Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports 2/2013

01-02-2013 | Child and Adolescent Disorders (TD Benton, Section Editor)

Refugee Children: Mental Health and Effective Interventions

Authors: Laura Pacione, Toby Measham, Cécile Rousseau

Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports | Issue 2/2013

Login to get access

Abstract

The mental health consequences of war and other forms of organized violence for children represent a serious global public health issue. Much of the research on the mental health of war-affected civilians has focused on refugees who have sought asylum in high-income countries and face the dual stress of a traumatic past and resettlement. This review will focus on the mental health of refugee children who have fled war as well as interventions to both prevent and treat adverse mental health outcomes. While war can have devastating mental health consequences, children raised in the midst of armed conflict also display resilience. Effective interventions for refugee children will be discussed both in terms of prevention and treatment of psychopathology, with a focus on recent developments in the field.
Literature
5.
go back to reference Marsh M, Purdin S, Navani S. Addressing sexual violence in humanitarian emergencies. Glob Public Health. 2006;1:133–46.PubMedCrossRef Marsh M, Purdin S, Navani S. Addressing sexual violence in humanitarian emergencies. Glob Public Health. 2006;1:133–46.PubMedCrossRef
6.
go back to reference Morgos D, Worden JW, Gupta L. Psychosocial effects of war experiences among displaced children in southern Darfur. Omega. 2007;56:229–53.PubMed Morgos D, Worden JW, Gupta L. Psychosocial effects of war experiences among displaced children in southern Darfur. Omega. 2007;56:229–53.PubMed
7.
go back to reference Crepeau F, Jimenez E. Foreigners and the right to justice in the aftermath of 9/11. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2004;27:609–26.PubMedCrossRef Crepeau F, Jimenez E. Foreigners and the right to justice in the aftermath of 9/11. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2004;27:609–26.PubMedCrossRef
8.
go back to reference Caulford P, D’Andrade J. Health care for Canada’s medically uninsured immigrants and refugees: whose problem is it? Can Fam Physician. 2012;58:725–7.PubMed Caulford P, D’Andrade J. Health care for Canada’s medically uninsured immigrants and refugees: whose problem is it? Can Fam Physician. 2012;58:725–7.PubMed
9.
go back to reference de Jong JP, Scholte WF, Koeter MW, Hart AA. The prevalence of mental health problems in Rwandan and Burundese refugee camps. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;102:171–7.PubMedCrossRef de Jong JP, Scholte WF, Koeter MW, Hart AA. The prevalence of mental health problems in Rwandan and Burundese refugee camps. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;102:171–7.PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Razzouk D, Sharan P, Gallo C, et al. Scarcity and inequity of mental health research resources in low-and-middle income countries: a global survey. Health Policy. 2010;94:211–20.PubMedCrossRef Razzouk D, Sharan P, Gallo C, et al. Scarcity and inequity of mental health research resources in low-and-middle income countries: a global survey. Health Policy. 2010;94:211–20.PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Allden K, Jones L, Weissbecker I, et al. Mental health and psychosocial support in crisis and conflict: report of the Mental Health Working Group. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2009;24 Suppl 2:s217–27.PubMed Allden K, Jones L, Weissbecker I, et al. Mental health and psychosocial support in crisis and conflict: report of the Mental Health Working Group. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2009;24 Suppl 2:s217–27.PubMed
12.
go back to reference Hollifield M, Warner TD, Lian N, et al. Measuring trauma and health status in refugees: a critical review. Jama. 2002;288:611–21.PubMedCrossRef Hollifield M, Warner TD, Lian N, et al. Measuring trauma and health status in refugees: a critical review. Jama. 2002;288:611–21.PubMedCrossRef
13.
go back to reference Murray LK, Cohen JA, Ellis BH, Mannarino A. Cognitive behavioral therapy for symptoms of trauma and traumatic grief in refugee youth. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17:585–604. ix.PubMedCrossRef Murray LK, Cohen JA, Ellis BH, Mannarino A. Cognitive behavioral therapy for symptoms of trauma and traumatic grief in refugee youth. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17:585–604. ix.PubMedCrossRef
14.
