Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

LIVE: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)
Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Published in: Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders 1/2016

Open Access 01-12-2016 | Research

Visual memory profile in 22q11.2 microdeletion syndrome: are there differences in performance and neurobiological substrates between tasks linked to ventral and dorsal visual brain structures? A cross-sectional and longitudinal study

Authors: Mathilde Bostelmann, Maude Schneider, Maria Carmela Padula, Johanna Maeder, Marie Schaer, Elisa Scariati, Martin Debbané, Bronwyn Glaser, Sarah Menghetti, Stephan Eliez

Published in: Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders | Issue 1/2016

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

Children affected by the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) have a specific neuropsychological profile with strengths and weaknesses in several cognitive domains. Specifically, previous evidence has shown that patients with 22q11.2DS have more difficulties memorizing faces and visual-object characteristics of stimuli. In contrast, they have better performance in visuo-spatial memory tasks. The first focus of this study was to replicate these results in a larger sample of patients affected with 22q11.2DS and using a range of memory tasks. Moreover, we analyzed if the deficits were related to brain morphology in the structures typically underlying these abilities (ventral and dorsal visual streams). Finally, since the longitudinal development of visual memory is not clearly characterized in 22q11.2DS, we investigated its evolution from childhood to adolescence.

Methods

Seventy-one patients with 22q11.2DS and 49 control individuals aged between 9 and 16 years completed the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT) and specific subtests assessing visual memory from the Children’s Memory Scale (CMS). The BVRT was used to compute spatial and object memory errors. For the CMS, specific subtests were classified into ventral, dorsal, and mixed subtests. Longitudinal data were obtained from a subset of 26 patients and 22 control individuals.

Results

Cross-sectional results showed that patients with 22q11.2DS were impaired in all visual memory measures, with stronger deficits in visual-object memory and memory of faces, compared to visuo-spatial memory. No correlations between morphological brain impairments and visual memory were found in patients with 22q11.2DS. Longitudinal findings revealed that participants with 22q11.2DS made more object memory errors than spatial memory errors at baseline. This difference was no longer significant at follow-up.

