference Pineda D, Ardila A, Rosselli M, et al. Prevalence of attention—deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in 4–17 year old children in the general population. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1999;27(6):455–62.PubMedCrossRef Pineda D, Ardila A, Rosselli M, et al. Prevalence of attention—deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in 4–17 year old children in the general population. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1999;27(6):455–62.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Pino P, Mojarro-Praxedes M. Hyperkinetic D disorders: double-phase epidemiological study of a population from Sevilla. An Psiquiatria. 2001;17(6):265–70 [in Spanish]. Pino P, Mojarro-Praxedes M. Hyperkinetic D disorders: double-phase epidemiological study of a population from Sevilla. An Psiquiatria. 2001;17(6):265–70 [in Spanish].
22.
go back to reference Catalá-López F, Peiró S, Ridao M, Sanfélix-Gimeno G, Gènova-Maleras R, Catalá MA. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Spain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. BMC Psychiatry. 2012; doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-12-168 Catalá-López F, Peiró S, Ridao M, Sanfélix-Gimeno G, Gènova-Maleras R, Catalá MA. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Spain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. BMC Psychiatry. 2012; doi: 10.​1186/​1471-244X-12-168
23.
go back to reference Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:942–8.PubMedCrossRef Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:942–8.PubMedCrossRef
24.
go back to reference Polanczyk G, Jensen P. Epidemiological considerations in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A review and update. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am. 2008;17:245–60.CrossRef Polanczyk G, Jensen P. Epidemiological considerations in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A review and update. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am. 2008;17:245–60.CrossRef
25.
go back to reference Gomez R, Harvey J, Quick C, et al. DSM-IV AD/HD: confirmatory factor models, prevalence, and gender and age differences based on parent and teacher ratings of Australian primary school children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999;40(2):265–74.PubMedCrossRef Gomez R, Harvey J, Quick C, et al. DSM-IV AD/HD: confirmatory factor models, prevalence, and gender and age differences based on parent and teacher ratings of Australian primary school children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999;40(2):265–74.PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Levy F, Hay DC, McStephen M, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. J Am Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(6):737–44.CrossRef Levy F, Hay DC, McStephen M, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. J Am Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(6):737–44.CrossRef
29.
go back to reference • Zuvekas S, Vitiello B. Stimulant medication use among US children: A twelve-year perspective. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(2):160–66. A careful longitudinal study showing a slowing in overall rates of stimulant medication use among US children over the twelve year period, but a worrying increase in use among adolescents.PubMedCrossRef • Zuvekas S, Vitiello B. Stimulant medication use among US children: A twelve-year perspective. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(2):160–66. A careful longitudinal study showing a slowing in overall rates of stimulant medication use among US children over the twelve year period, but a worrying increase in use among adolescents.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Timimi S, Taylor E. ADHD is best understood as a cultural construct. Br J Psychiatry. 2004;184:8–9.PubMedCrossRef Timimi S, Taylor E. ADHD is best understood as a cultural construct. Br J Psychiatry. 2004;184:8–9.PubMedCrossRef
32.
go back to reference Moffitt TE, Melchior M. Why does the worldwide prevalence of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder matter? Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(6):856–8.PubMedCrossRef Moffitt TE, Melchior M. Why does the worldwide prevalence of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder matter? Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(6):856–8.PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Amaral OB. Psychiatric disorders as social constructs: ADHD as a case in point. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:1612–3.PubMedCrossRef Amaral OB. Psychiatric disorders as social constructs: ADHD as a case in point. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:1612–3.PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Bass JK, Bolton PA, Murray LK. Do not forget culture when studying mental health. The Lancet. 2007;370(9591):918–9.CrossRef Bass JK, Bolton PA, Murray LK. Do not forget culture when studying mental health. The Lancet. 2007;370(9591):918–9.CrossRef
35.
go back to reference Watters E. Crazy like us: The globalization of the American psyche. New York: Free Press; 2010. Watters E. Crazy like us: The globalization of the American psyche. New York: Free Press; 2010.
