Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Archives of Dermatological Research 7/2016

01-09-2016 | Review

Current and future direction in the management of scleroderma

Authors: Sean M. Brady, Lee Shapiro, Shaker A. Mousa

Published in: Archives of Dermatological Research | Issue 7/2016

Login to get access

Abstract

Scleroderma is a heterogeneous disease with a complex etiology. As more information is gained about the underlying mechanisms and the improved classifications of scleroderma subtypes, treatments can be better personalized. Improving scleroderma patients’ early diagnosis before end organ manifestations occur should improve clinical trial design and outcomes. Two recently FDA-approved antifibrotics for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis may be effective treatments in patients with pulmonary fibrosis secondary to scleroderma after further investigation. The potential impact of Nanobiotechnology in improving the efficacy and safety of existing antifibrotics and immunomodulators might present an exciting new approach in the management of scleroderma.
Literature
2.
go back to reference Badea I, Virtanen C, Verrall RE, Rosenberg A, Foldvari M (2012) Effect of topical interferon-gamma gene therapy using gemini nanoparticles on pathophysiological markers of cutaneous scleroderma in Tsk/+ mice. Gene Ther 19:978–987PubMedCrossRef Badea I, Virtanen C, Verrall RE, Rosenberg A, Foldvari M (2012) Effect of topical interferon-gamma gene therapy using gemini nanoparticles on pathophysiological markers of cutaneous scleroderma in Tsk/+ mice. Gene Ther 19:978–987PubMedCrossRef
3.
go back to reference Badesch DB, Hill NS, Burgess G, Rubin LJ, Barst RJ, Galie N, Simonneau G (2007) Sildenafil for pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with connective tissue disease. J Rheumatol 34:2417–2422PubMed Badesch DB, Hill NS, Burgess G, Rubin LJ, Barst RJ, Galie N, Simonneau G (2007) Sildenafil for pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with connective tissue disease. J Rheumatol 34:2417–2422PubMed
4.
go back to reference Badesch DB, Tapson VF, McGoon MD, Brundage BH, Rubin LJ, Wigley FM, Rich S, Barst RJ, Barrett PS, Kral KM, Jobsis MM, Loyd JE, Murali S, Frost A, Girgis R, Bourge RC, Ralph DD, Elliott CG, Hill NS, Langleben D, Schilz RJ, McLaughlin VV, Robbins IM, Groves BM, Shapiro S, Medsger TA Jr (2000) Continuous intravenous epoprostenol for pulmonary hypertension due to the scleroderma spectrum of disease. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 132:425–434PubMedCrossRef Badesch DB, Tapson VF, McGoon MD, Brundage BH, Rubin LJ, Wigley FM, Rich S, Barst RJ, Barrett PS, Kral KM, Jobsis MM, Loyd JE, Murali S, Frost A, Girgis R, Bourge RC, Ralph DD, Elliott CG, Hill NS, Langleben D, Schilz RJ, McLaughlin VV, Robbins IM, Groves BM, Shapiro S, Medsger TA Jr (2000) Continuous intravenous epoprostenol for pulmonary hypertension due to the scleroderma spectrum of disease. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 132:425–434PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Baroni SS, Santillo M, Bevilacqua F, Luchetti M, Spadoni T, Mancini M, Fraticelli P, Sambo P, Funaro A, Kazlauskas A, Avvedimento EV, Gabrielli A (2006) Stimulatory autoantibodies to the PDGF receptor in systemic sclerosis. N Engl J Med 354:2667–2676PubMedCrossRef Baroni SS, Santillo M, Bevilacqua F, Luchetti M, Spadoni T, Mancini M, Fraticelli P, Sambo P, Funaro A, Kazlauskas A, Avvedimento EV, Gabrielli A (2006) Stimulatory autoantibodies to the PDGF receptor in systemic sclerosis. N Engl J Med 354:2667–2676PubMedCrossRef
6.
go back to reference Barst RJ, Rubin LJ, Long WA, McGoon MD, Rich S, Badesch DB, Groves BM, Tapson VF, Bourge RC, Brundage BH, Koerner SK, Langleben D, Keller CA, Murali S, Uretsky BF, Clayton LM, Jobsis MM, Blackburn SD, Shortino D, Crow JW (1996) A comparison of continuous intravenous epoprostenol (prostacyclin) with conventional therapy for primary pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 334:296–301PubMedCrossRef Barst RJ, Rubin LJ, Long WA, McGoon MD, Rich S, Badesch DB, Groves BM, Tapson VF, Bourge RC, Brundage BH, Koerner SK, Langleben D, Keller CA, Murali S, Uretsky BF, Clayton LM, Jobsis MM, Blackburn SD, Shortino D, Crow JW (1996) A comparison of continuous intravenous epoprostenol (prostacyclin) with conventional therapy for primary pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 334:296–301PubMedCrossRef
7.
go back to reference Barst RJ, Rubin LJ, McGoon MD, Caldwell EJ, Long WA, Levy PS (1994) Survival in primary pulmonary hypertension with long-term continuous intravenous prostacyclin. Ann Intern Med 121:409–415PubMedCrossRef Barst RJ, Rubin LJ, McGoon MD, Caldwell EJ, Long WA, Levy PS (1994) Survival in primary pulmonary hypertension with long-term continuous intravenous prostacyclin. Ann Intern Med 121:409–415PubMedCrossRef
8.
go back to reference Bielsa Marsol I (2013) Update on the classification and treatment of localized scleroderma. Actas Dermosifiliogr 104:654–666PubMedCrossRef Bielsa Marsol I (2013) Update on the classification and treatment of localized scleroderma. Actas Dermosifiliogr 104:654–666PubMedCrossRef
9.
go back to reference Braun-Moscovici Y, Nahir AM, Balbir-Gurman A (2004) Endothelin and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Semin Arthritis Rheum 34:442–453PubMedCrossRef Braun-Moscovici Y, Nahir AM, Balbir-Gurman A (2004) Endothelin and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Semin Arthritis Rheum 34:442–453PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Cantisani C, Miraglia E, Richetta AG, Mattozzi C, Calvieri S (2013) Generalized morphea successfully treated with tacrolimus 0.1 % ointment. J Drugs Dermatol 12:14–15PubMed Cantisani C, Miraglia E, Richetta AG, Mattozzi C, Calvieri S (2013) Generalized morphea successfully treated with tacrolimus 0.1 % ointment. J Drugs Dermatol 12:14–15PubMed
11.
go back to reference Castelino FV, Varga J (2013) Current status of systemic sclerosis biomarkers: applications for diagnosis, management and drug development. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 9:1077–1090PubMedCrossRef Castelino FV, Varga J (2013) Current status of systemic sclerosis biomarkers: applications for diagnosis, management and drug development. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 9:1077–1090PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Coleiro B, Marshall SE, Denton CP, Howell K, Blann A, Welsh KI, Black CM (2001) Treatment of Raynaud’s phenomenon with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine. Rheumatology (Oxford) 40:1038–1043CrossRef Coleiro B, Marshall SE, Denton CP, Howell K, Blann A, Welsh KI, Black CM (2001) Treatment of Raynaud’s phenomenon with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine. Rheumatology (Oxford) 40:1038–1043CrossRef
13.