go back to reference Montgomery E, Foldspang A. Validity of PTSD in a sample of refugee children: can a separate diagnostic entity be justified? Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2006;15:64–74.PubMedCrossRef Montgomery E, Foldspang A. Validity of PTSD in a sample of refugee children: can a separate diagnostic entity be justified? Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2006;15:64–74.PubMedCrossRef
15.
go back to reference Chatty D, Crivello G, Hundt GL. Theoretical and Methodological Challenges of Studying Refugee Children in the Middle East and North Africa: young Palestinian, Afghan and Sahrawi Refugees. J Refug Stud. 2005;18:387–409.CrossRef Chatty D, Crivello G, Hundt GL. Theoretical and Methodological Challenges of Studying Refugee Children in the Middle East and North Africa: young Palestinian, Afghan and Sahrawi Refugees. J Refug Stud. 2005;18:387–409.CrossRef
16.
go back to reference Miller KE, Rasmussen A. War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: bridging the divide between trauma-focused and psychosocial frameworks. Soc Sci Med. 2010;70:7–16.PubMedCrossRef Miller KE, Rasmussen A. War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: bridging the divide between trauma-focused and psychosocial frameworks. Soc Sci Med. 2010;70:7–16.PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference Boyden J, De Berry J. Children and youth on the front line: ethnography, armed conflict and displacement. UK: Berghahn Books; 2004. Boyden J, De Berry J. Children and youth on the front line: ethnography, armed conflict and displacement. UK: Berghahn Books; 2004.
18.
go back to reference Montgomery E. Long-term effects of organized violence on young Middle Eastern refugees’ mental health. Soc Sci Med. 2008;67:1596–603.PubMedCrossRef Montgomery E. Long-term effects of organized violence on young Middle Eastern refugees’ mental health. Soc Sci Med. 2008;67:1596–603.PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Punamäki R-L. The uninvited guest of War enters childhood: developmental and personality aspects of war and military violence. Traumatology. 2002;8:181–204.CrossRef Punamäki R-L. The uninvited guest of War enters childhood: developmental and personality aspects of war and military violence. Traumatology. 2002;8:181–204.CrossRef
20.
go back to reference Bean T, Derluyn I, Eurelings-Bontekoe E, et al. Comparing psychological distress, traumatic stress reactions, and experiences of unaccompanied refugee minors with experiences of adolescents accompanied by parents. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007;195:288–97.PubMedCrossRef Bean T, Derluyn I, Eurelings-Bontekoe E, et al. Comparing psychological distress, traumatic stress reactions, and experiences of unaccompanied refugee minors with experiences of adolescents accompanied by parents. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007;195:288–97.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Macksoud MS, Aber JL. The war experiences and psychosocial development of children in Lebanon. Child Dev. 1996;67:70–88.PubMedCrossRef Macksoud MS, Aber JL. The war experiences and psychosocial development of children in Lebanon. Child Dev. 1996;67:70–88.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Fullilove MT. Psychiatric implications of displacement: contributions from the psychology of place. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:1516–23.PubMed Fullilove MT. Psychiatric implications of displacement: contributions from the psychology of place. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:1516–23.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies among Bhutanese refugee children − Nepal, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57:370–3. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies among Bhutanese refugee children − Nepal, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57:370–3.
24.
go back to reference Basak P. The impact of occupation on child health in a Palestinian refugee camp. J Trop Pediatr. 2012;58:423–8. Basak P. The impact of occupation on child health in a Palestinian refugee camp. J Trop Pediatr. 2012;58:423–8.
25.
go back to reference Denov M, Bryan C. Tactical maneuvering and calculated risks: independent child migrants and the complex terrain of flight. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev. 2012;136:13–27.CrossRef Denov M, Bryan C. Tactical maneuvering and calculated risks: independent child migrants and the complex terrain of flight. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev. 2012;136:13–27.CrossRef
26.
go back to reference Derluyn I, Mels C, Broekaert E. Mental health problems in separated refugee adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2009;44:291–7.PubMedCrossRef Derluyn I, Mels C, Broekaert E. Mental health problems in separated refugee adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2009;44:291–7.PubMedCrossRef
27.
go back to reference Hodes M, Jagdev D, Chandra N, Cunniff A. Risk and resilience for psychological distress amongst unaccompanied asylum seeking adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008;49:723–32.PubMedCrossRef Hodes M, Jagdev D, Chandra N, Cunniff A. Risk and resilience for psychological distress amongst unaccompanied asylum seeking adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008;49:723–32.PubMedCrossRef
28.
