Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Annals of Intensive Care
Published in: Annals of Intensive Care 1/2012

Open Access 01-12-2012 | Review

The transition from acute to chronic pain: might intensive care unit patients be at risk?

Authors: Maria Kyranou, Kathleen Puntillo

Published in: Annals of Intensive Care | Issue 1/2012

Login to get access

Abstract

Pain remains a significant problem for patients hospitalized in intensive care units (ICUs). As research has shown, for some of these patients pain might even persist after discharge and become chronic. Exposure to intense pain and stress during medical and nursing procedures could be a risk factor that contributes to the transition from acute to chronic pain, which is a major disruption of the pain neurological system. New evidence suggests that physiological alterations contributing to chronic pain states take place both in the peripheral and central nervous systems. The purpose of this paper is to: 1) review cutting-edge theories regarding pain and mechanisms that underlie the transition from acute to chronic pain, such as increases in membrane excitability of peripheral and central nerve fibers, synaptic plasticity, and loss of the function of descending inhibitory pain fibers; 2) provide information on the association between the immune system and pain and its crucial contribution to development of chronic pain syndromes, and 3) discuss mechanisms at brain levels in the nervous system and their contribution to affective (i.e., emotional) states associated with chronic pain conditions. Finally, we will offer suggestions for ICU clinical interventions to attempt to prevent the transition from acute to chronic pain.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Erstad BL, Puntillo K, Gilbert HC, Grap MJ, Li D, Medina J, et al.: Pain management principles in the critically ill. Chest 2009, 135: 1075–1086. 10.1378/chest.08-2264PubMed
2.
Stanik-Hutt JA, Soeken KL, Belcher AE, et al.: Pain experiences of traumatically injured patients in a critical care setting. Am J Crit Care 2001, 10: 252–259.PubMed
3.
Nelson JE, Meier DE, Oei EJ, Nierman DM, Senzel RS, Manfredi PL, et al.: Self-reported symptom experience of critically ill cancer patients receiving intensive care. Crit Care Med 2001, 29: 277–282. 10.1097/00003246-200102000-00010PubMed
4.
Puntillo KA, White C, Morris AB, Perdue ST, Stanik-Hutt J, Thompson CL, et al.: Patients' perceptions and responses to procedural pain: Results from thunder project II. Am J Crit Care 2001, 10: 238–251.PubMed
5.
Chanques G, Sebbane M, Barbotte E, Viel E, Eledjam JJ, Jaber S: A prospective study of pain at rest: Incidence and characteristics of an unrecognized symptom in surgical and trauma versus medical intensive care unit patients. Anesthesiology 2007, 107: 858–860. 10.1097/01.anes.0000287211.98642.51PubMed
6.
Gelinas C, Fillion L, Puntillo KA, Viens C, Fortier M: Validation of the critical-care pain observation tool in adult patients. Am J Crit Care 2006, 15: 420–427.PubMed
7.
Payen JF, Bru O, Bosson JL, Lagrasta A, Novel E, Deschaux I, et al.: Assessing pain in critically ill sedated patients by using a behavioral pain scale. Crit Care Med 2001, 29: 2258–2263. 10.1097/00003246-200112000-00004PubMed
8.
Gelinas C: Management of pain in cardiac surgery ICU patients: Have we improved over time? Intensive Crit Care Nurs 2007, 23: 298–303. 10.1016/j.iccn.2007.03.002PubMed
9.
Schelling G, Stoll C, Haller M, Briegel J, Manert W, Hummel T, et al.: Health-related quality of life and posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1998, 26: 651–659. 10.1097/00003246-199804000-00011PubMed
10.
