A case-based systematic review on the SARS-COVID-2-associated cerebrovascular diseases and the possible virus routes of entry

Aasfara J, Jidane S, Laarje A, Yamani KE, Belyamani L, Tijani Y (2021) SARS-CoV-2, recurrent ischemic strokes and carotid macrothrombosis: the other face of the cytokine storm (a case report). Pan Afr Med J 38:34. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2021.38.34.27645CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Abbott NJ (2002) Astrocyte–endothelial interactions and blood–brain barrier permeability. J Anat 200(5):523–534CrossRef

Abdulkadir T, Ünlübaş Y, Alemdar M, Akyüz E (2020) Coexistence of COVID-19 and acute ischemic stroke report of four cases. J Clin Neurosci 77:227–229CrossRef

Achar A, Ghosh C (2020) COVID-19-associated neurological disorders: the potential route of CNS invasion and blood-brain relevance. Cells 9(11):2360CrossRefPubMedCentral

Agarwal A, Pinho M, Raj K, Yu FF, Bathla G, Achilleos M, Maldjian J (2020) Neurological emergencies associated with COVID-19: stroke and beyond. Emerg Radiol 27(6):747–754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10140-020-01837-7CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Aghamollaei H, Sarvestani R, Bakherad H, Zare H, Guest PC, Ranjbar R, Sahebkar A (2021) Emerging technologies for the treatment of COVID-19. Clinical, Biological and Molecular Aspects of COVID-19, 81–96

Agrawal K, Burger K, Rothrock JF (2016) Cerebral sinus thrombosis. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 56(8)1380–1389

Ahmad H, Shubair SM, Kruer J, Hatoum CA (2021) Acute lower-extremity ischemia in a patient with COVID-19. Am J Case Rep 22:e928471. https://doi.org/10.12659/ajcr.928471CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Al-Mufti F, Becker C, Kamal H, Alshammari H, Dodson V, Nuoman R, Gandhi CD (2021) Acute cerebrovascular disorders and vasculopathies associated with significant mortality in SARS-CoV-2 patients admitted to the intensive care unit in the New York Epicenter. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 30(2):105429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105429CrossRefPubMed

Al Saiegh F, Ghosh R, Leibold A, Avery MB, Schmidt RF, Theofanis T, Gooch MR (2020) Status of SARS-CoV-2 in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with COVID-19 and stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 91(8):846–848. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2020-323522CrossRefPubMed

Allahyari F, Hosseinzadeh R, Nejad JH, Heiat M, Ranjbar R (2021) A case report of simultaneous autoimmune and COVID-19 encephalitis. J Neurovirol 1–3

Allan SM, Rothwell NJ (2001) Cytokines and acute neurodegeneration. Nat Rev Neurosci 2(10):734–744CrossRefPubMed

Appavu B, Deng D, Dowling MM, Garg S, Mangum T, Boerwinkle V, Abruzzo T (2021) Arteritis and large vessel occlusive strokes in children after COVID-19 infection. Pediatrics 147(3). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-023440

Ashraf M, Sajed S (2020) Acute stroke in a young patient with coronavirus disease 2019 in the presence of patent foramen ovale. Cureus 12(9):e10233. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10233CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Avula A, Nalleballe K, Narula N, Sapozhnikov S, Dandu V, Toom S, Elsayegh D (2020) COVID-19 presenting as stroke. Brain Behav Immun 87:115–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.077CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Baig AM (2020) Neurological manifestations in COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2. CNS Neurosci Ther 26(5):499CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Benameur K, Agarwal A, Auld SC, Butters MP, Webster AS, Ozturk T, Schinazi RF (2020) Encephalopathy and encephalitis associated with cerebrospinal fluid cytokine alterations and coronavirus disease, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 2020. Emerg Infect Dis 26(9):2016CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Bessa PB, Brito AKB, Pereira FR, Silva SQE, Almeida TVR, Almeida AP (2020) Ischemic stroke related to HIV and SARS-COV-2 co-infection: a case report. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 53:e20200692. https://doi.org/10.1590/0037-8682-0692-2020CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Bigliardi G, Ciolli L, Giovannini G, Vandelli L, Dell’Acqua ML, Borzì GM, Meletti S (2020) Middle cerebral artery ischemic stroke and COVID-19: a case report. J Neurovirol 26(6):967–969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-020-00898-1CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Bolaji P, Kukoyi B, Ahmad N, Wharton C (2020) Extensive cerebral venous sinus thrombosis: a potential complication in a patient with COVID-19 disease. BMJ Case Rep 13(8). https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-236820