go back to reference Ellis BH, MacDonald HZ, Klunk-Gillis J, et al. Discrimination and mental health among Somali refugee adolescents: the role of acculturation and gender. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2010;80:564–75.PubMedCrossRef Ellis BH, MacDonald HZ, Klunk-Gillis J, et al. Discrimination and mental health among Somali refugee adolescents: the role of acculturation and gender. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2010;80:564–75.PubMedCrossRef
29.
go back to reference Wiegersma PA, Stellinga-Boelen AA, Reijneveld SA. Psychosocial problems in asylum seekers’ children: the parent, child, and teacher perspective using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2011;199:85–90.PubMedCrossRef Wiegersma PA, Stellinga-Boelen AA, Reijneveld SA. Psychosocial problems in asylum seekers’ children: the parent, child, and teacher perspective using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2011;199:85–90.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Steel Z, Momartin S, Silove D, et al. Two year psychosocial and mental health outcomes for refugees subjected to restrictive or supportive immigration policies. Soc Sci Med. 2011;72:1149–56.PubMedCrossRef Steel Z, Momartin S, Silove D, et al. Two year psychosocial and mental health outcomes for refugees subjected to restrictive or supportive immigration policies. Soc Sci Med. 2011;72:1149–56.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Feseha G, G/mariam A, Gerbaba M. Intimate partner physical violence among women in Shimelba refugee camp, northern Ethiopia. BMC Publ Health. 2012;12:125. Feseha G, G/mariam A, Gerbaba M. Intimate partner physical violence among women in Shimelba refugee camp, northern Ethiopia. BMC Publ Health. 2012;12:125.
32.
go back to reference Hynes M, Barbara LC. Observations from the CDC: sexual violence against refugee women. J Women’s Health Gend Based Med. 2000;9:819–23.CrossRef Hynes M, Barbara LC. Observations from the CDC: sexual violence against refugee women. J Women’s Health Gend Based Med. 2000;9:819–23.CrossRef
33.
go back to reference Mahamud AS, Ahmed JA, Nyoka R, et al. Epidemic cholera in Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya, 2009: the importance of sanitation and soap. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2012;6:234–41.PubMedCrossRef Mahamud AS, Ahmed JA, Nyoka R, et al. Epidemic cholera in Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya, 2009: the importance of sanitation and soap. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2012;6:234–41.PubMedCrossRef
34.
go back to reference Tappis H, Doocy S, Haskew C, et al. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees feeding program performance in Kenya and Tanzania: a retrospective analysis of routine Health Information System data. Food Nutr Bull. 2012;33:150–60.PubMed Tappis H, Doocy S, Haskew C, et al. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees feeding program performance in Kenya and Tanzania: a retrospective analysis of routine Health Information System data. Food Nutr Bull. 2012;33:150–60.PubMed
35.
go back to reference Attanayake V, McKay R, Joffres M, et al. Prevalence of mental disorders among children exposed to war: a systematic review of 7,920 children. Med Confl Surviv. 2009;25:4–19.PubMedCrossRef Attanayake V, McKay R, Joffres M, et al. Prevalence of mental disorders among children exposed to war: a systematic review of 7,920 children. Med Confl Surviv. 2009;25:4–19.PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference Betancourt TS, Khan KT. The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: protective processes and pathways to resilience. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20:317–28.PubMedCrossRef Betancourt TS, Khan KT. The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: protective processes and pathways to resilience. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20:317–28.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Joseph S, Williams R. Understanding posttraumatic stress: theory, reflections, context and future. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2005;33:423–41.CrossRef Joseph S, Williams R. Understanding posttraumatic stress: theory, reflections, context and future. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2005;33:423–41.CrossRef
38.
go back to reference Mollica RF, Wyshak G, Lavelle J. The psychosocial impact of war trauma and torture on Southeast Asian refugees. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144:1567–72.PubMed Mollica RF, Wyshak G, Lavelle J. The psychosocial impact of war trauma and torture on Southeast Asian refugees. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144:1567–72.PubMed
39.