Conclusions

Individuals with 22q11.2DS have impairments in visual memory abilities, with more pronounced difficulties in memorizing faces and visual-object characteristics. From childhood to adolescence, the visual cognitive profile of patients with 22q11.2DS seems globally stable even though some processes show an evolution with time. We hope that our results will help clinicians and caregivers to better understand the memory difficulties of young individuals with 22q11.2DS. This has a particular importance at school to facilitate recommendations concerning intervention strategies for these young patients.
Literature
1.
Kirkpatrick JA, Digeorge AM. Congenital absence of thymus. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther. 1968;103(1):32–7.CrossRef
2.
Shprintzen RJ, Goldberg RB, Lewin ML, Sidoti EJ, Berkman MD, Argamaso RV, et al. New syndrome involving cleft-palate, cardiac anomalies, typical facies, and learning-disabilities—velo-cardio-facial syndrome. Cleft Palate J. 1978;15(1):56–62.PubMed
3.
4.
Grati FR, Gomes DM, Ferreira JCPB, Dupont C, Alesi V, Gouas L, et al. Prevalence of recurrent pathogenic microdeletions and microduplications in over 9500 pregnancies. Prenat Diagn. 2015;35(8):801–9.CrossRefPubMed
5.
Carey AH, Kelly D, Halford S, Wadey R, Wilson D, Goodship J, et al. Molecular genetic study of the frequency of monosomy 22q11 in DiGeorge syndrome. Am J Hum Genet. 1992;51(5):964–70.PubMedPubMedCentral
6.
Schneider M, Debbané M, Bassett AS, Chow EW, Fung WL, van den Bree M, et al. Psychiatric disorders from childhood to adulthood in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: results from the International Consortium on Brain and Behavior in 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2014;171(6):627–39.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
7.
De Smedt B, Devriendt K, Fryns JR, Vogels A, Gewillig M, Swillen A. Intellectual abilities in a large sample of children with velo-cardio-facial syndrome: an update. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2007;51:666–70.CrossRefPubMed
8.
McCabe K, Rich D, Loughland CM, Schall U, Campbell LE. Visual scanpath abnormalities in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: is this a face specific deficit? Psychiatry Res. 2011;189(2):292–8.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Glaser B, Debbané M, Ottet MC, Vuilleumier P, Zesiger P, Antonarakis SE, et al. Eye gaze during face processing in children and adolescents with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(7):665–74.PubMed
10.
Antshel KM, Peebles J, AbdulSabur N, Higgins AM, Roizen N, Shprintzen R, et al. Associations between performance on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure and regional brain volumes in children with and without velocardiofacial syndrome. Dev Neuropsychol. 2008;33(5):601–22.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
11.
Swillen A, Vandeputte L, Cracco J, Maes B, Ghesquiere P, Devriendt K, et al. Neuropsychological, learning and psychosocial profile of primary school aged children with the velo-cardio-facial syndrome (22q11 deletion): evidence for a nonverbal learning disability? Child Neuropsychol. 1999;5(4):230–41.CrossRefPubMed
12.
Debbané M, Glaser B, Eliez S. Encoding and retrieval processes in velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS). Neuropsychology. 2008;22(2):226–34.CrossRefPubMed
13.
Ungerleider LG, Haxby JV. “What” and “where” in the human brain. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1994;4:157–65.CrossRefPubMed
14.
Van Essen DC, Anderson CH, Felleman DJ. Information-processing in the primate visual-system—an integrated systems perspective. Science. 1992;255(5043):419–23.CrossRefPubMed
15.
Creem SH, Proffitt DR. Defining the cortical visual systems: “what”, “where”, and “how”. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2001;107(1-3):43–68.CrossRef
16.
Kravitz DJ, Saleem KS, Baker CI, Ungerleider LG, Mishkin M. The ventral visual pathway: an expanded neural framework for the processing of object quality. Trends Cogn Sci. 2013;17(1):26–49.CrossRefPubMed
17.
Rizzolatti G, Fogassi L, Gallese V. Parietal cortex: from sight to action. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1997;7(4):562–7.CrossRefPubMed
18.
Zachariou V, Klatzky R, Behrmann M. Ventral and dorsal visual stream contributions to the perception of object shape and object location. J Cogn Neurosci. 2014;26(1):189–209.CrossRefPubMed
19.
Stern CE, Corkin S, Gonzalez RG, Guimaraes AR, Baker JR, Jennings PJ, et al. The hippocampal formation participates in novel picture encoding: evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996;93(16):8660–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
20.
O’keefe J, Nadel L. Hippocampus as a cognitive map. Psychol Med. 1978;9(3):63–101.
21.
Moscovitch M, Nadel L, Winocur G, Gilboa A, Rosenbaum RS. The cognitive neuroscience of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2006;16(2):179–90.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Courtney SM, Ungerleider LG, Keil K, Haxby JV. Object and spatial visual working memory activate separate neural systems in human cortex. Cereb Cortex. 1996;6(1):39–49.CrossRefPubMed