Brann DH, Tsukahara T, Weinreb C, Lipovsek M, Van den Berge K, Gong B, Fletcher RB (2020) Non-neuronal expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry genes in the olfactory system suggests mechanisms underlying COVID-19-associated anosmia. Sci Adv 6(31)eabc5801

Briguglio M, Bona A, Porta M, Dell’Osso B, Pregliasco FE, Banfi G (2020) Disentangling the hypothesis of host dysosmia and SARS-CoV-2: the bait symptom that hides neglected neurophysiological routes. Front Physiol 11:671CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Burkert J, Patil S (2020) Acute cerebrovascular event in a COVID-19 positive patient immediately after commencing non-invasive ventilation. BMJ Case Rep 13(9). https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-237737

Cardoso ER, Bains SS, Robison B, Farkas J (2021) Superficial cerebral venous thrombosis and intracerebral hematoma in a 48-year-old man with SARS-CoV-2 infection: a case report. Am J Case Rep 22:e927011. https://doi.org/10.12659/ajcr.927011CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Carroll E, Lewis A (2021) Catastrophic intracranial hemorrhage in two critically ill patients with COVID-19. Neurocrit Care 34(1):354–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-020-00993-5CrossRefPubMed

Cezar-Junior AB, Faquini IV, Silva JLJ, de Carvalho Junior EV, Lemos L, Freire Filho JBM, Azevedo-Filho HRC (2020) Subarachnoid hemorrhage and COVID-19: association or coincidence? Medicine (baltimore) 99(51):e23862. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000023862CrossRef

Co COC, Yu JRT, Laxamana LC, David-Ona DIA (2020) Intravenous thrombolysis for stroke in a COVID-19 positive filipino patient, a case report. J Clin Neurosci 77:234–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2020.05.006CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Dahm T, Rudolph H, Schwerk C, Schroten H, Tenenbaum T (2016) Neuroinvasion and inflammation in viral central nervous system infections. Mediators of inflammation, 2016

Dakay K, Cooper J, Bloomfield J, Overby P, Mayer SA, Nuoman R, Al-Mufti F (2021) Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in COVID-19 infection: a case series and review of the literature. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 30(1):105434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105434CrossRefPubMed

Dakay K, Kaur G, Gulko E, Santarelli J, Bowers C, Mayer SA, Al-Mufti F (2020a) Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome and dissection in the setting of COVID-19 infection. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 29(9):105011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105011CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Dakay K, Kaur G, Mayer SA, Santarelli J, Gandhi C, Al-Mufti F (2020b) Cerebral herniation secondary to stroke-associated hemorrhagic transformation, fulminant cerebral edema in setting of COVID-19 associated ARDS and active malignancy. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 29(12):105397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105397CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Daneman R, Prat A (2015) The blood–brain barrier. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology, 7(1)a020412

de Almeida Lima AN, Pessoa SLM, Franco Costa Lima C, Picasso de Araújo Coimbra P, Bezerra Holanda JL (2020) Images in vascular medicine: acute peripheral artery occlusion and ischemic stroke in a patient with COVID-19. Vasc Med 25(5):482–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358863x20945020CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

de Lorenzo Alvarez A, Revilla Á, Corbalán T, Villar A, Espinel L, Martins J, Cubas A (2021) Ischemic stroke and purpuric dermatitis as COVID-19-related complications in a peritoneal dialysis patient. CEN Case Rep 10(2):250–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13730-020-00553-yCrossRefPubMed