go back to reference Cottrell TR, Wise RA, Wigley FM, Boin F (2014) The degree of skin involvement identifies distinct lung disease outcomes and survival in systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 73:1060–1066PubMedCrossRef Cottrell TR, Wise RA, Wigley FM, Boin F (2014) The degree of skin involvement identifies distinct lung disease outcomes and survival in systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 73:1060–1066PubMedCrossRef
14.
go back to reference Cunningham BB, Landells ID, Langman C, Sailer DE, Paller AS (1998) Topical calcipotriene for morphea/linear scleroderma. J Am Acad Dermatol 39:211–215PubMedCrossRef Cunningham BB, Landells ID, Langman C, Sailer DE, Paller AS (1998) Topical calcipotriene for morphea/linear scleroderma. J Am Acad Dermatol 39:211–215PubMedCrossRef
15.
go back to reference Denton CP, Hachulla E (2011) Risk factors associated with pulmonary arterial hypertension in patients with systemic sclerosis and implications for screening. Eur Respir Rev 20:270–276PubMedCrossRef Denton CP, Hachulla E (2011) Risk factors associated with pulmonary arterial hypertension in patients with systemic sclerosis and implications for screening. Eur Respir Rev 20:270–276PubMedCrossRef
16.
go back to reference Derk CT, Grace E, Shenin M, Naik M, Schulz S, Xiong W (2009) A prospective open-label study of mycophenolate mofetil for the treatment of diffuse systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48:1595–1599CrossRef Derk CT, Grace E, Shenin M, Naik M, Schulz S, Xiong W (2009) A prospective open-label study of mycophenolate mofetil for the treatment of diffuse systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48:1595–1599CrossRef
17.
go back to reference Dumoitier N, Lofek S, Mouthon L (2014) Pathophysiology of systemic sclerosis: state of the art in 2014. Presse Med 43:e267–e278PubMedCrossRef Dumoitier N, Lofek S, Mouthon L (2014) Pathophysiology of systemic sclerosis: state of the art in 2014. Presse Med 43:e267–e278PubMedCrossRef
18.
go back to reference Dziadzio M, Denton CP, Smith R, Howell K, Blann A, Bowers E, Black CM (1999) Losartan therapy for Raynaud’s phenomenon and scleroderma: clinical and biochemical findings in a fifteen-week, randomized, parallel-group, controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 42:2646–2655PubMedCrossRef Dziadzio M, Denton CP, Smith R, Howell K, Blann A, Bowers E, Black CM (1999) Losartan therapy for Raynaud’s phenomenon and scleroderma: clinical and biochemical findings in a fifteen-week, randomized, parallel-group, controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 42:2646–2655PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Eckes B, Moinzadeh P, Sengle G, Hunzelmann N, Krieg T (2014) Molecular and cellular basis of scleroderma. J Mol Med (Berl) 92:913–924CrossRef Eckes B, Moinzadeh P, Sengle G, Hunzelmann N, Krieg T (2014) Molecular and cellular basis of scleroderma. J Mol Med (Berl) 92:913–924CrossRef
20.
go back to reference Ennis H, Anderson ME, Wilkinson J, Herrick AL (2014) Calcium channel blockers for primary Raynaud’s phenomenon. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:002069 Ennis H, Anderson ME, Wilkinson J, Herrick AL (2014) Calcium channel blockers for primary Raynaud’s phenomenon. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:002069
21.
go back to reference Galie N, Brundage BH, Ghofrani HA, Oudiz RJ, Simonneau G, Safdar Z, Shapiro S, White RJ, Chan M, Beardsworth A, Frumkin L, Barst RJ (2009) Tadalafil therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension. Circulation 119:2894–2903PubMedCrossRef Galie N, Brundage BH, Ghofrani HA, Oudiz RJ, Simonneau G, Safdar Z, Shapiro S, White RJ, Chan M, Beardsworth A, Frumkin L, Barst RJ (2009) Tadalafil therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension. Circulation 119:2894–2903PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Galie N, Olschewski H, Oudiz RJ, Torres F, Frost A, Ghofrani HA, Badesch DB, McGoon MD, McLaughlin VV, Roecker EB, Gerber MJ, Dufton C, Wiens BL, Rubin LJ (2008) Ambrisentan for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension: results of the ambrisentan in pulmonary arterial hypertension, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, efficacy (ARIES) study 1 and 2. Circulation 117:3010–3019PubMedCrossRef Galie N, Olschewski H, Oudiz RJ, Torres F, Frost A, Ghofrani HA, Badesch DB, McGoon MD, McLaughlin VV, Roecker EB, Gerber MJ, Dufton C, Wiens BL, Rubin LJ (2008) Ambrisentan for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension: results of the ambrisentan in pulmonary arterial hypertension, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, efficacy (ARIES) study 1 and 2. Circulation 117:3010–3019PubMedCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Gharagozloo M, Majewski S, Foldvari M (2015) Therapeutic applications of nanomedicine in autoimmune diseases: from immunosuppression to tolerance induction. Nanomedicine 11:1003–1018PubMed Gharagozloo M, Majewski S, Foldvari M (2015) Therapeutic applications of nanomedicine in autoimmune diseases: from immunosuppression to tolerance induction. Nanomedicine 11:1003–1018PubMed
24.
go back to reference Ghofrani HA, Galie N, Grimminger F, Grunig E, Humbert M, Jing ZC, Keogh AM, Langleben D, Kilama MO, Fritsch A, Neuser D, Rubin LJ (2013) Riociguat for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 369:330–340PubMedCrossRef Ghofrani HA, Galie N, Grimminger F, Grunig E, Humbert M, Jing ZC, Keogh AM, Langleben D, Kilama MO, Fritsch A, Neuser D, Rubin LJ (2013) Riociguat for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 369:330–340PubMedCrossRef
25.
26.
go back to reference Giordano M, Valentini G, Migliaresi S, Picillo U, Vatti M (1986) Different antibody patterns and different prognoses in patients with scleroderma with various extent of skin sclerosis. J Rheumatol 13:911–916PubMed Giordano M, Valentini G, Migliaresi S, Picillo U, Vatti M (1986) Different antibody patterns and different prognoses in patients with scleroderma with various extent of skin sclerosis. J Rheumatol 13:911–916PubMed
27.
go back to reference Gupta N, Ibrahim HM, Ahsan F (2014) Peptide-micelle hybrids containing fasudil for targeted delivery to the pulmonary arteries and arterioles to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Pharm Sci 103:3743–3753PubMedCrossRef Gupta N, Ibrahim HM, Ahsan F (2014) Peptide-micelle hybrids containing fasudil for targeted delivery to the pulmonary arteries and arterioles to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Pharm Sci 103:3743–3753PubMedCrossRef
28.