go back to reference WaEA O’D. The current status of post traumatic stress syndrome as a diagnostic category: problems and proposals. J Trauma Stress. 1992;5:421–39.CrossRef WaEA O’D. The current status of post traumatic stress syndrome as a diagnostic category: problems and proposals. J Trauma Stress. 1992;5:421–39.CrossRef
40.
go back to reference Geltman PL, Grant-Knight W, Ellis H, Landgraf JM. The “lost boys” of Sudan: use of health services and functional health outcomes of unaccompanied refugee minors resettled in the US. J Immigr Minor Health. 2008;10:389–96.PubMedCrossRef Geltman PL, Grant-Knight W, Ellis H, Landgraf JM. The “lost boys” of Sudan: use of health services and functional health outcomes of unaccompanied refugee minors resettled in the US. J Immigr Minor Health. 2008;10:389–96.PubMedCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Lee YM, Shin OJ, Lim MH. The psychological problems of north korean adolescent refugees living in South Korea. Psychiatry Investig. 2012;9:217–22.PubMedCrossRef Lee YM, Shin OJ, Lim MH. The psychological problems of north korean adolescent refugees living in South Korea. Psychiatry Investig. 2012;9:217–22.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Montgomery E. Trauma, exile and mental health in young refugees. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2011;440:1–46.PubMedCrossRef Montgomery E. Trauma, exile and mental health in young refugees. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2011;440:1–46.PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Mels C, Derluyn I, Broekaert E, Rosseel Y. The psychological impact of forced displacement and related risk factors on Eastern Congolese adolescents affected by war. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2010;51:1096–104.PubMedCrossRef Mels C, Derluyn I, Broekaert E, Rosseel Y. The psychological impact of forced displacement and related risk factors on Eastern Congolese adolescents affected by war. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2010;51:1096–104.PubMedCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Morina N, von Lersner U, Prigerson HG. War and bereavement: consequences for mental and physical distress. PLoS One. 2011;6:12.CrossRef Morina N, von Lersner U, Prigerson HG. War and bereavement: consequences for mental and physical distress. PLoS One. 2011;6:12.CrossRef
45.
go back to reference Wakefield JC. Should prolonged grief be reclassified as a mental disorder in DSM-5?: reconsidering the empirical and conceptual arguments for complicated grief disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2012;200:499–511.PubMedCrossRef Wakefield JC. Should prolonged grief be reclassified as a mental disorder in DSM-5?: reconsidering the empirical and conceptual arguments for complicated grief disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2012;200:499–511.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Spuij M, Reitz E, Prinzie P, et al. Distinctiveness of symptoms of prolonged grief, depression, and post-traumatic stress in bereaved children and adolescents. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012;21:673–9. Spuij M, Reitz E, Prinzie P, et al. Distinctiveness of symptoms of prolonged grief, depression, and post-traumatic stress in bereaved children and adolescents. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012;21:673–9.
47.
go back to reference Shear K, Frank E, Houck PR, Reynolds 3rd CF. treatment of complicated grief: a randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2005;293:2601–8.PubMedCrossRef Shear K, Frank E, Houck PR, Reynolds 3rd CF. treatment of complicated grief: a randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2005;293:2601–8.PubMedCrossRef
48.
49.
go back to reference Smith BD, Sabin M, Berlin EA, Nackerud L. Ethnomedical syndromes and treatment-seeking behavior among Mayan refugees in Chiapas, Mexico. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2009;33:366–81.PubMedCrossRef Smith BD, Sabin M, Berlin EA, Nackerud L. Ethnomedical syndromes and treatment-seeking behavior among Mayan refugees in Chiapas, Mexico. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2009;33:366–81.PubMedCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Livanis A, Tryon GS. The development of the Adolescent Nervios Scale: preliminary findings. Cult Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2010;16:9–15.CrossRef Livanis A, Tryon GS. The development of the Adolescent Nervios Scale: preliminary findings. Cult Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2010;16:9–15.CrossRef
51.
go back to reference Lopez I, Rivera F, Ramirez R, et al. Ataques de Nervios and their psychiatric correlates in Puerto Rican children from two different contexts. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2009;197:923–9.PubMedCrossRef Lopez I, Rivera F, Ramirez R, et al. Ataques de Nervios and their psychiatric correlates in Puerto Rican children from two different contexts. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2009;197:923–9.PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Simons RaH, CC (Eds) The Culture-Bound Syndromes: Folk Illnesses of Psychiatric and Anthropological Interest. USA: Reidel Publishing; 1985. Simons RaH, CC (Eds) The Culture-Bound Syndromes: Folk Illnesses of Psychiatric and Anthropological Interest. USA: Reidel Publishing; 1985.