23.
Moscovitch M, Rosenbaum RS, Gilboa A, Addis DR, Westmacott R, Grady C, et al. Functional neuroanatomy of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory: a unified account based on multiple trace theory. J Anat. 2005;207(1):35–66.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
24.
Moscovitch M, Kapur S, Kohler S, Houle S. Distinct neural correlates of visual long-term-memory for spatial location and object identity—a positron emission tomography study in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92(9):3721–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
25.
26.
Niarchou M, Zammit S, van Goozen SH, Thapar A, Tierling HM, Owen MJ, et al. Psychopathology and cognition in children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;204(1):46–54.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
27.
Wong LM, Riggins T, Harvey D, Cabaral M, Simon TJ. Children with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome exhibit impaired spatial working memory. Am J Intellect Dev Disabil. 2014;119(2):115–32.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
28.
Gur RE, Yi JJ, McDonald-McGinn DM, Tang SX, Calkins ME, Whinna D, et al. Neurocognitive development in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: comparison with youth having developmental delay and medical comorbidities. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(11):1205–11.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
29.
Goldenberg PC, Calkins ME, Richard J, McDonald-McGinn D, Zackai E, Mitra N, et al. Computerized neurocognitive profile in young people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome compared to youths with schizophrenia and at-risk for psychosis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2012;159B(1):87–93.CrossRefPubMed
30.
Lepach AC, Petermann F. Nonverbal and verbal learning: a comparative study of children and adolescents with 22q11 deletion syndrome, non-syndromal nonverbal learning disorder and memory disorder. Neurocase. 2011;17(6):480–90.CrossRefPubMed
31.
Woodin M, Wang PP, Aleman D, McDonald-McGinn D, Zackai E, Moss E. Neuropsychological profile of children and adolescents with the 22q11.2 microdeletion. Genet Med. 2001;3(1):34–9.CrossRefPubMed
32.
Campbell LE, Azuma R, Ambery F, Stevens A, Smith A, Morris RG, et al. Executive functions and memory abilities in children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010;44(4):364–71.CrossRefPubMed
33.
Lajiness-O’Neill RR, Beaulieu I, Titus JB, Asamoah A, Bigler ED, Bawle EV, et al. Memory and learning in children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: evidence for ventral and dorsal stream disruption? Child Neuropsychol. 2005;11(1):55–71.CrossRefPubMed
34.
Vicari S, Mantovan M, Addona F, Costanzo F, Verucci L, Menghini D. Neuropsychological profile of Italian children and adolescents with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome with and without intellectual disability. Behav Genet. 2012;42(2):287–98.CrossRefPubMed
35.
Glaser B, Schaer M, Bemey S, Debbané M, Vuilleumier P, Eliez S. Structural changes to the fusiform gyrus: a cerebral marker for social impairments in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome? Schizophr Res. 2007;96(1-3):82–6.CrossRefPubMed
36.
Andersson F, Glaser B, Spiridon M, Debbané M, Vuilleumier P, Eliez S. Impaired activation of face processing networks revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(1):49–57.CrossRefPubMed
37.
Kikinis Z, Makris N, Finn CT, Bouix S, Lucia D, Coleman MJ, et al. Genetic contributions to changes of fiber tracts of ventral visual stream in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Brain Imaging Behav. 2013;7(3):316–25.CrossRefPubMed
38.
Kikinis Z, Asami T, Bouix S, Finn CT, Ballinger T, Tworog-Dube E, et al. Reduced fractional anisotropy and axial diffusivity in white matter in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: a pilot study. Schizophr Res. 2012;141(1):35–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
39.
Maeder J, Schneider M, Bostelmann M, Debbané M, Glaser B, Menghetti S, et al. Developmental trajectories of executive functions in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. J Neurodev Disord. 2016;8:10.
40.
Gothelf D, Schneider M, Green T, Debbané M, Frisch A, Glaser B, et al. Risk factors and the evolution of psychosis in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: a longitudinal 2-site study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;52(11):1192–203.CrossRefPubMed
41.
Gothelf D, Eliez S, Thompson T, Hinard C, Penniman L, Feinstein C, et al. COMT genotype predicts longitudinal cognitive decline and psychosis in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Nat Neurosci. 2005;8(11):1500–2.CrossRefPubMed
42.
Vorstman JAS, Breetvelt EJ, Duijff SN, Eliez S, Schneider M, Jalbrzikowski M, et al. Cognitive decline preceding the onset of psychosis in patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Jama Psychiatry. 2015;72(4):377–85.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