Deliwala S, Abdulhamid S, Abusalih MF, Al-Qasmi MM, Bachuwa G (2020) Encephalopathy as the sentinel sign of a cortical stroke in a patient infected with coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Cureus 12(5):e8121. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8121CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Dumitrascu OM, Volod O, Bose S, Wang Y, Biousse V, Lyden PD (2020) Acute ophthalmic artery occlusion in a COVID-19 patient on apixaban. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 29(8):104982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.104982CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Efendizade A, Dmytriw AA, Hewitt K, Davies GA (2020) Unfractionated heparin in SARS-CoV-2 Pneumonia: ischemic stroke case report. Front Neurol 11:573356. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.573356CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Ehrlich LC, Hu S, Sheng WS, Sutton RL, Rockswold GL, Peterson PK, Chao CC (1998) Cytokine regulation of human microglial cell IL-8 production. J Immunol 160(4):1944–1948PubMed

El Nahas N, Roushdy T, Hamid E, Farag S, Shokri H, Fathy M, Aref H (2020) A case series of ischemic stroke with coronavirus disease 2019 in two Egyptian centers. Egypt J Neurol Psychiatr Neurosurg 56(1):120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41983-020-00259-zCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Eliezer M, Hautefort C, Hamel AL, Verillaud B, Herman P, Houdart E, Eloit C (2020) Sudden and complete olfactory loss of function as a possible symptom of COVID-19. JAMA otolaryngology–head & neck surgery, 146(7)674–675

Elshereye A, Erdinc B (2020) Multiple lacunar cerebral infarcts as the initial presentation of COVID-19. Cureus 12(8):e9638. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.9638CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Eskandarani R, Sahli S, Sawan S, Alsaeed A (2021) Simultaneous cardio-cerebral infarction in the coronavirus disease pandemic era: a case series. Medicine (baltimore) 100(4):e24496. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000024496CrossRef

Fayed I, Pivazyan G, Conte AG, Chang J, Mai JC (2020) Intracranial hemorrhage in critically ill patients hospitalized for COVID-19. J Clin Neurosci 81:192–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2020.08.026CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Fifi JT, Mocco J (2020) COVID-19 related stroke in young individuals. The Lancet Neurology 19(9):713–715CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Flores G, Kumar JI, Pressman E, Sack J, Alikhani P (2020) Spontaneous brainstem hemorrhagic stroke in the setting of novel coronavirus disease 2019 - a case report. Cureus 12(10):e10809. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10809CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Fu B, Chen Y, Li P (2021) 2019 novel coronavirus disease with secondary ischemic stroke: two case reports. BMC Neurol 21(1):4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-020-02033-3CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Garg A, Marji A, Goyal S, Ismail R (2020) A case of COVID-19 with memory impairment and delayed presentation as stroke. Cureus 12(8):e10025. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10025CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Gemcioglu E, Erden A, Davutoglu M, Karabuga B, Kucuksahin O (2020) Acute ischemic stroke in a lupus anticoagulant-positive woman with COVID-19. J Clin Rheumatol 26(6):236–237. https://doi.org/10.1097/rhu.0000000000001565CrossRefPubMed

Ghani MU, Kumar M, Ghani U, Sonia F, Abbas SA (2020) Intracranial hemorrhage complicating anticoagulant prophylactic therapy in three hospitalized COVID-19 patients. J Neurovirol 26(4):602–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-020-00869-6CrossRefPubMed

Goette A, Patscheke M, Henschke F, Hammwöhner M (2020) COVID-19-induced cytokine release syndrome associated with pulmonary vein thromboses, atrial cardiomyopathy, and arterial intima inflammation. TH Open 4(3):e271–e279. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1716717CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Goldberg MF, Goldberg MF, Cerejo R, Tayal AH (2020) Cerebrovascular disease in COVID-19. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 41(7):1170–1172. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A6588CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