go back to reference Herrick AL, Murray AK, Ruck A, Rouru J, Moore TL, Whiteside J, Hakulinen P, Wigley F, Snapir A (2014) A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial of the alpha2C-adrenoceptor antagonist ORM-12741 for prevention of cold-induced vasospasm in patients with systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 53:948–952CrossRef Herrick AL, Murray AK, Ruck A, Rouru J, Moore TL, Whiteside J, Hakulinen P, Wigley F, Snapir A (2014) A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial of the alpha2C-adrenoceptor antagonist ORM-12741 for prevention of cold-induced vasospasm in patients with systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 53:948–952CrossRef
29.
go back to reference Herrick AL, van den Hoogen F, Gabrielli A, Tamimi N, Reid C, O’Connell D, Vazquez-Abad MD, Denton CP (2011) Modified-release sildenafil reduces Raynaud’s phenomenon attack frequency in limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 63:775–782PubMedCrossRef Herrick AL, van den Hoogen F, Gabrielli A, Tamimi N, Reid C, O’Connell D, Vazquez-Abad MD, Denton CP (2011) Modified-release sildenafil reduces Raynaud’s phenomenon attack frequency in limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 63:775–782PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Ho YY, Lagares D, Tager AM, Kapoor M (2014) Fibrosis—a lethal component of systemic sclerosis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 10:390–402PubMedCrossRef Ho YY, Lagares D, Tager AM, Kapoor M (2014) Fibrosis—a lethal component of systemic sclerosis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 10:390–402PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Horstmeyer A, Licht C, Scherr G, Eckes B, Krieg T (2005) Signalling and regulation of collagen I synthesis by ET-1 and TGF-beta1. FEBS J 272:6297–6309PubMedCrossRef Horstmeyer A, Licht C, Scherr G, Eckes B, Krieg T (2005) Signalling and regulation of collagen I synthesis by ET-1 and TGF-beta1. FEBS J 272:6297–6309PubMedCrossRef
32.
go back to reference Hoyles RK, Ellis RW, Wellsbury J, Lees B, Newlands P, Goh NS, Roberts C, Desai S, Herrick AL, McHugh NJ, Foley NM, Pearson SB, Emery P, Veale DJ, Denton CP, Wells AU, Black CM, du Bois RM (2006) A multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of corticosteroids and intravenous cyclophosphamide followed by oral azathioprine for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis in scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum 54:3962–3970PubMedCrossRef Hoyles RK, Ellis RW, Wellsbury J, Lees B, Newlands P, Goh NS, Roberts C, Desai S, Herrick AL, McHugh NJ, Foley NM, Pearson SB, Emery P, Veale DJ, Denton CP, Wells AU, Black CM, du Bois RM (2006) A multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of corticosteroids and intravenous cyclophosphamide followed by oral azathioprine for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis in scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum 54:3962–3970PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Hudson M, Baron M, Tatibouet S, Furst DE, Khanna D (2014) Exposure to ACE inhibitors prior to the onset of scleroderma renal crisis-results from the International Scleroderma Renal Crisis Survey. Semin Arthritis Rheum 43:666–672PubMedCrossRef Hudson M, Baron M, Tatibouet S, Furst DE, Khanna D (2014) Exposure to ACE inhibitors prior to the onset of scleroderma renal crisis-results from the International Scleroderma Renal Crisis Survey. Semin Arthritis Rheum 43:666–672PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Ivanova V, Garbuzenko OB, Reuhl KR, Reimer DC, Pozharov VP, Minko T (2013) Inhalation treatment of pulmonary fibrosis by liposomal prostaglandin E2. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 84:335–344PubMedCrossRef Ivanova V, Garbuzenko OB, Reuhl KR, Reimer DC, Pozharov VP, Minko T (2013) Inhalation treatment of pulmonary fibrosis by liposomal prostaglandin E2. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 84:335–344PubMedCrossRef
35.
go back to reference Jing ZC, Parikh K, Pulido T, Jerjes-Sanchez C, White RJ, Allen R, Torbicki A, Xu KF, Yehle D, Laliberte K, Arneson C, Rubin LJ (2013) Efficacy and safety of oral treprostinil monotherapy for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension: a randomized, controlled trial. Circulation 127:624–633PubMedCrossRef Jing ZC, Parikh K, Pulido T, Jerjes-Sanchez C, White RJ, Allen R, Torbicki A, Xu KF, Yehle D, Laliberte K, Arneson C, Rubin LJ (2013) Efficacy and safety of oral treprostinil monotherapy for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension: a randomized, controlled trial. Circulation 127:624–633PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference Jordan S, Distler JH, Maurer B, Huscher D, van Laar JM, Allanore Y, Distler O (2015) Effects and safety of rituximab in systemic sclerosis: an analysis from the European Scleroderma Trial and Research (EUSTAR) group. Ann Rheum Dis 74:1188–1194PubMedCrossRef Jordan S, Distler JH, Maurer B, Huscher D, van Laar JM, Allanore Y, Distler O (2015) Effects and safety of rituximab in systemic sclerosis: an analysis from the European Scleroderma Trial and Research (EUSTAR) group. Ann Rheum Dis 74:1188–1194PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Keir GJ, Maher TM, Hansell DM, Denton CP, Ong VH, Singh S, Wells AU, Renzoni EA (2012) Severe interstitial lung disease in connective tissue disease: rituximab as rescue therapy. Eur Respir J 40:641–648PubMedCrossRef Keir GJ, Maher TM, Hansell DM, Denton CP, Ong VH, Singh S, Wells AU, Renzoni EA (2012) Severe interstitial lung disease in connective tissue disease: rituximab as rescue therapy. Eur Respir J 40:641–648PubMedCrossRef
38.
go back to reference Keir GJ, Maher TM, Ming D, Abdullah R, de Lauretis A, Wickremasinghe M, Nicholson AG, Hansell DM, Wells AU, Renzoni EA (2014) Rituximab in severe, treatment-refractory interstitial lung disease. Respirology 19:353–359PubMedCrossRef Keir GJ, Maher TM, Ming D, Abdullah R, de Lauretis A, Wickremasinghe M, Nicholson AG, Hansell DM, Wells AU, Renzoni EA (2014) Rituximab in severe, treatment-refractory interstitial lung disease. Respirology 19:353–359PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Khanna D, Albera C, Fischer A, Seibold JR, Raghu G, Khalidi N, Chung L, Schiopu E, Chen D, Gorina E (2015) SAT0433 safety and tolerability of pirfenidone in patients with systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease—the Lotuss study. Ann Rheum Dis 74:816 Khanna D, Albera C, Fischer A, Seibold JR, Raghu G, Khalidi N, Chung L, Schiopu E, Chen D, Gorina E (2015) SAT0433 safety and tolerability of pirfenidone in patients with systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease—the Lotuss study. Ann Rheum Dis 74:816
40.