Katz J, Seltzer Z: Transition from acute to chronic postsurgical pain: risk factors and protective factors. Exp Rev Neurother 2009, 5: 723–744.
11.
Dowdy DW, Eid MP, Sedrakyan A, Mendez-Tellez PA, Pronovost PJ, et al.: Quality of life in adult survivors of critical illness: A systematic review of the literature. Intensive Care Med 2005, 31: 611–620. 10.1007/s00134-005-2592-6PubMed
12.
Dowdy DW, Eid MP, Dennison CR, Mendez-Tellez PA, Herridge MS, Guallar E, Pronovost PJ, Needham DM: Quality of life after acute respiratory distress syndrome: a meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 2006, 32: 1115–1124. 10.1007/s00134-006-0217-3PubMed
13.
Der Schaaf M, Beelen A, Dongelmans D, Vroom M, Nollet F: Poor functional recovery after critical illness.A longitudinal study. J Rehab Med 2009, 41: 1041–1048. 10.2340/16501977-0443
14.
Pavoni V, Gianesello L, Paparella L, Buoninsegni LT, Barboni E: Outcome predictors and quality of life of severe burn patients admitted to intensive care unit. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2010, 18: 24–32. 10.1186/1757-7241-18-24PubMedCentralPubMed
15.
Zimmer A, Rothaug J, Mescha S, Reinhart K, Meissner W, Marx G: Chronic pain after surviving sepsis. Crit Care 2006,10(Suppl 1):P421. 10.1186/cc4768PubMedCentral
16.
Jose GM H, Spronk PE, van Stel HF, Schrijvers GJP, Rommes JH, Jan Bakker J: The impact of critical illness on perceived health-related quality of life during ICU treatment, hospital stay, and after hospital discharge: a long-term follow-up study. Chest 2008, 133: 377–385. 10.1378/chest.07-1217
17.
Jacodic HK, Jakodic K, Podbregar M: Long-term outcome and quality of life of patients treated in a surgical intensive care: a comparison between sepsis and trauma. Crit Care 2006, 10: R134. 10.1186/cc5047
18.
Cuthbertson BH, Roughton S, Jenkinson D, MacLennan G, Vale L: Quality of life in the five years after intensive care: a cohort study. Crit Care 2010, 14: R6. 10.1186/cc8848PubMedCentralPubMed
19.
Timmers TK, Verhofstad MH, Moons KG, van Beeck EF, Leenen LP: Long-term quality of life after surgical intensive care admission. Arch Surg 2011, 146: 412–418. 10.1001/archsurg.2010.279PubMed
20.
21.
Acute Pain Management Guideline P: Acute Pain Management: Operative or Medical Procedures and Trauma. Clinical Practice Guideline. In AHCPR Pub. No. 92–0032. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1992.
22.
Dubner R: The neurobiology of persistent pain and its clinical implications. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol 2004, 57: 3–7.PubMed
23.
Ji RR, Kohno T, Moore KA, Woolf CJ: Central sensitization and LTP: Do pain and memory share similar mechanisms? Trends Neurosci 2003, 26: 696–705. 10.1016/j.tins.2003.09.017PubMed
24.
Woolf CJ, Salter MW: Neuronal plasticity: Increasing the gain in pain. Science (New York) 2000, 288: 1765–1769. 10.1126/science.288.5472.1765
25.
Woolf CJ, Ma Q: Nociceptors–noxious stimulus detectors. Neuron 2007, 55: 353–364. 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.016PubMed
26.
Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, Matte-Martyn A, Diaz-Granados N, Al-Saidi F, Cooper AB, Guest CB, Mazer CD, Mehta S, Stewart TE, Barr A, Cook D, Slutsky AS: One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003, 348: 683–693. 10.1056/NEJMoa022450PubMed
27.
Kehlet H, Rathmell JP: Persistent postsurgical pain: the path forward through better design of clinical studies. Anesthesiology 2010, 112: 514–515. 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181cf423dPubMed
28.
Mosby: Mosby's Medical Dictionary. 8th edition. Elsevier, US; 2009.
29.
30.
Millan MJ: Descending control of pain. Prog Neurobiol 2002, 66: 355–474. 10.1016/S0301-0082(02)00009-6PubMed
31.
32.