González RG, Hirsch JA, Koroshetz W, Lev MH, Schaefer PW (2011) Acute ischemic stroke: Springer

Grau AJ, Urbanek C, Palm F (2010) Common infections and the risk of stroke. Nat Rev Neurol 6(12):681–694CrossRefPubMed

Guendouz C, Quenardelle V, Riou-Comte N, Welfringer P, Wolff V, Zuily S, Richard S (2021) Pathogeny of cerebral venous thrombosis in SARS-Cov-2 infection: case reports. Medicine (baltimore) 100(10):e24708. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000024708CrossRef

Guillan M, Villacieros-Alvarez J, Bellido S, Perez-Jorge Peremarch C, Suarez-Vega VM, Aragones-Garcia M, Fernandez-Ferro J (2020) Unusual simultaneous cerebral infarcts in multiple arterial territories in a COVID-19 patient. Thromb Res 193:107–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2020.06.015CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Haider A, Schmitt C, Greim CA (2020) Multiorgan point-of-care ultrasound in a patient with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia complicated by subarachnoid hemorrhage and pulmonary embolism. A A Pract 14(14):e01357. https://doi.org/10.1213/xaa.0000000000001357CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Halaji M, Farahani A, Ranjbar R, Heiat M, Dehkordi FS (2020) Emerging coronaviruses: first SARS, second MERS and third SARS-CoV-2: epidemiological updates of COVID-19. Infez Med 28(suppl 1):6–17PubMed

Han H, Ma Q, Li C, Liu R, Zhao L, Wang W, Liu F (2020) Profiling serum cytokines in COVID-19 patients reveals IL-6 and IL-10 are disease severity predictors. Emerging Microbes & Infections 9(1):1123–1130CrossRef

Haroon KH, Muhammad A, Hussain S, Patro SN (2020) COVID-19 related cerebrovascular thromboembolic complications in three young patients. Case Rep Neurol 12(3):321–328. https://doi.org/10.1159/000511179CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Hassett CE, Frontera JA (2021) Neurologic aspects of coronavirus disease of 2019 infection. Current opinion in infectious diseases

Heiat M, Heiat F, Halaji M, Ranjbar R, Yaali-Jahromi E, Azizi M, Badri T (2021) Phobia and fear of COVID-19: origins, complications and management, a narrative review. Ann Ig 33(4):360–370PubMed

Heman-Ackah SM, Su YS, Spadola M, Petrov D, Chen HI, Schuster J, Lucas T (2020) Neurologically devastating intraparenchymal hemorrhage in COVID-19 patients on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a case series. Neurosurgery 87(2):E147-e151. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyaa198CrossRefPubMed

Hosseini MJ, Halaji M, Nejad JH, Ranjbar R (2021) Central nervous system vasculopathy associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): a novel case report from Iran. J Neurovirol 1–3

Iqbal P, Laswi B, Jamshaid MB, Shahzad A, Chaudhry HS, Khan D, Yousaf Z (2021) The role of anticoagulation in post-COVID-19 concomitant stroke, myocardial infarction, and left ventricular thrombus: a case report. Am J Case Rep 22:e928852. https://doi.org/10.12659/ajcr.928852CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Kaur I, Vyas C, Mughal M, Gandhi H, Du D (2021) Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in COVID-19: an unusual presentation. Cureus 13(3):e13767. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.13767CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Khazaei M, Karimi K, Sedighi P, Khazaei S (2021) Cerebral sinus thrombosis secondary to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Case Rep Neurol Med 2021:6640368. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6640368CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Kirschenbaum D, Imbach LL, Rushing EJ, Frauenknecht KB, Gascho D, Ineichen BV, Reimann RR (2020) Intracerebral endotheliitis and microbleeds are neuropathological features of COVID‐19. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol

Klopfenstein T, Kadiane-Oussou N, Toko L, Royer P-Y, Lepiller Q, Gendrin V, Zayet S (2020) Features of anosmia in COVID-19. Med Mal Infect 50(5):436–439CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Krzystanek E, Gawryluk J, Arkuszewski M (2021) Fatal intracranial haemorrhage in a hypertensive patient with atrial fibrillation and coronavirus disease 2019. Neuroradiol J 34(2):147–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/1971400920978438CrossRefPubMed

Kumar A, Pareek V, Prasoon P, Faiq MA, Kumar P, Kumari C, Narayan RK (2020) Possible routes of SARS-CoV-2 invasion in brain: In context of neurological symptoms in COVID-19 patients. J Neurosci Res 98(12):2376–2383CrossRefPubMed

Kwon DH, Do Y, Eun MY, Lee J, Park H, Sohn SI, Hong JH (2020) Characteristics of acute stroke in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 and challenges in stroke management during an epidemic. J Korean Med Sci 35(35):e324. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e324CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Lan J, Ge J, Yu J, Shan S, Zhou H, Fan S, Zhang L (2020) Structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain bound to the ACE2 receptor. Nature 581(7807):215–220CrossRefPubMed

Li G, Fan Y, Lai Y, Han T, Li Z, Zhou P, Liu X (2020a) Coronavirus infections and immune responses. J Med Virol 92(4):424–432CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Li Y, Li M, Wang M, Zhou Y, Chang J, Xian Y, Hu B (2020b) Acute cerebrovascular disease following COVID-19: a single center, retrospective, observational study. Stroke Vasc Neurol 5:279–284. https://doi.org/10.1136/svn-2020-000431

Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JP, Moher D (2009) The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J Clin Epidemiol 62(10):e1–e34CrossRefPubMed

Mahboob S, Boppana SH, Rose NB, Beutler BD, Tabaac BJ (2020) Large vessel stroke and COVID-19: case report and literature review. eNeurologicalSci, 20, 100250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensci.2020.100250

Mandel M, Harari G, Gurevich M, Achiron A (2020) Cytokine prediction of mortality in COVID19 patients. Cytokine,134, 155190

Mansour OY, Malik AM, Linfante I (2020) Mechanical thrombectomy of COVID-19 positive acute ischemic stroke patient: a case report and call for preparedness. BMC Neurol 20(1):358. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-020-01930-xCrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Mao L, Jin H, Wang M, Hu Y, Chen S, He Q, Wang D (2020) Neurologic manifestations of hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in Wuhan. China JAMA Neurology 77(6):683–690CrossRefPubMed

Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, Sanchez E, Tattersall RS, Manson JJ (2020) COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. The Lancet 395(10229):1033–1034CrossRef

Meng X, Deng Y, Dai Z, Meng Z (2020) COVID-19 and anosmia: a review based on up-to-date knowledge. Am J Otolaryngol 102581

Mirzaee SMM, Gonçalves FG, Mohammadifard M, Tavakoli SM, Vossough A (2020) Focal cerebral arteriopathy in a pediatric patient with COVID-19. Radiology 297(2):E274-e275. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020202197CrossRefPubMed

Mirzaei R, Karampoor S, Sholeh M, Moradi P, Ranjbar R, Ghasemi F (2020) A contemporary review on pathogenesis and immunity of COVID-19 infection. Mol Biol Rep 47(7):5365–5376CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Mirzaie A, Halaji M, Dehkordi FS, Ranjbar R, Noorbazargan H (2020) A narrative literature review on traditional medicine options for treatment of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Complement Ther Clin Pract 101214

Mizuguchi M, Yamanouchi H, Ichiyama T, Shiomi M (2007) Acute encephalopathy associated with influenza and other viral infections. Acta Neurol Scand 115:45–56CrossRefPubMed

Mohammadpour S, Torshizi Esfahani A, Halaji M, Lak M, Ranjbar R (2021) An updated review of the association of host genetic factors with susceptibility and resistance to COVID-19. J Cell Physiol 236(1):49–54PubMed

Morassi M, Bagatto D, Cobelli M, D’Agostini S, Gigli GL, Bnà C, Vogrig A (2020) Stroke in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: case series. J Neurol 267(8):2185–2192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-09885-2CrossRefPubMed