53.
go back to reference •• Fazel M, Reed RV, Panter-Brick C, Stein A. Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in high-income countries: risk and protective factors. Lancet. 2012;379:266–82. This comprehensive systematic review examines the evidence base for individual, family, community, and societal risk and protective factors for the mental health outcomes of child and adolescent refugees who resettle in high-income countries. The implications of the data with respect to design of interventions, policy and future research are also discussed. See also Reed et al. (2012).PubMedCrossRef •• Fazel M, Reed RV, Panter-Brick C, Stein A. Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in high-income countries: risk and protective factors. Lancet. 2012;379:266–82. This comprehensive systematic review examines the evidence base for individual, family, community, and societal risk and protective factors for the mental health outcomes of child and adolescent refugees who resettle in high-income countries. The implications of the data with respect to design of interventions, policy and future research are also discussed. See also Reed et al. (2012).PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference •• Reed RV, Fazel M, Jones L, et al. Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in low-income and middle-income countries: risk and protective factors. Lancet. 2012;379:250–65. This comprehensive systematic review examines the evidence base for individual, family, community, and societal risk and protective factors for the mental health outcomes of children and adolescent refugees displaced to low- and middle-income countries. Research and policy recommendations to guide the development and assessment of effective interventions are also discussed. PubMedCrossRef •• Reed RV, Fazel M, Jones L, et al. Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in low-income and middle-income countries: risk and protective factors. Lancet. 2012;379:250–65. This comprehensive systematic review examines the evidence base for individual, family, community, and societal risk and protective factors for the mental health outcomes of children and adolescent refugees displaced to low- and middle-income countries. Research and policy recommendations to guide the development and assessment of effective interventions are also discussed. PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference •• Ellis BH, MacDonald HZ, Lincoln AK, Cabral HJ. Mental health of Somali adolescent refugees: the role of trauma, stress, and perceived discrimination. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2008;76:184–93. This study examines the effect of a multi-tiered program for Somali refugee youth that includes prevention and community resilience building, school-based early intervention groups for at-risk students and direct intervention for students with significant psychological distress due to trauma. This novel model of treatment resulted in improvement in mental health and resources for all participants. PubMedCrossRef •• Ellis BH, MacDonald HZ, Lincoln AK, Cabral HJ. Mental health of Somali adolescent refugees: the role of trauma, stress, and perceived discrimination. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2008;76:184–93. This study examines the effect of a multi-tiered program for Somali refugee youth that includes prevention and community resilience building, school-based early intervention groups for at-risk students and direct intervention for students with significant psychological distress due to trauma. This novel model of treatment resulted in improvement in mental health and resources for all participants. PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Thabet AA, Ibraheem AN, Shivram R, et al. Parenting support and PTSD in children of a war zone. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2009;55:226–37.PubMedCrossRef Thabet AA, Ibraheem AN, Shivram R, et al. Parenting support and PTSD in children of a war zone. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2009;55:226–37.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Berthold SM. The effects of exposure to community violence on Khmer refugee adolescents. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12:455–71.PubMedCrossRef Berthold SM. The effects of exposure to community violence on Khmer refugee adolescents. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12:455–71.PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Kronick R, Cleveland J, Rousseau C. Mandatory detention of refugee children: a public health issue? Paediatr Child Health. 2011;16:65–7. Kronick R, Cleveland J, Rousseau C. Mandatory detention of refugee children: a public health issue? Paediatr Child Health. 2011;16:65–7.