go back to reference Kill A, Tabeling C, Undeutsch R, Kuhl AA, Gunther J, Radic M, Becker MO, Heidecke H, Worm M, Witzenrath M, Burmester GR, Dragun D, Riemekasten G (2014) Autoantibodies to angiotensin and endothelin receptors in systemic sclerosis induce cellular and systemic events associated with disease pathogenesis. Arthritis Res Ther 16:R29PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Kill A, Tabeling C, Undeutsch R, Kuhl AA, Gunther J, Radic M, Becker MO, Heidecke H, Worm M, Witzenrath M, Burmester GR, Dragun D, Riemekasten G (2014) Autoantibodies to angiotensin and endothelin receptors in systemic sclerosis induce cellular and systemic events associated with disease pathogenesis. Arthritis Res Ther 16:R29PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Kirby DF, Chatterjee S (2014) Evaluation and management of gastrointestinal manifestations in scleroderma. Curr Opin Rheumatol 26:621–629PubMedCrossRef Kirby DF, Chatterjee S (2014) Evaluation and management of gastrointestinal manifestations in scleroderma. Curr Opin Rheumatol 26:621–629PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Klinger JR (2007) The nitric oxide/cGMP signaling pathway in pulmonary hypertension. Clin Chest Med 28:143–167 (ix) PubMedCrossRef Klinger JR (2007) The nitric oxide/cGMP signaling pathway in pulmonary hypertension. Clin Chest Med 28:143–167 (ix) PubMedCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Kreuter A, Gambichler T, Avermaete A, Jansen T, Hoffmann M, Hoffmann K, Altmeyer P, von Kobyletzki G, Bacharach-Buhles M (2001) Combined treatment with calcipotriol ointment and low-dose ultraviolet al phototherapy in childhood morphea. Pediatr Dermatol 18:241–245PubMedCrossRef Kreuter A, Gambichler T, Avermaete A, Jansen T, Hoffmann M, Hoffmann K, Altmeyer P, von Kobyletzki G, Bacharach-Buhles M (2001) Combined treatment with calcipotriol ointment and low-dose ultraviolet al phototherapy in childhood morphea. Pediatr Dermatol 18:241–245PubMedCrossRef
45.
go back to reference Kreuter A, Hyun J, Stucker M, Sommer A, Altmeyer P, Gambichler T (2006) A randomized controlled study of low-dose UVA1, medium-dose UVA1, and narrowband UVB phototherapy in the treatment of localized scleroderma. J Am Acad Dermatol 54:440–447PubMedCrossRef Kreuter A, Hyun J, Stucker M, Sommer A, Altmeyer P, Gambichler T (2006) A randomized controlled study of low-dose UVA1, medium-dose UVA1, and narrowband UVB phototherapy in the treatment of localized scleroderma. J Am Acad Dermatol 54:440–447PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Kroft EB, Groeneveld TJ, Seyger MM, de Jong EM (2009) Efficacy of topical tacrolimus 0.1 % in active plaque morphea: randomized, double-blind, emollient-controlled pilot study. Am J Clin Dermatol 10:181–187PubMedCrossRef Kroft EB, Groeneveld TJ, Seyger MM, de Jong EM (2009) Efficacy of topical tacrolimus 0.1 % in active plaque morphea: randomized, double-blind, emollient-controlled pilot study. Am J Clin Dermatol 10:181–187PubMedCrossRef
47.
48.
go back to reference Lavelle A, Sugrue R, Lawler G, Mulligan N, Kelleher B, Murphy DM, Gaine SP (2009) Sitaxentan-induced hepatic failure in two patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Respir J 34:770–771PubMedCrossRef Lavelle A, Sugrue R, Lawler G, Mulligan N, Kelleher B, Murphy DM, Gaine SP (2009) Sitaxentan-induced hepatic failure in two patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Respir J 34:770–771PubMedCrossRef
50.
51.
go back to reference LeRoy EC, Black C, Fleischmajer R, Jablonska S, Krieg T, Medsger TA Jr, Rowell N, Wollheim F (1988) Scleroderma (systemic sclerosis): classification, subsets and pathogenesis. J Rheumatol 15:202–205PubMed LeRoy EC, Black C, Fleischmajer R, Jablonska S, Krieg T, Medsger TA Jr, Rowell N, Wollheim F (1988) Scleroderma (systemic sclerosis): classification, subsets and pathogenesis. J Rheumatol 15:202–205PubMed
52.
go back to reference Lewandowska K, Ciurzynski M, Gorska E, Bienias P, Irzyk K, Siwicka M, Zycinska K, Pruszczyk P, Demkow U (2013) Antiendothelial cells antibodies in patients with systemic sclerosis in relation to pulmonary hypertension and lung fibrosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 756:147–153PubMedCrossRef Lewandowska K, Ciurzynski M, Gorska E, Bienias P, Irzyk K, Siwicka M, Zycinska K, Pruszczyk P, Demkow U (2013) Antiendothelial cells antibodies in patients with systemic sclerosis in relation to pulmonary hypertension and lung fibrosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 756:147–153PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference Mancuso G, Berdondini RM (2005) Localized scleroderma: response to occlusive treatment with tacrolimus ointment. Br J Dermatol 152:180–182PubMedCrossRef Mancuso G, Berdondini RM (2005) Localized scleroderma: response to occlusive treatment with tacrolimus ointment. Br J Dermatol 152:180–182PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference Maricq HR, Valter I (2004) A working classification of scleroderma spectrum disorders: a proposal and the results of testing on a sample of patients. Clin Exp Rheumatol 22:S5–S13PubMed Maricq HR, Valter I (2004) A working classification of scleroderma spectrum disorders: a proposal and the results of testing on a sample of patients. Clin Exp Rheumatol 22:S5–S13PubMed
55.
go back to reference Martini G, Ramanan AV, Falcini F, Girschick H, Goldsmith DP, Zulian F (2009) Successful treatment of severe or methotrexate-resistant juvenile localized scleroderma with mycophenolate mofetil. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48:1410–1413CrossRef Martini G, Ramanan AV, Falcini F, Girschick H, Goldsmith DP, Zulian F (2009) Successful treatment of severe or methotrexate-resistant juvenile localized scleroderma with mycophenolate mofetil. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48:1410–1413CrossRef
56.
go back to reference Matucci-Cerinic M, Denton CP, Furst DE, Mayes MD, Hsu VM, Carpentier P, Wigley FM, Black CM, Fessler BJ, Merkel PA, Pope JE, Sweiss NJ, Doyle MK, Hellmich B, Medsger TA Jr, Morganti A, Kramer F, Korn JH, Seibold JR (2011) Bosentan treatment of digital ulcers related to systemic sclerosis: results from the RAPIDS-2 randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis 70:32–38PubMedCrossRef Matucci-Cerinic M, Denton CP, Furst DE, Mayes MD, Hsu VM, Carpentier P, Wigley FM, Black CM, Fessler BJ, Merkel PA, Pope JE, Sweiss NJ, Doyle MK, Hellmich B, Medsger TA Jr, Morganti A, Kramer F, Korn JH, Seibold JR (2011) Bosentan treatment of digital ulcers related to systemic sclerosis: results from the RAPIDS-2 randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis 70:32–38PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Matucci-Cerinic M, Kahaleh B, Wigley FM (2013) Review: evidence that systemic sclerosis is a vascular disease. Arthritis Rheum 65:1953–1962PubMedCrossRef Matucci-Cerinic M, Kahaleh B, Wigley FM (2013) Review: evidence that systemic sclerosis is a vascular disease. Arthritis Rheum 65:1953–1962PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference McMahan ZH, Wigley FM (2014) Novel investigational agents for the treatment of scleroderma. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 23:183–198PubMedCrossRef McMahan ZH, Wigley FM (2014) Novel investigational agents for the treatment of scleroderma. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 23:183–198PubMedCrossRef
59.