Basbaum AI, Bautista DM, Scherrer G, Julius D: Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell 2009, 139: 267–284. 10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.028PubMedCentralPubMed
33.
Hughes JR: Post-tetanic potentiation. Physiol Rev 1958, 38: 91–113.PubMed
34.
Latremoliere A, Woolf CJ: Central sensitization: A generator of pain hypersensitivity by central neural plasticity. J Pain 2009, 10: 895–926. 10.1016/j.jpain.2009.06.012PubMedCentralPubMed
35.
Macrae WA, Davies HTO: Chronic postsurgical pain. In Epidemiology of Pain. Edited by: Crombie IK. IASP Press, Seattle; 1999:125–142.
36.
Sandkuhler J: Models and mechanisms of hyperalgesia and allodynia. Physiol Rev 2009, 89: 707–758. 10.1152/physrev.00025.2008PubMed
37.
Lee M, Silverman S, Hansen H, Patel V, Manchikanti L: A comprehensive review of opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Pain Physician 2011, 14: 145–161.PubMed
38.
Bausbaum AI, Jessell T: The perception of pain. In Principles of Neuroscience. Edited by: Kandel ER, Schwartz J, Jessell T. Appleton and Lange, New York; 2000:472–491.
39.
40.
McMahon SB, Bennett DLH, Bevan S: Inflammatory mediators and modulators of pain. In Wall and Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by: McMahon SB, Koltzenburg M. Elsevier, Philadelphia; 2008:49–72.
41.
Ritner HL, Machelska H, Stein C: Immune system pain and analgesia. In Science of Pain. Edited by: Bausbaum AI, Bushnell M. Academic Press, Oxford, England; 2009:407–427.
42.
Lindenlaub T, Teuteberg P, Hartung T, Sommer C: Effects of neutralizing antibodies to TNF-alpha on pain-related behavior and nerve regeneration in mice with chronic constriction injury. Brain Res 2000, 866: 15–22. 10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02190-9PubMed
43.
Schafers M, Brinkhoff J, Neukirchen S, Marziniak M, Sommer C: Combined epineurial therapy with neutralizing antibodies to tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 receptor has an additive effect in reducing neuropathic pain in mice. Neurosci Lett 2001, 310: 113–116. 10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02077-8PubMed
44.
Sommer C, Petrausch S, Lindenlaub T, Toyka KV: Neutralizing antibodies to interleukin 1-receptor reduce pain associated behavior in mice with experimental neuropathy. Neurosci Lett 1999, 270: 25–28. 10.1016/S0304-3940(99)00450-4PubMed
45.
Twining CM, Sloane EM, Milligan ED, Chacur M, Martin D, Poole S, Marsh H, Maier SF, Watkins LR: Peri-sciatic proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species, and complement induce mirror-image neuropathic pain in rats. Pain 2004, 110: 299–309. 10.1016/j.pain.2004.04.008PubMed
46.
Cui JG, Holmin S, Mathiesen T, Meyerson BA, Linderoth B: Possible role of inflammatory mediators in tactile hypersensitivity in rat models of mononeuropathy. Pain 2000, 88: 239–248. 10.1016/S0304-3959(00)00331-6PubMed
47.
Liu T, van Rooijen N, Tracey DJ: Depletion of macrophages reduces axonal degeneration and hyperalgesia following nerve injury. Pain 2000, 86: 25–32. 10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00306-1PubMed
48.
Rapanos T, Murphy P, Szalai JP, Burlacoff L, Lam-McCulloch J, Kay J: Rectal indomethacin reduces postoperative pain and morphine use after cardiac surgery. Can J Anaesth 1999, 46: 725–730. 10.1007/BF03013906PubMed
49.
Hynninen MS, Cheng DC, Hossain I, Carroll J, Aumbhagavan SS, Yue R, et al.: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in treatment of postoperative pain after cardiac surgery. CanJ Anaesth 2000, 47: 1182–1187. 10.1007/BF03019866
50.
51.
Watkins LR, Maier SF: Beyond neurons: Evidence that immune and glial cells contribute to pathological pain states. Physiol Rev 2002, 82: 981–1011.PubMed
52.