59.
go back to reference Karenian H, Livaditis M, Karenian S, et al. Collective trauma transmission and traumatic reactions among descendants of Armenian refugees. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2011;57:327–37.PubMedCrossRef Karenian H, Livaditis M, Karenian S, et al. Collective trauma transmission and traumatic reactions among descendants of Armenian refugees. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2011;57:327–37.PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Vaage AB, Thomsen PH, Rousseau C, et al. Paternal predictors of the mental health of children of Vietnamese refugees. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2011;5:2.PubMedCrossRef Vaage AB, Thomsen PH, Rousseau C, et al. Paternal predictors of the mental health of children of Vietnamese refugees. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2011;5:2.PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference Rousseau C, Drapeau A, Rahimi S. The complexity of trauma response: a 4-year follow-up of adolescent Cambodian refugees. Child Abuse Negl. 2003;27:1277–90.PubMedCrossRef Rousseau C, Drapeau A, Rahimi S. The complexity of trauma response: a 4-year follow-up of adolescent Cambodian refugees. Child Abuse Negl. 2003;27:1277–90.PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Bonanno GA. Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? Am Psychol. 2004;59:20–8.PubMedCrossRef Bonanno GA. Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? Am Psychol. 2004;59:20–8.PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference Bonanno GA, Brewin CR, Kaniasty K, Greca AML. Weighing the costs of disaster. Psychol Sci Public Interest. 2010;11:1–49.CrossRef Bonanno GA, Brewin CR, Kaniasty K, Greca AML. Weighing the costs of disaster. Psychol Sci Public Interest. 2010;11:1–49.CrossRef
64.
go back to reference Tedeschi R, Calhoun L. Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychol Inq. 2004;15:1–8.CrossRef Tedeschi R, Calhoun L. Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychol Inq. 2004;15:1–8.CrossRef
65.
go back to reference Hussain D, Bhushan B. Posttraumatic stress and growth among Tibetan refugees: the mediating role of cognitive-emotional regulation strategies. J Clin Psychol. 2011;67:720–35.PubMedCrossRef Hussain D, Bhushan B. Posttraumatic stress and growth among Tibetan refugees: the mediating role of cognitive-emotional regulation strategies. J Clin Psychol. 2011;67:720–35.PubMedCrossRef
66.
go back to reference Kroo A, Nagy H. Posttraumatic growth among traumatized Somali refugees in Hungary. J Loss Trauma. 2011;16:440–58.CrossRef Kroo A, Nagy H. Posttraumatic growth among traumatized Somali refugees in Hungary. J Loss Trauma. 2011;16:440–58.CrossRef
67.
go back to reference Teodorescu DS, Siqveland J, Heir T, et al. Posttraumatic growth, depressive symptoms, posttraumatic stress symptoms, post-migration stressors and quality of life in multi-traumatized psychiatric outpatients with a refugee background in Norway. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2012;10:84.PubMedCrossRef Teodorescu DS, Siqveland J, Heir T, et al. Posttraumatic growth, depressive symptoms, posttraumatic stress symptoms, post-migration stressors and quality of life in multi-traumatized psychiatric outpatients with a refugee background in Norway. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2012;10:84.PubMedCrossRef
68.
go back to reference Levine SZ, Laufer A, Stein E, et al. Examining the relationship between resilience and posttraumatic growth. J Trauma Stress. 2009;22:282–6.PubMedCrossRef Levine SZ, Laufer A, Stein E, et al. Examining the relationship between resilience and posttraumatic growth. J Trauma Stress. 2009;22:282–6.PubMedCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Clay R, Knibbs J, Joseph S. Measurement of posttraumatic growth in young people: a review. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;14:411–22.PubMedCrossRef Clay R, Knibbs J, Joseph S. Measurement of posttraumatic growth in young people: a review. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;14:411–22.PubMedCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Meyerson DA, Grant KE, Carter JS, Kilmer RP. Posttraumatic growth among children and adolescents: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011;31:949–64.PubMedCrossRef Meyerson DA, Grant KE, Carter JS, Kilmer RP. Posttraumatic growth among children and adolescents: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011;31:949–64.PubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Peltonen K, Punamaki RL. Preventive interventions among children exposed to trauma of armed conflict: a literature review. Aggress Behav. 2010;36:95–116.PubMedCrossRef Peltonen K, Punamaki RL. Preventive interventions among children exposed to trauma of armed conflict: a literature review. Aggress Behav. 2010;36:95–116.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Jordans MJ, Komproe IH, Tol WA, et al. Practice-driven evaluation of a multi-layered psychosocial care package for children in areas of armed conflict. Community Ment Health J. 2011;47:267–77.PubMedCrossRef Jordans MJ, Komproe IH, Tol WA, et al. Practice-driven evaluation of a multi-layered psychosocial care package for children in areas of armed conflict. Community Ment Health J. 2011;47:267–77.PubMedCrossRef
75.