go back to reference Mendoza FA, Nagle SJ, Lee JB, Jimenez SA (2012) A prospective observational study of mycophenolate mofetil treatment in progressive diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis of recent onset. J Rheumatol 39:1241–1247PubMedCrossRef Mendoza FA, Nagle SJ, Lee JB, Jimenez SA (2012) A prospective observational study of mycophenolate mofetil treatment in progressive diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis of recent onset. J Rheumatol 39:1241–1247PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Miura Y, Saito T, Fujita K, Tanaka T, Tsunoda Y, Azuma A, Nei T, Yatagai Y, Rin S, Sekine A, Hayashihara K (2014) Clinical experience with pirfenidone in five patients with scleroderma-related interstitial lung disease. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 31:235–238PubMed Miura Y, Saito T, Fujita K, Tanaka T, Tsunoda Y, Azuma A, Nei T, Yatagai Y, Rin S, Sekine A, Hayashihara K (2014) Clinical experience with pirfenidone in five patients with scleroderma-related interstitial lung disease. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 31:235–238PubMed
61.
go back to reference Mouthon L, Bussone G, Berezne A, Noel LH, Guillevin L (2014) Scleroderma renal crisis. J Rheumatol 41:1040–1048PubMedCrossRef Mouthon L, Bussone G, Berezne A, Noel LH, Guillevin L (2014) Scleroderma renal crisis. J Rheumatol 41:1040–1048PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Murdaca G, Spano F, Puppo F (2014) Current therapies for the treatment of systemic sclerosis-related pulmonary arterial hypertension: efficacy and safety. Expert Opin Drug Saf 13:295–305PubMedCrossRef Murdaca G, Spano F, Puppo F (2014) Current therapies for the treatment of systemic sclerosis-related pulmonary arterial hypertension: efficacy and safety. Expert Opin Drug Saf 13:295–305PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Nannini C, West CP, Erwin PJ, Matteson EL (2008) Effects of cyclophosphamide on pulmonary function in patients with scleroderma and interstitial lung disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and observational prospective cohort studies. Arthritis Res Ther 10:R124PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Nannini C, West CP, Erwin PJ, Matteson EL (2008) Effects of cyclophosphamide on pulmonary function in patients with scleroderma and interstitial lung disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and observational prospective cohort studies. Arthritis Res Ther 10:R124PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
64.
go back to reference Nihtyanova SI, Brough GM, Black CM, Denton CP (2007) Mycophenolate mofetil in diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis–a retrospective analysis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 46:442–445CrossRef Nihtyanova SI, Brough GM, Black CM, Denton CP (2007) Mycophenolate mofetil in diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis–a retrospective analysis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 46:442–445CrossRef
65.
go back to reference Nihtyanova SI, Ong VH, Denton CP (2014) Current management strategies for systemic sclerosis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 32:156–164PubMed Nihtyanova SI, Ong VH, Denton CP (2014) Current management strategies for systemic sclerosis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 32:156–164PubMed
66.
go back to reference Nikpour M, Baron M (2014) Mortality in systemic sclerosis: lessons learned from population-based and observational cohort studies. Curr Opin Rheumatol 26:131–137PubMedCrossRef Nikpour M, Baron M (2014) Mortality in systemic sclerosis: lessons learned from population-based and observational cohort studies. Curr Opin Rheumatol 26:131–137PubMedCrossRef
67.
go back to reference O’Reilly S (2014) Innate immunity in systemic sclerosis pathogenesis. Clin Sci (Lond) 126:329–337CrossRef O’Reilly S (2014) Innate immunity in systemic sclerosis pathogenesis. Clin Sci (Lond) 126:329–337CrossRef
68.
go back to reference Olschewski H, Simonneau G, Galie N, Higenbottam T, Naeije R, Rubin LJ, Nikkho S, Speich R, Hoeper MM, Behr J, Winkler J, Sitbon O, Popov W, Ghofrani HA, Manes A, Kiely DG, Ewert R, Meyer A, Corris PA, Delcroix M, Gomez-Sanchez M, Siedentop H, Seeger W (2002) Inhaled iloprost for severe pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 347:322–329PubMedCrossRef Olschewski H, Simonneau G, Galie N, Higenbottam T, Naeije R, Rubin LJ, Nikkho S, Speich R, Hoeper MM, Behr J, Winkler J, Sitbon O, Popov W, Ghofrani HA, Manes A, Kiely DG, Ewert R, Meyer A, Corris PA, Delcroix M, Gomez-Sanchez M, Siedentop H, Seeger W (2002) Inhaled iloprost for severe pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 347:322–329PubMedCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Oudiz RJ, Brundage BH, Galie N, Ghofrani HA, Simonneau G, Botros FT, Chan M, Beardsworth A, Barst RJ (2012) Tadalafil for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension: a double-blind 52-week uncontrolled extension study. J Am Coll Cardiol 60:768–774PubMedCrossRef Oudiz RJ, Brundage BH, Galie N, Ghofrani HA, Simonneau G, Botros FT, Chan M, Beardsworth A, Barst RJ (2012) Tadalafil for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension: a double-blind 52-week uncontrolled extension study. J Am Coll Cardiol 60:768–774PubMedCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Oudiz RJ, Galie N, Olschewski H, Torres F, Frost A, Ghofrani HA, Badesch DB, McGoon MD, McLaughlin VV, Roecker EB, Harrison BC, Despain D, Dufton C, Rubin LJ (2009) Long-term ambrisentan therapy for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 54:1971–1981PubMedCrossRef Oudiz RJ, Galie N, Olschewski H, Torres F, Frost A, Ghofrani HA, Badesch DB, McGoon MD, McLaughlin VV, Roecker EB, Harrison BC, Despain D, Dufton C, Rubin LJ (2009) Long-term ambrisentan therapy for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 54:1971–1981PubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Penn H, Quillinan N, Khan K, Chakravarty K, Ong VH, Burns A, Denton CP (2013) Targeting the endothelin axis in scleroderma renal crisis: rationale and feasibility. QJM 106:839–848PubMedCrossRef Penn H, Quillinan N, Khan K, Chakravarty K, Ong VH, Burns A, Denton CP (2013) Targeting the endothelin axis in scleroderma renal crisis: rationale and feasibility. QJM 106:839–848PubMedCrossRef
72.