Hu P, McLachlan EM: Macrophage and lymphocyte invasion of dorsal root ganglia after peripheral nerve lesions in the rat. Neuroscience 2002, 112: 23–38. 10.1016/S0306-4522(02)00065-9PubMed
53.
Ohtori S, Takahashi K, Moriya H, Myers RR: TNF-alpha and TNF-alpha receptor type 1 upregulation in glia and neurons after peripheral nerve injury: studies in murine DRG and spinal cord. Spine 2004, 29: 1082–1088. 10.1097/00007632-200405150-00006PubMed
54.
Schafers M, Lee DH, Brors D, Yaksh TL, Sorkin LS: Increased sensitivity of injured and adjacent uninjured rat primary sensory neurons to exogenous tumor necrosis factor-alpha after spinal nerve ligation. J Neurosci 2003, 23: 3028–3038.PubMed
55.
Schafers M, Sorkin LS, Geis C, Shubayev VI: Spinal nerve ligation induces transient upregulation of tumor necrosis factor receptors 1 and 2 in injured and adjacent uninjured dorsal root ganglia in the rat. Neurosci Lett 2003, 347: 179–182. 10.1016/S0304-3940(03)00695-5PubMed
56.
Morioka N, Inoue A, Hanada T, Kumagai K, Takeda K, Ikoma K, et al.: Nitric oxide synergistically potentiates interleukin-1 beta-induced increase of cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA levels, resulting in the facilitation of substance P release from primary afferent neurons: involvement of cGMP-independent mechanisms. Neuropharmacology 2002, 43: 868–876. 10.1016/S0028-3908(02)00143-0PubMed
57.
Hou L, Li W, Wang X: Mechanism of interleukin-1 beta-induced calcitonin gene-related peptide production from dorsal root ganglion neurons of neonatal rats. J Neurosci Res 2003, 73: 188–197. 10.1002/jnr.10651PubMed
58.
59.
Goshgarian H: Anatomy and function of the spinal cord. In Spinal Cord Medicine: Principles and Practice. Edited by: Vernon WL, Cardenas DD, Cutter NC, Frost FS, Hammond MC, Lindblom LB, Perkash I, Waters R, Woolsey RM. Demos Medical Publishing, New York; 2003:15–35.
60.
Pandey CK, Bose N, Garg G, Singh N, Baronia A, Agarwal A, et al.: Gabapentin for the treatment of pain in Guillain-Barré syndrome: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Anesth Analg 2002, 95: 1719–1723. 10.1097/00000539-200212000-00046PubMed
61.
Pandey CK, Raza M, Tripathi M, Navkar DV, Kumar A, Singh UK: The comparative evaluation of gabapentin and carbamazepine for pain management in Guillain-Barrésyndrome patients in the intensive care unit. Anesth Analg 2005, 101: 220–225. 10.1213/01.ANE.0000152186.89020.36PubMed
62.
Pandey CK, Singhal V, Kumar A, Lakra A, Ranjan R, Pal R, Raza M, Singh UK, Singh PK: Gabapentin provides effective postoperative analgesia whether administered preemptively or post-incision. Can J Anesth 2005, 52: 827–831. 10.1007/BF03021777PubMed
63.
Joly V, Richebe R, Guignard B, Fletcher D, Maurette P, Sessler DI, et al.: Remifentanil-induced postoperative hyperalgesia and its prevention with small-dose ketamine. Anesthesiology 2005, 103: 147–155. 10.1097/00000542-200507000-00022PubMed
64.
Luo C, Seeburg PH, Sprengel R, Kuner R: Activity-dependent potentiation of calcium signals in spinal sensory networks in inflammatory pain states. Pain 2008, 140: 358–367. 10.1016/j.pain.2008.09.008PubMed
65.
Woolf CJ: Windup and central sensitization are not equivalent. Pain 1996, 66: 105–108.PubMed
66.
Neumann S, Doubell TP, Leslie T, Woolf CJ: Inflammatory pain hypersensitivity mediated by phenotypic switch in myelinated primary sensory neurons. Nature 1996, 384: 360–364. 10.1038/384360a0PubMed
67.
Cherubini E, Conti F: Generating diversity at GABAergic synapses. Trends Neurosci 2001, 24: 155–162. 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01724-0PubMed
68.