go back to reference Fazel M, Doll H, Stein A. A school-based mental health intervention for refugee children: an exploratory study. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;14:297–309.PubMedCrossRef Fazel M, Doll H, Stein A. A school-based mental health intervention for refugee children: an exploratory study. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;14:297–309.PubMedCrossRef
76.
go back to reference Rousseau C, Benoit M, Lacroix L, Gauthier MF. Evaluation of a sandplay program for preschoolers in a multiethnic neighborhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;50:743–50.PubMedCrossRef Rousseau C, Benoit M, Lacroix L, Gauthier MF. Evaluation of a sandplay program for preschoolers in a multiethnic neighborhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;50:743–50.PubMedCrossRef
77.
go back to reference Rousseau C, Guzder J. School-based prevention programs for refugee children. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17:533–49. viii.PubMedCrossRef Rousseau C, Guzder J. School-based prevention programs for refugee children. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17:533–49. viii.PubMedCrossRef
79.
go back to reference Howard M, Hodes M. Psychopathology, adversity, and service utilization of young refugees. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:368–77.PubMedCrossRef Howard M, Hodes M. Psychopathology, adversity, and service utilization of young refugees. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:368–77.PubMedCrossRef
82.
go back to reference Saxe GNE, Heidi B, Kaplow, Julie B. Collaborative treatment of traumatized children and teens: The trauma systems therapy approach. New York: Guilford Press; US; 2007. Saxe GNE, Heidi B, Kaplow, Julie B. Collaborative treatment of traumatized children and teens: The trauma systems therapy approach. New York: Guilford Press; US; 2007.
83.
go back to reference Ehlers A, Bisson J, Clark DM, et al. Do all psychological treatments really work the same in posttraumatic stress disorder? Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30:269–76.PubMedCrossRef Ehlers A, Bisson J, Clark DM, et al. Do all psychological treatments really work the same in posttraumatic stress disorder? Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30:269–76.PubMedCrossRef
85.
go back to reference Ter Heide FJ, Mooren TM, Kleijn W, et al. EMDR versus stabilisation in traumatised asylum seekers and refugees: results of a pilot study. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2011;2:16. Ter Heide FJ, Mooren TM, Kleijn W, et al. EMDR versus stabilisation in traumatised asylum seekers and refugees: results of a pilot study. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2011;2:16.
86.
go back to reference • Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Kliethermes M, Murray LA. Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma. Child Abuse Negl. 2012;36:528–41. This article describes a method by which TF-CBT can be adapted for youth with complex trauma. Using a step-by-step approach, practical modifications to the treatment phases of TF-CBT are proposed and illustrated with case examples. This treatment method has only been validated in non-refugee populations thus far, but shows promise and may help therapists adapt TF-CBT for youth with multiple traumas. PubMedCrossRef • Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Kliethermes M, Murray LA. Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma. Child Abuse Negl. 2012;36:528–41. This article describes a method by which TF-CBT can be adapted for youth with complex trauma. Using a step-by-step approach, practical modifications to the treatment phases of TF-CBT are proposed and illustrated with case examples. This treatment method has only been validated in non-refugee populations thus far, but shows promise and may help therapists adapt TF-CBT for youth with multiple traumas. PubMedCrossRef
87.
go back to reference • Robjant K, Fazel M. The emerging evidence for Narrative Exposure Therapy: a review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30:1030–9. This publication reviews the evidence for the use of Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) for adults, and an adapted version for children (KidNET), to treat PTSD as the result of trauma and organized violence. Evidence for the efficacy of NET and KidNET is presented for both resettled refugees and those who remain in volatile and insecure settings. PubMedCrossRef • Robjant K, Fazel M. The emerging evidence for Narrative Exposure Therapy: a review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30:1030–9. This publication reviews the evidence for the use of Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) for adults, and an adapted version for children (KidNET), to treat PTSD as the result of trauma and organized violence. Evidence for the efficacy of NET and KidNET is presented for both resettled refugees and those who remain in volatile and insecure settings. PubMedCrossRef
88.