go back to reference Peterson LS, Nelson AM, Su WP (1995) Classification of morphea (localized scleroderma). Mayo Clin Proc 70:1068–1076PubMedCrossRef Peterson LS, Nelson AM, Su WP (1995) Classification of morphea (localized scleroderma). Mayo Clin Proc 70:1068–1076PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Peterson LS, Nelson AM, Su WP, Mason T, O’Fallon WM, Gabriel SE (1997) The epidemiology of morphea (localized scleroderma) in Olmsted County 1960–1993. J Rheumatol 24:73–80PubMed Peterson LS, Nelson AM, Su WP, Mason T, O’Fallon WM, Gabriel SE (1997) The epidemiology of morphea (localized scleroderma) in Olmsted County 1960–1993. J Rheumatol 24:73–80PubMed
74.
go back to reference Pope E, Doria AS, Theriault M, Mohanta A, Laxer RM (2011) Topical imiquimod 5% cream for pediatric plaque morphea: a prospective, multiple-baseline, open-label pilot study. Dermatology 223:363–369PubMedCrossRef Pope E, Doria AS, Theriault M, Mohanta A, Laxer RM (2011) Topical imiquimod 5% cream for pediatric plaque morphea: a prospective, multiple-baseline, open-label pilot study. Dermatology 223:363–369PubMedCrossRef
75.
go back to reference Pope JE, Bellamy N, Seibold JR, Baron M, Ellman M, Carette S, Smith CD, Chalmers IM, Hong P, O’Hanlon D, Kaminska E, Markland J, Sibley J, Catoggio L, Furst DE (2001) A randomized, controlled trial of methotrexate versus placebo in early diffuse scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum 44:1351–1358PubMedCrossRef Pope JE, Bellamy N, Seibold JR, Baron M, Ellman M, Carette S, Smith CD, Chalmers IM, Hong P, O’Hanlon D, Kaminska E, Markland J, Sibley J, Catoggio L, Furst DE (2001) A randomized, controlled trial of methotrexate versus placebo in early diffuse scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum 44:1351–1358PubMedCrossRef
76.
go back to reference Pulido T, Adzerikho I, Channick RN, Delcroix M, Galie N, Ghofrani HA, Jansa P, Jing ZC, Le Brun FO, Mehta S, Mittelholzer CM, Perchenet L, Sastry BK, Sitbon O, Souza R, Torbicki A, Zeng X, Rubin LJ, Simonneau G (2013) Macitentan and morbidity and mortality in pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 369:809–818PubMedCrossRef Pulido T, Adzerikho I, Channick RN, Delcroix M, Galie N, Ghofrani HA, Jansa P, Jing ZC, Le Brun FO, Mehta S, Mittelholzer CM, Perchenet L, Sastry BK, Sitbon O, Souza R, Torbicki A, Zeng X, Rubin LJ, Simonneau G (2013) Macitentan and morbidity and mortality in pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 369:809–818PubMedCrossRef
77.
78.
go back to reference Rodriguez-Castellanos M, Tlacuilo-Parra A, Sanchez-Enriquez S, Velez-Gomez E, Guevara-Gutierrez E (2014) Pirfenidone gel in patients with localized scleroderma: a phase II study. Arthritis Res Ther 16:510CrossRef Rodriguez-Castellanos M, Tlacuilo-Parra A, Sanchez-Enriquez S, Velez-Gomez E, Guevara-Gutierrez E (2014) Pirfenidone gel in patients with localized scleroderma: a phase II study. Arthritis Res Ther 16:510CrossRef
80.
go back to reference Rubin LJ, Badesch DB, Barst RJ, Galie N, Black CM, Keogh A, Pulido T, Frost A, Roux S, Leconte I, Landzberg M, Simonneau G (2002) Bosentan therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 346:896–903PubMedCrossRef Rubin LJ, Badesch DB, Barst RJ, Galie N, Black CM, Keogh A, Pulido T, Frost A, Roux S, Leconte I, Landzberg M, Simonneau G (2002) Bosentan therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 346:896–903PubMedCrossRef
81.
go back to reference Rubin LJ, Badesch DB, Fleming TR, Galie N, Simonneau G, Ghofrani HA, Oakes M, Layton G, Serdarevic-Pehar M, McLaughlin VV, Barst RJ (2011) Long-term treatment with sildenafil citrate in pulmonary arterial hypertension: the SUPER-2 study. Chest 140:1274–1283PubMedCrossRef Rubin LJ, Badesch DB, Fleming TR, Galie N, Simonneau G, Ghofrani HA, Oakes M, Layton G, Serdarevic-Pehar M, McLaughlin VV, Barst RJ (2011) Long-term treatment with sildenafil citrate in pulmonary arterial hypertension: the SUPER-2 study. Chest 140:1274–1283PubMedCrossRef
82.
go back to reference Rubin LJ, Mendoza J, Hood M, McGoon M, Barst R, Williams WB, Diehl JH, Crow J, Long W (1990) Treatment of primary pulmonary hypertension with continuous intravenous prostacyclin (epoprostenol). Results of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 112:485–491PubMedCrossRef Rubin LJ, Mendoza J, Hood M, McGoon M, Barst R, Williams WB, Diehl JH, Crow J, Long W (1990) Treatment of primary pulmonary hypertension with continuous intravenous prostacyclin (epoprostenol). Results of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 112:485–491PubMedCrossRef
84.
go back to reference Scharffetter K, Wlaschek M, Hogg A, Bolsen K, Schothorst A, Goerz G, Krieg T, Plewig G (1991) UVA irradiation induces collagenase in human dermal fibroblasts in vitro and in vivo. Arch Dermatol Res 283:506–511PubMedCrossRef Scharffetter K, Wlaschek M, Hogg A, Bolsen K, Schothorst A, Goerz G, Krieg T, Plewig G (1991) UVA irradiation induces collagenase in human dermal fibroblasts in vitro and in vivo. Arch Dermatol Res 283:506–511PubMedCrossRef
85.
go back to reference Schiopu E, Hsu VM, Impens AJ, Rothman JA, McCloskey DA, Wilson JE, Phillips K, Seibold JR (2009) Randomized placebo-controlled crossover trial of tadalafil in Raynaud’s phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol 36:2264–2268PubMedCrossRef Schiopu E, Hsu VM, Impens AJ, Rothman JA, McCloskey DA, Wilson JE, Phillips K, Seibold JR (2009) Randomized placebo-controlled crossover trial of tadalafil in Raynaud’s phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol 36:2264–2268PubMedCrossRef
86.
go back to reference Silman A, Jannini S, Symmons D, Bacon P (1988) An epidemiological study of scleroderma in the West Midlands. Br J Rheumatol 27:286–290PubMedCrossRef Silman A, Jannini S, Symmons D, Bacon P (1988) An epidemiological study of scleroderma in the West Midlands. Br J Rheumatol 27:286–290PubMedCrossRef
87.