Lee JW, Siegel SM, Oaklander AL: Effects of distal nerve injuries on dorsal-horn neurons and glia: Relationships between lesion size and mechanical hyperalgesia. Neuroscience 2009, 158: 904–914. 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.10.010PubMedCentralPubMed
69.
Mattia C, Savoia G, Paoletti F, Piazza O, Albanese D, Amantea B, et al.: SIAARTI recommendations for analgo-sedation in intensive care unit. Minerva Anestesiol 2006, 72: 769–805.PubMed
70.
Porreca F, Ossipov MH, Gebhart GF: Chronic pain and medullary descending facilitation. Trends Neurosci 2002, 25: 319–325. 10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02157-4PubMed
71.
Urban MO, Gebhart GF: Supraspinal contributions to hyperalgesia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999, 96: 7687–7692. 10.1073/pnas.96.14.7687PubMedCentralPubMed
72.
Watkins LR, Maier SF: Implications of immune-to-brain communication for sickness and pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999, 96: 7710–7713. 10.1073/pnas.96.14.7710PubMedCentralPubMed
73.
Chanques G, Sebbane M, Constantin JM, Ramillon N, Jung B, Cisse M, Lefrant JY, Jader S: Analgesic efficacy and haemodynamic effects of nefopam in critically ill patients. Br J Anaesth 2011, 106: 336–343. 10.1093/bja/aeq375PubMed
74.
Fields HL, Heinricher MM: Anatomy and physiology of a nociceptive modulatory system. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1985, 308: 361–374. 10.1098/rstb.1985.0037PubMed
75.
Porreca F, Burgess SE, Gardell LR, Vanderah TW, Malan TP, Ossipov MH, et al.: Inhibition of neuropathic pain by selective ablation of brainstem medullary cells expressing the mu-opioid receptor. J Neurosci 2001, 21: 5281–5288.PubMed
76.
Wiertelak EP, Smith KP, Furness L, Mooney-Heiberger K, Mayr T, Maier SF, et al.: Acute and conditioned hyperalgesic responses to illness. Pain 1994, 56: 227–234. 10.1016/0304-3959(94)90098-1PubMed
77.
Fu KY, Light AR, Maixner W: Relationship between nociceptor activity, peripheral edema, spinal microglial activation and long-term hyperalgesia induced by formalin. Neuroscience 2000, 101: 1127–1135. 10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00376-6PubMed
78.
Meller ST, Dykstra C, Grzybycki D, Murphy S, Gebhart GF: The possible role of glia in nociceptive processing and hyperalgesia in the spinal cord of the rat. Neuropharmacology 1994, 33: 1471–1478. 10.1016/0028-3908(94)90051-5PubMed
79.
Milligan ED, O'Connor KA, Nguyen KT, Armstrong CB, Twining C, Gaykema RP, et al.: Intrathecal HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 induces enhanced pain states mediated by spinal cord proinflammatory cytokines. J Neurosci 2001, 21: 2808–2819.PubMed
80.
Milligan ED, Twining C, Chacur M, Biedenkapp J, O'Connor K, Poole S, et al.: Spinal glia and proinflammatory cytokines mediate mirror-image neuropathic pain in rats. J Neurosci 2003, 23: 1026–1040.PubMed
81.
Raghavendra V, Tanga F, DeLeo JA: Inhibition of microglial activation attenuates the development but not existing hypersensitivity in a rat model of neuropathy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003, 306: 624–630. 10.1124/jpet.103.052407PubMed
82.
Sjostrand J: Neuroglial proliferation in the hypoglossal nucleus after nerve injury. Exp Neurol 1971, 30: 178–189. 10.1016/0014-4886(71)90232-9PubMed
83.
Watkins LR, Wiertelak EP, Furness LE, Maier SF: Illness-induced hyperalgesia is mediated by spinal neuropeptides and excitatory amino acids. Brain Res 1994, 664: 17–24. 10.1016/0006-8993(94)91948-8PubMed
84.
Watkins LR, Maier SF: Glia: a novel drug discovery target for clinical pain. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003, 2: 973–985. 10.1038/nrd1251PubMed
85.
Ren K, Dubner R: Neuron-glia crosstalk gets serious: role in pain hypersensitivity. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008, 21: 570–579. 10.1097/ACO.0b013e32830edbdfPubMedCentralPubMed