Motoie R, Akai M, Kitahara T, Imamura H, Tanabe T, Sarazawa K, Komatsu K (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 complicated by multiple simultaneous intracerebral hemorrhages. Intern Med 59(20):2597–2600. https://doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.5697-20CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Mousa-Ibrahim F, Berg S, Od TO, Teitcher M, Ruland S (2021) Intracranial hemorrhage in hospitalized SARS-CoV-2 patients: a case series. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 30(1):105428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105428CrossRefPubMed

Mowla A, Sizdahkhani S, Sharifian-Dorche M, Selvan P, Emanuel BA, Tenser MS, Mack WJ (2020) Unusual pattern of arterial macrothrombosis causing stroke in a young adult recovered from COVID-19. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 29(12):105353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105353CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Nwajei F, Anand P, Abdalkader M, Andreu Arasa VC, Aparicio HJ, Behbahani S, Cervantes-Arslanian AM (2020) Cerebral venous sinus thromboses in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: three cases and a review of the literature. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 29(12):105412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105412CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Patel HN, Syed A, Lobel JS, Galler R, Georges J, Carmody M, Puumala M (2020a) Cerebellar infarction requiring surgical decompression in patient with COVID 19 pathological analysis and brief review. Interdiscip Neurosurg 22:100850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inat.2020.100850CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Patel SD, Kollar R, Troy P, Song X, Khaled M, Parra A, Pervez M (2020b) Malignant cerebral ischemia in a COVID-19 infected patient: case review and histopathological findings. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 29(11):105231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105231CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Pavillet CE, Selvakumar TA (2020) SARS-CoV-2 on the neural battleground. Nat Rev Immunol 20(9):518–518CrossRefPubMed

Prasad A, Kataria S, Srivastava S, Lakhani DA, Sriwastava S (2021) Multiple embolic stroke on magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in a COVID-19 case with persistent encephalopathy. Clin Imaging 69:285–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinimag.2020.09.010CrossRefPubMed

Priftis K, Algeri L, Villella S, Spada MS (2020) COVID-19 presenting with agraphia and conduction aphasia in a patient with left-hemisphere ischemic stroke. Neurol Sci 41(12):3381–3384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-020-04768-wCrossRefPubMed

Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, Zhang S, Yang S, Tao Y, Wang W (2020) Dysregulation of immune response in patients with coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan. China Clinical Infectious Diseases 71(15):762–768CrossRefPubMed

Rajdev K, Lahan S, Klein K, Piquette CA, Thi M (2020) Acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in COVID-19: mounting evidence. Cureus 12(8):e10157. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10157CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Rascón-Ramírez FJ, Carrascosa-Granada ÁM, Vargas-Jiménez AC, Ferrández-Pujante B, Ortuño-Andériz F (2020) Supra and infratentorial massive strokes in previously healthy young patients with SARS-CoV-2. The Role of Neurosurgery Neurocirugia (astur). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucir.2020.08.001CrossRef

Robinson CP, Busl KM (2020) Neurologic manifestations of severe respiratory viral contagions. Critical care explorations 2(4)

Rochfort KD, Collins LE, Murphy RP, Cummins PM (2014) Downregulation of blood-brain barrier phenotype by pro-inflammatory cytokines involves NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS generation: consequences for interendothelial adherens and tight junctions. PloS One 9(7)e101815

Roy D, Song J, Awad N, Zamudio P (2021) Treatment of unexplained coma and hypokinetic-rigid syndrome in a patient with COVID-19. BMJ Case Rep 14(3). https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-239781

Savić D, Alsheikh TM, Alhaj AK, Lazovic L, Alsarraf L, Bosnjakovic P, Yousef W (2020) Ruptured cerebral pseudoaneurysm in an adolescent as an early onset of COVID-19 infection: case report. Acta Neurochir (wien) 162(11):2725–2729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-020-04510-7CrossRef