go back to reference Sitbon O, Channick R, Chin KM, Frey A, Gaine S, Galie N, Ghofrani HA, Hoeper MM, Lang IM, Preiss R, Rubin LJ, Di Scala L, Tapson V, Adzerikho I, Liu J, Moiseeva O, Zeng X, Simonneau G, McLaughlin VV, Williams PG, Beghetti M, Corris P, Pepke-Zaba J, Souza R, DeMets DL, Gomberg-Maitland M, Greenberg BH, Schulman S, Douketis J, Investigators G (2015) Selexipag for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 373:2522–2533PubMedCrossRef Sitbon O, Channick R, Chin KM, Frey A, Gaine S, Galie N, Ghofrani HA, Hoeper MM, Lang IM, Preiss R, Rubin LJ, Di Scala L, Tapson V, Adzerikho I, Liu J, Moiseeva O, Zeng X, Simonneau G, McLaughlin VV, Williams PG, Beghetti M, Corris P, Pepke-Zaba J, Souza R, DeMets DL, Gomberg-Maitland M, Greenberg BH, Schulman S, Douketis J, Investigators G (2015) Selexipag for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 373:2522–2533PubMedCrossRef
88.
go back to reference Smith V, Piette Y, van Praet JT, Decuman S, Deschepper E, Elewaut D, De Keyser F (2013) Two-year results of an open pilot study of a 2-treatment course with rituximab in patients with early systemic sclerosis with diffuse skin involvement. J Rheumatol 40:52–57PubMedCrossRef Smith V, Piette Y, van Praet JT, Decuman S, Deschepper E, Elewaut D, De Keyser F (2013) Two-year results of an open pilot study of a 2-treatment course with rituximab in patients with early systemic sclerosis with diffuse skin involvement. J Rheumatol 40:52–57PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference Smith V, Van Praet JT, Vandooren B, Van der Cruyssen B, Naeyaert JM, Decuman S, Elewaut D, De Keyser F (2010) Rituximab in diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis: an open-label clinical and histopathological study. Ann Rheum Dis 69:193–197PubMedCrossRef Smith V, Van Praet JT, Vandooren B, Van der Cruyssen B, Naeyaert JM, Decuman S, Elewaut D, De Keyser F (2010) Rituximab in diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis: an open-label clinical and histopathological study. Ann Rheum Dis 69:193–197PubMedCrossRef
90.
go back to reference Steen VD, Costantino JP, Shapiro AP, Medsger TA Jr (1990) Outcome of renal crisis in systemic sclerosis: relation to availability of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Ann Intern Med 113:352–357PubMedCrossRef Steen VD, Costantino JP, Shapiro AP, Medsger TA Jr (1990) Outcome of renal crisis in systemic sclerosis: relation to availability of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Ann Intern Med 113:352–357PubMedCrossRef
91.
go back to reference Stefanaki C, Stefanaki K, Kontochristopoulos G, Antoniou C, Stratigos A, Nicolaidou E, Gregoriou S, Katsambas A (2008) Topical tacrolimus 0.1 % ointment in the treatment of localized scleroderma. An open label clinical and histological study. J Dermatol 35:712–718PubMedCrossRef Stefanaki C, Stefanaki K, Kontochristopoulos G, Antoniou C, Stratigos A, Nicolaidou E, Gregoriou S, Katsambas A (2008) Topical tacrolimus 0.1 % ointment in the treatment of localized scleroderma. An open label clinical and histological study. J Dermatol 35:712–718PubMedCrossRef
92.
go back to reference Stein B, Rahmsdorf HJ, Steffen A, Litfin M, Herrlich P (1989) UV-induced DNA damage is an intermediate step in UV-induced expression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, collagenase, c-fos, and metallothionein. Mol Cell Biol 9:5169–5181PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Stein B, Rahmsdorf HJ, Steffen A, Litfin M, Herrlich P (1989) UV-induced DNA damage is an intermediate step in UV-induced expression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, collagenase, c-fos, and metallothionein. Mol Cell Biol 9:5169–5181PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
93.
go back to reference Subcommittee for scleroderma criteria of the American Rheumatism Association Diagnostic and Therapeutic Criteria Committee (1980) Preliminary criteria for the classification of systemic sclerosis (scleroderma). Arthritis Rheum 23:581–590CrossRef Subcommittee for scleroderma criteria of the American Rheumatism Association Diagnostic and Therapeutic Criteria Committee (1980) Preliminary criteria for the classification of systemic sclerosis (scleroderma). Arthritis Rheum 23:581–590CrossRef
94.
go back to reference Sunderkotter C, Kuhn A, Hunzelmann N, Beissert S (2006) Phototherapy: a promising treatment option for skin sclerosis in scleroderma? Rheumatology (Oxford) 45(Suppl 3):iii52–iii54 Sunderkotter C, Kuhn A, Hunzelmann N, Beissert S (2006) Phototherapy: a promising treatment option for skin sclerosis in scleroderma? Rheumatology (Oxford) 45(Suppl 3):iii52–iii54
95.
go back to reference Taichman DB, Ornelas J, Chung L, Klinger JR, Lewis S, Mandel J, Palevsky HI, Rich S, Sood N, Rosenzweig EB, Trow TK, Yung R, Elliott CG, Badesch DB (2014) Pharmacologic therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension in adults: CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest 146:449–475PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Taichman DB, Ornelas J, Chung L, Klinger JR, Lewis S, Mandel J, Palevsky HI, Rich S, Sood N, Rosenzweig EB, Trow TK, Yung R, Elliott CG, Badesch DB (2014) Pharmacologic therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension in adults: CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest 146:449–475PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
96.
go back to reference Tashkin DP, Elashoff R, Clements PJ, Goldin J, Roth MD, Furst DE, Arriola E, Silver R, Strange C, Bolster M, Seibold JR, Riley DJ, Hsu VM, Varga J, Schraufnagel DE, Theodore A, Simms R, Wise R, Wigley F, White B, Steen V, Read C, Mayes M, Parsley E, Mubarak K, Connolly MK, Golden J, Olman M, Fessler B, Rothfield N, Metersky M (2006) Cyclophosphamide versus placebo in scleroderma lung disease. N Engl J Med 354:2655–2666PubMedCrossRef Tashkin DP, Elashoff R, Clements PJ, Goldin J, Roth MD, Furst DE, Arriola E, Silver R, Strange C, Bolster M, Seibold JR, Riley DJ, Hsu VM, Varga J, Schraufnagel DE, Theodore A, Simms R, Wise R, Wigley F, White B, Steen V, Read C, Mayes M, Parsley E, Mubarak K, Connolly MK, Golden J, Olman M, Fessler B, Rothfield N, Metersky M (2006) Cyclophosphamide versus placebo in scleroderma lung disease. N Engl J Med 354:2655–2666PubMedCrossRef
97.
go back to reference Trivedi R, Redente EF, Thakur A, Riches DW, Kompella UB (2012) Local delivery of biodegradable pirfenidone nanoparticles ameliorates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Nanotechnology 23:505101PubMedCrossRef Trivedi R, Redente EF, Thakur A, Riches DW, Kompella UB (2012) Local delivery of biodegradable pirfenidone nanoparticles ameliorates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Nanotechnology 23:505101PubMedCrossRef
98.