86.
Quan N, Herkenham M: Connecting cytokines and brain: a review of current issues. Histol Histopathol 2002, 17: 273–288.PubMed
87.
Romeo HE, Tio DL, Rahman SU, Chiappelli F, Taylor AN: The glossopharyngeal nerve as a novel pathway in immune-to-brain communication: Relevance to neuroimmune surveillance of the oral cavity. J Neuroimmunol 2001, 115: 91–100. 10.1016/S0165-5728(01)00270-3PubMed
88.
Watkins LR, Maier SF, Goehler LE: Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review and analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57: 1011–1026. 10.1016/0024-3205(95)02047-MPubMed
89.
Constandil L, Hernandez A, Pelissier T, Arriagada O, Espinoza K, Burgos H, et al.: Effect of interleukin-1beta on spinal cord nociceptive transmission of normal and monoarthritic rats after disruption of glial function. Arthritis Res Ther 2009, 11: R105. 10.1186/ar2756PubMedCentralPubMed
90.
Reeve AJ, Patel S, Fox A, Walker K, Urban L: Intrathecally administered endotoxin or cytokines produce allodynia, hyperalgesia and changes in spinal cord neuronal responses to nociceptive stimuli in the rat. Eur JPain (London, Engl) 2000, 4: 247–257. 10.1053/eujp.2000.0177
91.
Watkins LR, Maier SF: Immune regulation of central nervous system functions: From sickness responses to pathological pain. J Intern Med 2005, 257: 139–155. 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01443.xPubMed
92.
Chacur M, Gutierrez JM, Milligan ED, Wieseler-Frank J, Britto LR, Maier SF, et al.: Snake venom components enhance pain upon subcutaneous injection: an initial examination of spinal cord mediators. Pain 2004, 111: 65–76. 10.1016/j.pain.2004.06.001PubMed
93.
Watkins LR, Martin D, Ulrich P, Tracey KJ, Maier SF: Evidence for the involvement of spinal cord glia in subcutaneous formalin induced hyperalgesia in the rat. Pain 1997, 71: 225–235. 10.1016/S0304-3959(97)03369-1PubMed
94.
Ledeboer A, Sloane EM, Milligan ED, Frank MG, Mahony JH, Maier SF, et al.: Minocycline attenuates mechanical allodynia and proinflammatory cytokine expression in rat models of pain facilitation. Pain 2005, 115: 71–83. 10.1016/j.pain.2005.02.009PubMed
95.
Price DD: Psychological and neural mechanisms of the affective dimension of pain. Science (New York) 2000, 288: 1769–1772. 10.1126/science.288.5472.1769
96.
Melzack R, Casey KL: Sensory, motivational, and central control determinants of pain: a new conceptual model. In Skin Senses. Edited by: Kenshalo DR. Thomas C, Springfield, IL; 1968:423–439.
97.
Craig AD: Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2003, 13: 500–505. 10.1016/S0959-4388(03)00090-4PubMed
98.
Friedman DP, Murray EA, O'Neill JB, Mishkin M: Cortical connections of the somatosensory fields of the lateral sulcus of macaques: Evidence for a corticolimbic pathway for touch. J Comp Neurol 1986, 252: 323–347. 10.1002/cne.902520304PubMed
99.
Apkarian AV, Bushnell MC, Treede RD, Zubieta JK: Human brain mechanisms of pain perception and regulation in health and disease. Eur JPain (London, Engl) 2005, 9: 463–484. 10.1016/j.ejpain.2004.11.001
100.
Rhudy JL, Williams AE, McCabe KM, Russell JL, Maynard LJ: Emotional control of nociceptive reactions (ECON): Do affective valence and arousal play a role? Pain 2008, 136: 250–261. 10.1016/j.pain.2007.06.031PubMed
101.
Seminowicz DA, Mikulis DJ, Davis KD: Cognitive modulation of pain-related brain responses depends on behavioral strategy. Pain 2004, 112: 48–58. 10.1016/j.pain.2004.07.027PubMed
102.
Mesulam MM, Mufson EJ: Insula of the old world monkey. III: Efferent cortical output and comments on function. J Comp Neurol 1982, 212: 38–52. 10.1002/cne.902120104PubMed
103.