Shang J, Wan Y, Luo C, Ye G, Geng Q, Auerbach A, Li F (2020) Cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117(21):11727–11734CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Song E, Zhang C, Israelow B, Lu P, Weizman OE, Liu F, Wang G (2020) Neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV-2 revealed in a human brain organoid model. BioRxiv

Sungnak W, Huang N, Bécavin C, Berg M, Queen R, Litvinukova M, Sampaziotis F (2020) SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat Med 26(5):681–687CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Thibodeau R, Jafroodifar A, Quraeshi S, Lisi M (2021) SARS-CoV-2 infection leading to ischemic and hemorrhagic brain lesions and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Radiol Case Rep 16(4):753–759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radcr.2021.01.025CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Thu SS, Matin N, Levine SR (2020) Olfactory gyrus intracerebral hemorrhage in a patient with COVID-19 infection. J Clin Neurosci 79:275–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2020.07.033CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Tu TM, Goh C, Tan YK, Leow AS, Pang YZ, Chien J, Koh J (2020) Cerebral venous thrombosis in patients with COVID-19 infection: a case series and systematic review. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 105379

Valderrama EV, Humbert K, Lord A, Frontera J, Yaghi S (2020) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection and ischemic stroke. Stroke 51(7):e124–e127. https://doi.org/10.1161/strokeaha.120.030153CrossRefPubMed

Varatharaj A, Galea I (2017) The blood-brain barrier in systemic inflammation. Brain Behav Immun 60:1–12CrossRefPubMed

Viguier A, Delamarre L, Duplantier J, Olivot JM, Bonneville F (2020) Acute ischemic stroke complicating common carotid artery thrombosis during a severe COVID-19 infection. J Neuroradiol 47(5):393–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurad.2020.04.003CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Wang L, He W, Yu X, Hu D, Bao M, Liu H, Jiang H (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 in elderly patients: characteristics and prognostic factors based on 4-week follow-up. J Infect 80(6):639–645CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Wong C, Lam C, Wu A, Ip W, Lee N, Chan I, Chung S (2004) Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol 136: 95–103 In

Zahid MJ, Baig A, Galvez-Jimenez N, Martinez N (2020) Hemorrhagic stroke in setting of severe COVID-19 infection requiring Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO). J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 29(9):105016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.105016CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Zhai P, Ding Y, Li Y (2020) The impact of COVID-19 on ischemic stroke. Diagn Pathol 15(1):78. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13000-020-00994-0CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Zhang JM, An J (2007) Cytokines, inflammation and pain. Int Anesthesiol Clin 45(2):27CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Zhang J, Sadowska GB, Chen X, Park SY, Kim JE, Bodge CA, Besio WG (2015) Anti-IL-6 neutralizing antibody modulates blood-brain barrier function in the ovine fetus. FASEB J 29(5):1739–1753CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Zhu X, Liu Q, Du L, Lu L, Jiang S (2013) Receptor-binding domain as a target for developing SARS vaccines. J Thorac Dis 5(Suppl 2):S142PubMedPubMedCentral

Ziegler CG, Allon SJ, Nyquist SK, Mbano IM, Miao VN, Tzouanas CN, Hauser BM (2020) SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 is an interferon-stimulated gene in human airway epithelial cells and is detected in specific cell subsets across tissues. Cell 181(5)1016–1035.e1019

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

A case-based systematic review on the SARS-COVID-2-associated cerebrovascular diseases and the possible virus routes of entry

Abstract

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 5/2021

Longitudinal telomere length profile does not reflect HIV and childhood trauma impacts on cognitive function in South African women

Herpes simplex encephalitis in patients receiving chemotherapy and whole-brain radiation therapy

Influenza vaccination status in multiple sclerosis patients from Latin America

Sex-specific effects of low-dose hydrocortisone on threat detection in HIV

Clinical use of steroids in viral central nervous system (CNS) infections: three challenging cases

A comprehensive review of COVID-19 biology, diagnostics, therapeutics, and disease impacting the central nervous system