43.
Duijff SN, Klaassen PW, de Veye HF, Beemer FA, Sinnema G, Vorstman JA. Cognitive development in children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;200(6):462–8.CrossRefPubMed
44.
Wechsler D. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. 3rd ed. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace & Co; 1991.
45.
Sivan AB. Benton Visual Retention Test (5th Ed.). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace & Co; 1992.
46.
Snow JH. Clinical use of the Benton Visual Retention Test for children and adolescents with learning disabilities. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 1998;13(7):629–36.CrossRefPubMed
47.
Rowley VN, Baer PE. Visual-retention test-performance in emotionally-disturbed and brain-damaged children. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1961;31(3):579–83.CrossRefPubMed
48.
Cohen MJ. Children’s memory scale. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace & Co; 1997.
49.
Bearden CE, Woodin MF, Wang PP, Moss E, McDonald-McGinn D, Zackai E, et al. The neurocognitive phenotype of the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: selective deficit in visual-spatial memory. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2001;23(4):447–64.CrossRefPubMed
50.
Liddell GA, Rasmussen C. Memory profile of children with nonverbal learning disability. Learn Disabil Res Pract. 2005;20(3):137–41.CrossRef
51.
Mutlu AK, Schneider M, Debbané M, Badoud D, Eliez S, Schaer M. Sex differences in thickness, and folding developments throughout the cortex. Neuroimage. 2013;82:200–7.CrossRefPubMed
52.
Thissen D, Steinberg L, Kuang D. Quick and easy implementation of the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure for controlling the false positive rate in multiple comparisons. J Educ Behav Stat. 2002;27(1):77–83.CrossRef
53.
Fischl B, Dale AM. Measuring the thickness of the human cerebral cortex from magnetic resonance images. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97(20):11050–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
54.
Fischl B, Sereno MI, Dale AM. Cortical surface-based analysis II: inflation, flattening, and a surface-based coordinate system. Neuroimage. 1999;9(2):195–207.CrossRefPubMed
55.
Hagler DJ, Saygin AP, Sereno MI. Smoothing and cluster thresholding for cortical surface-based group analysis of fMRI data. Neuroimage. 2006;33(4):1093–103.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
56.
Desikan RS, Segonne F, Fischl B, Quinn BT, Dickerson BC, Blacker D, et al. An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions of interest. Neuroimage. 2006;31(3):968–80.CrossRefPubMed
57.
Oskarsdottir S, Persson C, Eriksson BO, Fasth A. Presenting phenotype in 100 children with the 22q11 deletion syndrome. Eur J Pediatr. 2005;164(3):146–53.CrossRefPubMed
58.
59.
Loring DW, Martin RC, Meador KJ. Psychometric construction of the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure: methodological considerations and interrater reliability. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 1990;5:1–14.CrossRefPubMed
60.
Sobin C, Kiley-Brabeck K, Daniels S, Khuri J, Taylor L, Blundell M, et al. Neuropsychological characteristics of children with the 22q11 deletion syndrome: a descriptive analysis. Child Neuropsychol. 2005;11(1):39–53.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
61.
Shapiro HM, Tassone F, Choudhary NS, Simon TJ. The development of cognitive control in children with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Front Psychol. 2014;5:566.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
62.
Swillen A, Vogels A, Devriendt K, Fryns JP. Chromosome 22q11 deletion syndrome: update and review of the clinical features, cognitive-behavioral spectrum, and psychiatric complications. Am J Med Genet. 2000;97(2):128–35.CrossRefPubMed
63.
Henry JC, van Amelsvoort T, Morris RG, Owen MJ, Murphy DGM, Murphy KC. An investigation of the neuropsychological profile in adults with velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS). Neuropsychologia. 2002;40(5):471–8.CrossRefPubMed
64.
Van Aken K, Caeyenberghs K, Smits-Engelsman B, Swillen A. The motor profile of primary school-age children with a 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2ds) and an age- and Iq-matched control group. Child Neuropsychol. 2009;15(6):532–42.CrossRefPubMed
65.
Atkinson J, Braddick O. From genes to brain development to phenotypic behavior: “dorsal-stream vulnerability” in relation to spatial cognition, attention, and planning of actions in Williams syndrome (WS) and other developmental disorders. Prog Brain Res. 2011;189:261–83.CrossRefPubMed
66.
Braddick O, Atkinson J, Wattam-Bell J. Normal and anomalous development of visual motion processing: motion coherence and ‘dorsal-stream vulnerability’. Neuropsychologia. 2003;41(13):1769–84.CrossRefPubMed
67.
Bellugi U, Lichtenberger L, Mills D, Galaburda A, Korenberg JR. Bridging cognition, the brain and molecular genetics: evidence from Williams syndrome. Trends Neurosci. 1999;22(5):197–207.CrossRefPubMed