36.
go back to reference Kirmayer L. Beyond the ‘new cross-cultural psychiatry’: Cultural biology, discursive psychology and the ironies of globalization. Transcult Psychiatry. 2006;43(1):126.PubMedCrossRef Kirmayer L. Beyond the ‘new cross-cultural psychiatry’: Cultural biology, discursive psychology and the ironies of globalization. Transcult Psychiatry. 2006;43(1):126.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Moynihan R, Doran E, Henry D. Disease mongering is now part of the global health debate. PloS Medicine. 2008;5(5):e106.PubMedCrossRef Moynihan R, Doran E, Henry D. Disease mongering is now part of the global health debate. PloS Medicine. 2008;5(5):e106.PubMedCrossRef
38.
go back to reference Dumit J. Drugs for Life: How Pharmaceutical Companies Define Our Health. Durham and London: Duke University Press; 2012. Dumit J. Drugs for Life: How Pharmaceutical Companies Define Our Health. Durham and London: Duke University Press; 2012.
44.
go back to reference Farmer P. An Anthropology of Structural Violence. Curr Anthropol. 2004;45(3). Farmer P. An Anthropology of Structural Violence. Curr Anthropol. 2004;45(3).
45.
go back to reference Canino G, Alegria M. Psychiatric diagnosis- is it universal or relative to culture? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008;49(3):237–50.PubMedCrossRef Canino G, Alegria M. Psychiatric diagnosis- is it universal or relative to culture? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008;49(3):237–50.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Wakefield JC, Pottick KJ, Kirk SA. Should the DSM-IV criteria for conduct disorder consider social context? Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:380–6.PubMedCrossRef Wakefield JC, Pottick KJ, Kirk SA. Should the DSM-IV criteria for conduct disorder consider social context? Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:380–6.PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Rohde LA, Szobot C, Polanczyk G, Schmitz M, Martins S, Tramontina S. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a Diverse Culture: Do Research and Clinical Findings Support the Notion of a Cultural Construct for the Disorder? Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:1436–41.PubMedCrossRef Rohde LA, Szobot C, Polanczyk G, Schmitz M, Martins S, Tramontina S. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a Diverse Culture: Do Research and Clinical Findings Support the Notion of a Cultural Construct for the Disorder? Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:1436–41.PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference Bronfenbrenner U. The ecology of human development. Camridge, MA: Harvard UP; 1979. Bronfenbrenner U. The ecology of human development. Camridge, MA: Harvard UP; 1979.
49.
go back to reference Merrill RM, Lyon JL, Baker RK, Gren LH. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and increased risk of injury. Advanced Medical Science. 2009;54:20–6. Merrill RM, Lyon JL, Baker RK, Gren LH. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and increased risk of injury. Advanced Medical Science. 2009;54:20–6.
50.
go back to reference Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime Prevalence and Age-of-Onset Distributions of DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593–602.PubMedCrossRef Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime Prevalence and Age-of-Onset Distributions of DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593–602.PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Fulton BD, Scheffler RM, Hinshaw SP, Levine P, Stone S, Brown TT, Modrek S. National Variation of ADHD Diagnostic Prevalence and Medication Use: Health Care Providers and Education Policies. Psychiatr Serv. 2009;60(80). Fulton BD, Scheffler RM, Hinshaw SP, Levine P, Stone S, Brown TT, Modrek S. National Variation of ADHD Diagnostic Prevalence and Medication Use: Health Care Providers and Education Policies. Psychiatr Serv. 2009;60(80).
53.
go back to reference Getahun G, Jacobsen SJ, Fassett MJ, Chen W, Demissie K, Rhoads GG. Recent Trends in Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(3):282–8.PubMedCrossRef Getahun G, Jacobsen SJ, Fassett MJ, Chen W, Demissie K, Rhoads GG. Recent Trends in Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(3):282–8.PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference Froehlich TE, Lamphear BP, Epstein JN, Barbesi WJ, Katusic SK, Kahn RS. Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a national sample of US children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161(9):857–64.PubMedCrossRef Froehlich TE, Lamphear BP, Epstein JN, Barbesi WJ, Katusic SK, Kahn RS. Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a national sample of US children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161(9):857–64.PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference Zima BT, Bussing R, Tang L, Zhang L, Ettner S, Belin TR, et al. Quality of care for childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a managed care Medicaid program. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(12):1225–37.PubMed Zima BT, Bussing R, Tang L, Zhang L, Ettner S, Belin TR, et al. Quality of care for childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a managed care Medicaid program. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(12):1225–37.PubMed
56.