Zhang L, Zhang Y, Zhao ZQ: Anterior cingulate cortex contributes to the descending facilitatory modulation of pain via dorsal reticular nucleus. Eur J Neurosci 2005, 22: 1141–1148. 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04302.xPubMed
104.
Chapman CR, Davis J, Donaldson GW, Naylor J, Winchester D: Postoperative pain trajectories in chronic pain patients undergoing surgery: the effects of chronic opioid pharmacotherapy on acute pain. J Pain 2011, 12: 1240–1246. 10.1016/j.jpain.2011.07.005PubMed
105.
Tanji J, Hoshi E: Behavioral planning in the prefrontal cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2001, 11: 164–170. 10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00192-6PubMed
106.
Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Anderson SW: Dissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 1998, 18: 428–437.PubMed
107.
Daw ND, O'Doherty JP, Dayan P, Seymour B, Dolan RJ: Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans. Nature 2006, 441: 876–879. 10.1038/nature04766PubMedCentralPubMed
108.
Quadflieg S, Mohr A, Mentzel HJ, Miltner WH, Straube T: Modulation of the neural network involved in the processing of anger prosody: the role of task-relevance and social phobia. Biol Psychol 2008, 78: 129–137. 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.01.014PubMed
109.
Apkarian AV: Pain perception in relation to emotional learning. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2008, 18: 464–468. 10.1016/j.conb.2008.09.012PubMedCentralPubMed
110.
Brosschot JF, Gerin W, Thayer JF: The perseverative cognition hypothesis: a review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. J Psychosom Res 2006, 60: 113–124. 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.074PubMed
111.
Siffleet J, Young J, Nikoletti S, Shaw T: Patients' self-report of procedural pain in the intensive care unit. J Clin Nurs 2007, 16: 2142–2148. 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01840.xPubMed
112.
Young J, Siffleet J, Nikoletti S, Shaw T: Use of a behavioural pain scale to assess pain in ventilated, unconscious and/or sedated patients. Intensive Crit Care Nurs 2006, 22: 32–39. 10.1016/j.iccn.2005.04.004PubMed
113.
Neugebauer V, Li W, Bird GC, Han JS: The amygdala and persistent pain. Neuroscientist 2004, 10: 221–234. 10.1177/1073858403261077PubMed
114.
Zhuo M: A synaptic model for pain: long-term potentiation in the anterior cingulate cortex. Mol Cells 2007, 23: 259–271.PubMed
115.
Izard CE: Emotion theory and research: highlights, unanswered questions, and emerging issues. Annu Rev Psychol 2009, 60: 1–25. 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163539PubMedCentralPubMed
Metadata
Title
The transition from acute to chronic pain: might intensive care unit patients be at risk?
Authors
Maria Kyranou
Kathleen Puntillo
Publication date
01-12-2012
Publisher
Springer Paris
Published in
Annals of Intensive Care / Issue 1/2012
Electronic ISSN: 2110-5820
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/2110-5820-2-36

Other articles of this Issue 1/2012

Annals of Intensive Care 1/2012 Go to the issue

Research

Delirium in postoperative nonventilated intensive care patients: risk factors and outcomes

Review

Biomarker-guided antibiotic therapy in adult critically ill patients: a critical review

Review

Continuous infusion of antibiotics in the critically ill: The new holy grail for beta-lactams and vancomycin?

Research

Effect of tracheal suctioning on aspiration past the tracheal tube cuff in mechanically ventilated patients

Review

Management by the intensivist of gastrointestinal bleeding in adults and children

Review

How tissue injury alarms the immune system and causes a systemic inflammatory response syndrome