68.
Atkinson J, King J, Braddick O, Nokes L, Anker S, Braddick F. A specific deficit of dorsal stream function in Williams’ syndrome. Neuroreport. 1997;8(8):1919–22.CrossRefPubMed
69.
Kogan CS, Bertone A, Cornish K, Boutet I, Kaloustian VMD, Andermann E, et al. Integrative cortical dysfunction and pervasive motion perception deficit in fragile X syndrome. Neurology. 2004;63(9):1634–9.CrossRefPubMed
70.
Ridder WH, Borsting E, Banton T. All developmental dyslexic subtypes display an elevated motion coherence threshold. Optom Vis Sci. 2001;78(7):510–7.CrossRefPubMed
71.
Spencer J, O’Brien J, Riggs K, Braddick O, Atkinson A, Wattam-Bell J. Motion processing in autism: evidence for a dorsal stream deficiency. Neuroreport. 2000;11(12):2765–7.CrossRefPubMed
72.
Vicari S, Bellucci S, Carlesimo GA. Visual and spatial long-term memory: differential pattern of impairments in Williams and Down syndromes. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47(5):305–11.CrossRefPubMed
73.
Majerus S, Van der Linden M, Braissand V, Eliez S. Verbal short-term memory in individuals with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion: specific deficit in serial order retention capacities? Am J Ment Retard. 2007;112(2):79–93.CrossRefPubMed
74.
Simon TJ, Wu ZL, Avants B, Zhang H, Gee JC, Stebbins GT. Atypical cortical connectivity and visuospatial cognitive impairments are related in children with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Behav Brain Funct. 2008;4(1):25.
75.
Radoeva PD, Coman IL, Antshel KM, Fremont W, McCarthy CS, Kotkar A, et al. Atlas-based white matter analysis in individuals with velo-cardio-facial syndrome (22q11.2 deletion syndrome) and unaffected siblings. Behav Brain Funct. 2012;8(1):38.
76.
Klaver P, Marcar V, Martin E. Neurodevelopment of the visual system in typically developing children. Prog Brain Res. 2011;189:113–36.CrossRefPubMed
77.
Spaniol J, Davidson PSR, Kim ASN, Han H, Moscovitch M, Grady CL. Event-related fMRI studies of episodic encoding and retrieval: meta-analyses using activation likelihood estimation. Neuropsychologia. 2009;47(8-9):1765–79.CrossRefPubMed
78.
Westlye LT, Walhovd KB, Dale AM, Bjornerud A, Due-Tonnessen P, Engvig A, et al. Differentiating maturational and aging-related changes of the cerebral cortex by use of thickness and signal intensity. Neuroimage. 2010;52(1):172–85.CrossRefPubMed
79.
Rentschler I, Juttner M, Osman E, Muller A, Caelli T. Development of configural 3D object recognition. Behav Brain Res. 2004;149(1):107–11.CrossRefPubMed
80.
Gunn A, Cory E, Atkinson J, Braddick O, Wattam-Bell J, Guzzetta A, et al. Dorsal and ventral stream sensitivity in normal development and hemiplegia. Neuroreport. 2002;13(6):843–7.CrossRefPubMed
81.
Souchay C, Guillery-Girard B, Pauly-Takacs K, Wojcik DZ, Eustache F. Subjective experience of episodic memory and metacognition: a neurodevelopmental approach. Front Behav Neurosci. 2013;7:212.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
82.
83.
Schneider M, Van der Linden M, Glaser B, Rizzi E, Dahoun SP, Hinard C, et al. Preliminary structure and predictive value of attenuated negative symptoms in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Psychiatry Res. 2012;196(2-3):277–84.CrossRefPubMed
84.
Campbell LE, Stevens A, Daly E, Toal F, Azuma R, Karmiloff-Smith A, et al. A comparative study of cognition and brain anatomy between two neurodevelopmental disorders: 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and Williams syndrome. Neuropsychologia. 2009;47(4):1034–44.CrossRefPubMed
85.
Rosenthal R. Meta-analytic procedures for social research (Vol. 6). Newbury Park: Sage; 1991.
Metadata
Title
Visual memory profile in 22q11.2 microdeletion syndrome: are there differences in performance and neurobiological substrates between tasks linked to ventral and dorsal visual brain structures? A cross-sectional and longitudinal study
Authors
Mathilde Bostelmann
Maude Schneider
Maria Carmela Padula
Johanna Maeder
Marie Schaer
Elisa Scariati
Martin Debbané
Bronwyn Glaser
Sarah Menghetti
Stephan Eliez
Publication date
01-12-2016
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders / Issue 1/2016
Print ISSN: 1866-1947
Electronic ISSN: 1866-1955
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-016-9174-5

Other articles of this Issue 1/2016

Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders 1/2016 Go to the issue

Erratum

Erratum to: Neural correlates of reward processing in adults with 22q11 deletion syndrome

Research

Further evidence for a parent-of-origin effect at the NOP9 locus on language-related phenotypes

Research

Sex bias in autism spectrum disorder in neurofibromatosis type 1

Research

An investigation of NFXL1, a gene implicated in a study of specific language impairment

Research

Comparing oxytocin and cortisol regulation in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, hydrocortisone challenge pilot study in children with autism and typical development

Research

Genomic sequencing of a dyslexia susceptibility haplotype encompassing ROBO1