go back to reference Zito JM, Safer DJ, Devadatta S, Gardner JF, Thomas D, Coombes P, et al. Pediatrics. 2008;121(1):e157–163.PubMedCrossRef Zito JM, Safer DJ, Devadatta S, Gardner JF, Thomas D, Coombes P, et al. Pediatrics. 2008;121(1):e157–163.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Morgan PL, Staff J, Hillemeier MM, Farkas G, Maczuga S. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in ADHD Diagnosis From Kindergarten to Eighth Grade. Pediatr. 2013; doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-2390 Morgan PL, Staff J, Hillemeier MM, Farkas G, Maczuga S. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in ADHD Diagnosis From Kindergarten to Eighth Grade. Pediatr. 2013; doi: 10.​1542/​peds.​2012-2390
58.
go back to reference Frazier TW, Shattuck PT, Narendorf SC, Cooper BP, Wagner M, Spiznagel EL. Prevalence and correcolates of psychotropic medication use in adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder with and without caregiver-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2011;21:571–9.PubMedCrossRef Frazier TW, Shattuck PT, Narendorf SC, Cooper BP, Wagner M, Spiznagel EL. Prevalence and correcolates of psychotropic medication use in adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder with and without caregiver-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2011;21:571–9.PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Singh I. Doing their jobs: Mothering with Ritalin in a culture of mother-blame. Soc Sci Med. 2004;59(6):1193–205.PubMedCrossRef Singh I. Doing their jobs: Mothering with Ritalin in a culture of mother-blame. Soc Sci Med. 2004;59(6):1193–205.PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Koro-Ljungberg M, Bussing R. The management of courtesy stigma in the lives of families with teenagers with ADHD. J Fam Issues. 2009;30:1175–200.CrossRef Koro-Ljungberg M, Bussing R. The management of courtesy stigma in the lives of families with teenagers with ADHD. J Fam Issues. 2009;30:1175–200.CrossRef
64.
go back to reference Frazzetto G, Keenan S, Singh I. Bambini e le droghe: The case of ADHD and Ritalin in Italy. BioSocieties. 2008;2(4):393–412.CrossRef Frazzetto G, Keenan S, Singh I. Bambini e le droghe: The case of ADHD and Ritalin in Italy. BioSocieties. 2008;2(4):393–412.CrossRef
66.
go back to reference Singh I. A disorder of anger and aggression: Children's perspectives on Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in the UK. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73:889–96.PubMedCrossRef Singh I. A disorder of anger and aggression: Children's perspectives on Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in the UK. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73:889–96.PubMedCrossRef
67.
go back to reference Bröer C, Heerings M. Neurobiology in public and private discourse: the case of adults with ADHD. Sociol Health & Ill. 2013;35(1):49–65.CrossRef Bröer C, Heerings M. Neurobiology in public and private discourse: the case of adults with ADHD. Sociol Health & Ill. 2013;35(1):49–65.CrossRef
68.
go back to reference Filipe AM. Through the looking-glass: a critical review of sociology and medicine towards the diagnosis of ADHD. Configurações. 2011;8:73–86.CrossRef Filipe AM. Through the looking-glass: a critical review of sociology and medicine towards the diagnosis of ADHD. Configurações. 2011;8:73–86.CrossRef
69.
go back to reference Edwards C, Howlett E. Putting knowledge to trial: ‘ADHD parents’ and the evaluation of alternative therapeutic regimes. Soc Sci Med. 2013;81:34–41.PubMedCrossRef Edwards C, Howlett E. Putting knowledge to trial: ‘ADHD parents’ and the evaluation of alternative therapeutic regimes. Soc Sci Med. 2013;81:34–41.PubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Ortega F. The Cerebral Subject and the Challenge of Neurodiversity. BioSocieties. 2009;4:425–45.CrossRef Ortega F. The Cerebral Subject and the Challenge of Neurodiversity. BioSocieties. 2009;4:425–45.CrossRef
72.