go back to reference Usategui A, Criado G, Del Rey MJ, Fare R, Pablos JL (2014) Topical vitamin D analogue calcipotriol reduces skin fibrosis in experimental scleroderma. Arch Dermatol Res 306:757–761PubMedCrossRef Usategui A, Criado G, Del Rey MJ, Fare R, Pablos JL (2014) Topical vitamin D analogue calcipotriol reduces skin fibrosis in experimental scleroderma. Arch Dermatol Res 306:757–761PubMedCrossRef
99.
go back to reference van den Hoogen F, Khanna D, Fransen J, Johnson SR, Baron M, Tyndall A, Matucci-Cerinic M, Naden RP, Medsger TA Jr, Carreira PE, Riemekasten G, Clements PJ, Denton CP, Distler O, Allanore Y, Furst DE, Gabrielli A, Mayes MD, van Laar JM, Seibold JR, Czirjak L, Steen VD, Inanc M, Kowal-Bielecka O, Muller-Ladner U, Valentini G, Veale DJ, Vonk MC, Walker UA, Chung L, Collier DH, Csuka ME, Fessler BJ, Guiducci S, Herrick A, Hsu VM, Jimenez S, Kahaleh B, Merkel PA, Sierakowski S, Silver RM, Simms RW, Varga J, Pope JE (2013) 2013 classification criteria for systemic sclerosis: an American College of Rheumatology/European League against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Arthritis Rheum 65:2737–2747PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef van den Hoogen F, Khanna D, Fransen J, Johnson SR, Baron M, Tyndall A, Matucci-Cerinic M, Naden RP, Medsger TA Jr, Carreira PE, Riemekasten G, Clements PJ, Denton CP, Distler O, Allanore Y, Furst DE, Gabrielli A, Mayes MD, van Laar JM, Seibold JR, Czirjak L, Steen VD, Inanc M, Kowal-Bielecka O, Muller-Ladner U, Valentini G, Veale DJ, Vonk MC, Walker UA, Chung L, Collier DH, Csuka ME, Fessler BJ, Guiducci S, Herrick A, Hsu VM, Jimenez S, Kahaleh B, Merkel PA, Sierakowski S, Silver RM, Simms RW, Varga J, Pope JE (2013) 2013 classification criteria for systemic sclerosis: an American College of Rheumatology/European League against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Arthritis Rheum 65:2737–2747PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
100.
go back to reference van den Hoogen FH, Boerbooms AM, Swaak AJ, Rasker JJ, van Lier HJ, van de Putte LB (1996) Comparison of methotrexate with placebo in the treatment of systemic sclerosis: a 24 week randomized double-blind trial, followed by a 24 week observational trial. Br J Rheumatol 35:364–372PubMedCrossRef van den Hoogen FH, Boerbooms AM, Swaak AJ, Rasker JJ, van Lier HJ, van de Putte LB (1996) Comparison of methotrexate with placebo in the treatment of systemic sclerosis: a 24 week randomized double-blind trial, followed by a 24 week observational trial. Br J Rheumatol 35:364–372PubMedCrossRef
101.
go back to reference Zulian F, Athreya BH, Laxer R, Nelson AM, Feitosa de Oliveira SK, Punaro MG, Cuttica R, Higgins GC, Van Suijlekom-Smit LW, Moore TL, Lindsley C, Garcia-Consuegra J, Esteves Hilario MO, Lepore L, Silva CA, Machado C, Garay SM, Uziel Y, Martini G, Foeldvari I, Peserico A, Woo P, Harper J (2006) Juvenile localized scleroderma: clinical and epidemiological features in 750 children. An international study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 45:614–620CrossRef Zulian F, Athreya BH, Laxer R, Nelson AM, Feitosa de Oliveira SK, Punaro MG, Cuttica R, Higgins GC, Van Suijlekom-Smit LW, Moore TL, Lindsley C, Garcia-Consuegra J, Esteves Hilario MO, Lepore L, Silva CA, Machado C, Garay SM, Uziel Y, Martini G, Foeldvari I, Peserico A, Woo P, Harper J (2006) Juvenile localized scleroderma: clinical and epidemiological features in 750 children. An international study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 45:614–620CrossRef
102.
go back to reference Zulian F, Martini G, Vallongo C, Vittadello F, Falcini F, Patrizi A, Alessio M, La Torre F, Podda RA, Gerloni V, Cutrone M, Belloni-Fortina A, Paradisi M, Martino S, Perilongo G (2011) Methotrexate treatment in juvenile localized scleroderma: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 63:1998–2006PubMedCrossRef Zulian F, Martini G, Vallongo C, Vittadello F, Falcini F, Patrizi A, Alessio M, La Torre F, Podda RA, Gerloni V, Cutrone M, Belloni-Fortina A, Paradisi M, Martino S, Perilongo G (2011) Methotrexate treatment in juvenile localized scleroderma: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 63:1998–2006PubMedCrossRef
103.
go back to reference Zwischenberger BA, Jacobe HT (2011) A systematic review of morphea treatments and therapeutic algorithm. J Am Acad Dermatol 65:925–941PubMedCrossRef Zwischenberger BA, Jacobe HT (2011) A systematic review of morphea treatments and therapeutic algorithm. J Am Acad Dermatol 65:925–941PubMedCrossRef
104.
go back to reference Babalola O, Mamalis A, Lev-Tov H, Jagdeo J (2014) NADPH oxidase enzymes in skin fibrosis: molecular targets and therapeutic agents. Arch Dermatol Res 306:313–330PubMedCrossRef Babalola O, Mamalis A, Lev-Tov H, Jagdeo J (2014) NADPH oxidase enzymes in skin fibrosis: molecular targets and therapeutic agents. Arch Dermatol Res 306:313–330PubMedCrossRef
105.
go back to reference Karimizadeh E, Motamed N, Mahmoudi M, Jafarinejad-Farsangi S, Jamshidi A, Faridani H, Gharibdoost F (2015) Attenuation of fibrosis with selective inhibition of c-Abl by siRNA in systemic sclerosis dermal fibroblasts. Arch Dermatol Res 307:135–142PubMedCrossRef Karimizadeh E, Motamed N, Mahmoudi M, Jafarinejad-Farsangi S, Jamshidi A, Faridani H, Gharibdoost F (2015) Attenuation of fibrosis with selective inhibition of c-Abl by siRNA in systemic sclerosis dermal fibroblasts. Arch Dermatol Res 307:135–142PubMedCrossRef
106.
go back to reference Maeda T, Yamamoto T, Imamura T, Tsuboi R (2016) Impaired wound healing in bleomycin-induced murine scleroderma: a new model of wound retardation. Arch Dermatol Res 308:87–94PubMedCrossRef Maeda T, Yamamoto T, Imamura T, Tsuboi R (2016) Impaired wound healing in bleomycin-induced murine scleroderma: a new model of wound retardation. Arch Dermatol Res 308:87–94PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Current and future direction in the management of scleroderma
Authors
Sean M. Brady
Lee Shapiro
Shaker A. Mousa
Publication date
01-09-2016
Publisher
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in
Archives of Dermatological Research / Issue 7/2016
Print ISSN: 0340-3696
Electronic ISSN: 1432-069X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-016-1647-6

Other articles of this Issue 7/2016

Archives of Dermatological Research 7/2016 Go to the issue