go back to reference Behague D. Psychiatry and Politics in Pelotas, Brazil: The Equivocal Quality of Conduct Disorder and Related Diagnoses. Med Anthropol Q. 2009;23(4):455–82.PubMedCrossRef Behague D. Psychiatry and Politics in Pelotas, Brazil: The Equivocal Quality of Conduct Disorder and Related Diagnoses. Med Anthropol Q. 2009;23(4):455–82.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Wilcox CE, Washburn R, Patel V. Seeking help for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in developing countries: a study of parental explanatory models in Goa. India Soc Sci Med. 2007;64(8):1600–10.CrossRef Wilcox CE, Washburn R, Patel V. Seeking help for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in developing countries: a study of parental explanatory models in Goa. India Soc Sci Med. 2007;64(8):1600–10.CrossRef
74.
go back to reference Bruckner TA, Hodgson A, Mahoney CB, Fulton BD, Levine P, Scheffler RM. Health care supply and county-level variation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder prescription medications. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2012;21(4):442–9. doi:10.1002/pds.2264.PubMedCrossRef Bruckner TA, Hodgson A, Mahoney CB, Fulton BD, Levine P, Scheffler RM. Health care supply and county-level variation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder prescription medications. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2012;21(4):442–9. doi:10.​1002/​pds.​2264.PubMedCrossRef
75.
go back to reference Wang PS, Berglund P, Olfson M, Pincus HA. Wells, Kessler RC. Failure and Delay in Initial Treatment Contact After First Onset of Mental Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):603–13. Wang PS, Berglund P, Olfson M, Pincus HA. Wells, Kessler RC. Failure and Delay in Initial Treatment Contact After First Onset of Mental Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):603–13.
80.
go back to reference Green JG, Gruber MJ, Kessler RC, Lin JY, McLaughlin MA, Sampson NA, et al. Diagnostic validity across racial and ethnic groups in the assssment of adolescent DSM-IV disorders. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2012;21(14):311–20.PubMedCrossRef Green JG, Gruber MJ, Kessler RC, Lin JY, McLaughlin MA, Sampson NA, et al. Diagnostic validity across racial and ethnic groups in the assssment of adolescent DSM-IV disorders. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2012;21(14):311–20.PubMedCrossRef
81.
go back to reference • Nigg J. Future directions in ADHD etiology research. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2012;41(4):524–33. Key overview of the importance of specifying environmental and historical contributions to ADHD etiology.PubMedCrossRef • Nigg J. Future directions in ADHD etiology research. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2012;41(4):524–33. Key overview of the importance of specifying environmental and historical contributions to ADHD etiology.PubMedCrossRef
82.
go back to reference Frank A. The Wounded Storyteller: Body, Illness, and Ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2010. Frank A. The Wounded Storyteller: Body, Illness, and Ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2010.
83.
go back to reference Kleinman A. Rethinking Psychiatry: from cultural category to personal experience. New York: The Free Press; 1988. Kleinman A. Rethinking Psychiatry: from cultural category to personal experience. New York: The Free Press; 1988.
84.
go back to reference Good B. Medicine, Rationality, and Experience: An Anthropological Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge UP; 1994. Good B. Medicine, Rationality, and Experience: An Anthropological Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge UP; 1994.
85.
go back to reference Singh I, Kelleher KJ. Brain enhancement in children. In: Farah M, Chatterjee A, editors. Neuroethics in Practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2013. Singh I, Kelleher KJ. Brain enhancement in children. In: Farah M, Chatterjee A, editors. Neuroethics in Practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2013.
86.
go back to reference Advokat C. What are the cognitive effects of stimulant medications? Emphasis on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuroscience & Biobehav Rev. 2010;34(8):1256–66.CrossRef Advokat C. What are the cognitive effects of stimulant medications? Emphasis on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuroscience & Biobehav Rev. 2010;34(8):1256–66.CrossRef
87.
go back to reference Hall WD, Lucke JC. The enhancement use of neuropharmaceuticals: more scepticism and caution needed. Addiction. 2010;105(12):2041–3.PubMedCrossRef Hall WD, Lucke JC. The enhancement use of neuropharmaceuticals: more scepticism and caution needed. Addiction. 2010;105(12):2041–3.PubMedCrossRef
88.
go back to reference Repantis D, Schlattmann P, Laisney O, Heuser I. Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: a systematic review. Pharmacol Res. 2010;62:187–206.PubMedCrossRef Repantis D, Schlattmann P, Laisney O, Heuser I. Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: a systematic review. Pharmacol Res. 2010;62:187–206.PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference •• Smith MF, Farah MJ. Are prescription stimulants “smart pills”? The epidemiology and cognitive neuroscience of prescription stimulant use by normal healthy individuals. Psychol Bull. 2011;137(5):717–41. The most authoritative overview to date of the scientific literature on cognitive enhancement, and a meta-analysis of US prevalence estimates.PubMedCrossRef •• Smith MF, Farah MJ. Are prescription stimulants “smart pills”? The epidemiology and cognitive neuroscience of prescription stimulant use by normal healthy individuals. Psychol Bull. 2011;137(5):717–41. The most authoritative overview to date of the scientific literature on cognitive enhancement, and a meta-analysis of US prevalence estimates.PubMedCrossRef
90.
go back to reference Rabiner DL, Anastopoulos AD, Costello EJ, Hoyle RH, McCabe SE, Swartzwelder HS. Motives and perceived consequences of nonmedical ADHD medication use by college students are students treating themselves for attention problems? J Atten Disord. 2009;13(3):259–70.PubMedCrossRef Rabiner DL, Anastopoulos AD, Costello EJ, Hoyle RH, McCabe SE, Swartzwelder HS. Motives and perceived consequences of nonmedical ADHD medication use by college students are students treating themselves for attention problems? J Atten Disord. 2009;13(3):259–70.PubMedCrossRef
91.
go back to reference • Ilieva I, Boland J, Farah MJ. Objective and subjective cognitive enhancing effects of mixed amphetamine salts in healthy people. Neuropharmacology. 2012;64(1):496–505. The first systematic investigation of the important question of how perceptions of cognitive enhancement correlate with objectively measurable outcomes.PubMed • Ilieva I, Boland J, Farah MJ. Objective and subjective cognitive enhancing effects of mixed amphetamine salts in healthy people. Neuropharmacology. 2012;64(1):496–505. The first systematic investigation of the important question of how perceptions of cognitive enhancement correlate with objectively measurable outcomes.PubMed
92.
go back to reference Vrecko S. Just how cognitive is “cognitive enhancement”? On the significance of emotions in university students’ experiences with study drugs. AJOB Neuroscience. 2013;4(1):4–12.PubMedCrossRef Vrecko S. Just how cognitive is “cognitive enhancement”? On the significance of emotions in university students’ experiences with study drugs. AJOB Neuroscience. 2013;4(1):4–12.PubMedCrossRef
93.
go back to reference •• Ragan CI, Bard I, Singh I. What should we do about student use of cognitive enhancers? An analysis of current evidence. Neuropharmacology. 2013;64:588–95. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.06.016. Authoritative overview of cross-national prevalence estimates in cognitive enhancement; and an assessment of need for policy intervention.PubMedCrossRef •• Ragan CI, Bard I, Singh I. What should we do about student use of cognitive enhancers? An analysis of current evidence. Neuropharmacology. 2013;64:588–95. doi:10.​1016/​j.​neuropharm.​2012.​06.​016. Authoritative overview of cross-national prevalence estimates in cognitive enhancement; and an assessment of need for policy intervention.PubMedCrossRef
94.
go back to reference Franke AG, Bonertz C, Christmann M, Huss M, Fellgiebel A, Hildt A, et al. Non-medical use of prescription stimulants and illicit use of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in pupils and students in Germany. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2010;43:1–7.CrossRef Franke AG, Bonertz C, Christmann M, Huss M, Fellgiebel A, Hildt A, et al. Non-medical use of prescription stimulants and illicit use of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in pupils and students in Germany. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2010;43:1–7.CrossRef
96.
go back to reference Hansard. HC Deb 4 June 2013, cc1072W-1073W. Hansard. HC Deb 4 June 2013, cc1072W-1073W.
98.
go back to reference Swanson JM, Wigal T, Volkow ND. Contrast of medical and non-medical use of stimulant drugs: Basis for the distinction, and risk of addicition: Comment on Smith and Farah. Psychol Bull. 2011;137(5):742–8.PubMedCrossRef Swanson JM, Wigal T, Volkow ND. Contrast of medical and non-medical use of stimulant drugs: Basis for the distinction, and risk of addicition: Comment on Smith and Farah. Psychol Bull. 2011;137(5):742–8.PubMedCrossRef
99.
go back to reference Rimsza ME, Moses KS. Substance abuse on the college campus. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2005;52(1):307–19.PubMedCrossRef Rimsza ME, Moses KS. Substance abuse on the college campus. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2005;52(1):307–19.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference Friedman RA. The Changing Face of Teenage Drug Abuse - The Trend toward Prescription Drugs. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(14):1448–50.PubMedCrossRef Friedman RA. The Changing Face of Teenage Drug Abuse - The Trend toward Prescription Drugs. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(14):1448–50.PubMedCrossRef
101.
go back to reference Schwarz A. Attention-Deficit Drugs Face New Campus Rules. The New York Times. 30 April 2013. Schwarz A. Attention-Deficit Drugs Face New Campus Rules. The New York Times. 30 April 2013.
102.
go back to reference Kaye S, Darke S. The diversion and misuse of pharmaceutical stimulants: what do we know and why should we care? Addiction. 2012;107(3):467–77.PubMedCrossRef Kaye S, Darke S. The diversion and misuse of pharmaceutical stimulants: what do we know and why should we care? Addiction. 2012;107(3):467–77.PubMedCrossRef
103.
go back to reference Rabiner DL. Stimulant Prescription Cautions: Addressing Misuse. Diversion and Malingering Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2013;15(7):1–8. Rabiner DL. Stimulant Prescription Cautions: Addressing Misuse. Diversion and Malingering Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2013;15(7):1–8.
105.
go back to reference Poulin C. Medical and nonmedical stimulant use among adolescents: from sanctioned to unsanctioned use. Can Med Assoc J. 2001;1658:1039–44. Poulin C. Medical and nonmedical stimulant use among adolescents: from sanctioned to unsanctioned use. Can Med Assoc J. 2001;1658:1039–44.
106.
go back to reference Garnier-Dykstra LM, Caldeira KM, Vincent KB, O’Grady KE, Arria AM. Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants during college: Four-year trends in exposure opportunity, use, motives, and sources. J Am Coll Health. 2012;60(3):226–34.PubMedCrossRef Garnier-Dykstra LM, Caldeira KM, Vincent KB, O’Grady KE, Arria AM. Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants during college: Four-year trends in exposure opportunity, use, motives, and sources. J Am Coll Health. 2012;60(3):226–34.PubMedCrossRef
107.
go back to reference McCabe SE, Teter CJ, Boyd CJ. Medical use, illicit use, and diversion of abusable prescription drugs. J Am Coll Health. 2006;54(5):269–78.PubMedCrossRef McCabe SE, Teter CJ, Boyd CJ. Medical use, illicit use, and diversion of abusable prescription drugs. J Am Coll Health. 2006;54(5):269–78.PubMedCrossRef
109.
go back to reference Bostrom N, Sandberg A. Cognitive enhancement: methods, ethics, regulatory challenges. Sci Eng Ethics. 2009;15(3):311–41.PubMedCrossRef Bostrom N, Sandberg A. Cognitive enhancement: methods, ethics, regulatory challenges. Sci Eng Ethics. 2009;15(3):311–41.PubMedCrossRef
110.
go back to reference Harris J. Enhancing Evolution: The Ethical Case for Making Better People. Princeton University Press; 2007 Harris J. Enhancing Evolution: The Ethical Case for Making Better People. Princeton University Press; 2007
111.
go back to reference Greely H, Sahakian B, Harris J, Kessler RC, Gazzaniga M, Campbell P, et al. Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy. Nature. 2008;456(7223):702–5.PubMedCrossRef Greely H, Sahakian B, Harris J, Kessler RC, Gazzaniga M, Campbell P, et al. Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy. Nature. 2008;456(7223):702–5.PubMedCrossRef
112.
go back to reference Larriviere D, Williams MA, Rizzo M, Bonnie RJ. Responding to requests from adult patients for neuroenhancements Guidance of the Ethics. Law and Humanities Committee Neurology. 2009;73(17):1406–12. Larriviere D, Williams MA, Rizzo M, Bonnie RJ. Responding to requests from adult patients for neuroenhancements Guidance of the Ethics. Law and Humanities Committee Neurology. 2009;73(17):1406–12.
113.
go back to reference British Medical Association (BMA). Boosting your Brainpower: Ethical Aspects of Cognitive Enhancement. Report, Nov 2007. British Medical Association (BMA). Boosting your Brainpower: Ethical Aspects of Cognitive Enhancement. Report, Nov 2007.
115.
go back to reference Singh I, Kelleher KJ. Neuroenhancement in young people: proposal for research, policy and clinical management. Am J Bioeth Neurosci. 2010;1(1):3–16. Singh I, Kelleher KJ. Neuroenhancement in young people: proposal for research, policy and clinical management. Am J Bioeth Neurosci. 2010;1(1):3–16.
116.
go back to reference •• Graf WD, Nagel SK, Epstein LG, Miller G, Nass R, Larriviere D. Pediatric neuroenhancement Ethical, legal, social, and neurodevelopmental implications. Neurology. 2013;80(13):1251–60. First public statement by a professional group (American Academy of Neurology) on pediatric cognitive enhancement.PubMedCrossRef •• Graf WD, Nagel SK, Epstein LG, Miller G, Nass R, Larriviere D. Pediatric neuroenhancement Ethical, legal, social, and neurodevelopmental implications. Neurology. 2013;80(13):1251–60. First public statement by a professional group (American Academy of Neurology) on pediatric cognitive enhancement.PubMedCrossRef
117.
go back to reference Sonuga-Barke EJ, Koerting J, Smith E, McCann DS, Thompson M. Early detection and intervention for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2011;11(4):557–63.PubMedCrossRef Sonuga-Barke EJ, Koerting J, Smith E, McCann DS, Thompson M. Early detection and intervention for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2011;11(4):557–63.PubMedCrossRef
118.
go back to reference Singh I, Sinnott-Armstrong W, Savulescu J. (in press). Bioprediction, Biomarkers, and Bad Behavior: Scientific, Legal, and Ethical Challenges. Oxford UP. Singh I, Sinnott-Armstrong W, Savulescu J. (in press). Bioprediction, Biomarkers, and Bad Behavior: Scientific, Legal, and Ethical Challenges. Oxford UP.
119.
go back to reference Singh I, Rose N. Biomarkers in psychiatry: Promises and perils in the real world. Nature. 2009;460(7252):202–7.PubMedCrossRef Singh I, Rose N. Biomarkers in psychiatry: Promises and perils in the real world. Nature. 2009;460(7252):202–7.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Globalization and Cognitive Enhancement: Emerging Social and Ethical Challenges for ADHD Clinicians
Authors
Ilina Singh
Angela M. Filipe
Imre Bard
Meredith Bergey
Lauren Baker
Publication date
01-09-2013
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Psychiatry Reports / Issue 9/2013
Print ISSN: 1523-3812
Electronic ISSN: 1535-1645
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-013-0385-0

Other articles of this Issue 9/2013

Current Psychiatry Reports 9/2013 Go to the issue

Mood Disorders (SM Strakowski, Section Editor)

Is Depression Simply a Nonspecific Response to Brain Injury?

Sleep Disorders (RM Benca, Section Editor)

The Link Between Suicide and Insomnia: Theoretical Mechanisms