go back to reference Neuner F, Schauer M, Klaschik C, et al. A comparison of narrative exposure therapy, supportive counseling, and psychoeducation for treating posttraumatic stress disorder in an african refugee settlement. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004;72:579–87.PubMedCrossRef Neuner F, Schauer M, Klaschik C, et al. A comparison of narrative exposure therapy, supportive counseling, and psychoeducation for treating posttraumatic stress disorder in an african refugee settlement. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004;72:579–87.PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference Schauer M, Neuner F, Elbert T. Narrative exposure therapy − a short term intervention for traumatic stress disorders after war, terror or torture. Seattle: Hogrefe; 2005. Schauer M, Neuner F, Elbert T. Narrative exposure therapy − a short term intervention for traumatic stress disorders after war, terror or torture. Seattle: Hogrefe; 2005.
90.
go back to reference Neuner F, Catani C, Ruf M, et al. Narrative exposure therapy for the treatment of traumatized children and adolescents (KidNET): from neurocognitive theory to field intervention. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17:641–64.PubMedCrossRef Neuner F, Catani C, Ruf M, et al. Narrative exposure therapy for the treatment of traumatized children and adolescents (KidNET): from neurocognitive theory to field intervention. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17:641–64.PubMedCrossRef
91.
go back to reference Gemignani M. The past if past: the use of memories and self-healing narratives in refugees from the former yugoslavia. J Refug Stud. 2011;24:132–56.CrossRef Gemignani M. The past if past: the use of memories and self-healing narratives in refugees from the former yugoslavia. J Refug Stud. 2011;24:132–56.CrossRef
92.
go back to reference Catani C, Kohiladevy M, Ruf M, et al. Treating children traumatized by war and Tsunami: a comparison between exposure therapy and meditation-relaxation in North-East Sri Lanka. BMC Psychiatry. 2009;9:22.PubMedCrossRef Catani C, Kohiladevy M, Ruf M, et al. Treating children traumatized by war and Tsunami: a comparison between exposure therapy and meditation-relaxation in North-East Sri Lanka. BMC Psychiatry. 2009;9:22.PubMedCrossRef
93.
go back to reference Ruf M, Schauer M, Neuner F, et al. Narrative exposure therapy for 7- to 16-year-olds: a randomized controlled trial with traumatized refugee children. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23:437–45.PubMedCrossRef Ruf M, Schauer M, Neuner F, et al. Narrative exposure therapy for 7- to 16-year-olds: a randomized controlled trial with traumatized refugee children. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23:437–45.PubMedCrossRef
94.
go back to reference Schaal S, Elbert T, Neuner F. Narrative exposure therapy versus interpersonal psychotherapy. A pilot randomized controlled trial with Rwandan genocide orphans. Psychother Psychosom. 2009;78:298–306.PubMedCrossRef Schaal S, Elbert T, Neuner F. Narrative exposure therapy versus interpersonal psychotherapy. A pilot randomized controlled trial with Rwandan genocide orphans. Psychother Psychosom. 2009;78:298–306.PubMedCrossRef
95.
go back to reference Measham T, Rousseau C. Family disclosure of war trauma to children. Traumatology. 2010;16:85–96.CrossRef Measham T, Rousseau C. Family disclosure of war trauma to children. Traumatology. 2010;16:85–96.CrossRef
96.
go back to reference Hardi L, Kroo A. Psychotherapy and psychosocial care of torture survivor refugees in Hungary: “a never-ending journey”. Torture. 2011;21:84–97.PubMed Hardi L, Kroo A. Psychotherapy and psychosocial care of torture survivor refugees in Hungary: “a never-ending journey”. Torture. 2011;21:84–97.PubMed
97.
go back to reference Hetrick SE, Purcell R, Garner B, Parslow R. Combined pharmacotherapy and psychological therapies for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;7. Hetrick SE, Purcell R, Garner B, Parslow R. Combined pharmacotherapy and psychological therapies for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;7.
98.
99.
go back to reference Rothe EM. A psychotherapy model for treating refugee children caught in the midst of catastrophic situations. J Am Acad Psychoanal Dyn Psychiatry. 2008;36:625–42.PubMedCrossRef Rothe EM. A psychotherapy model for treating refugee children caught in the midst of catastrophic situations. J Am Acad Psychoanal Dyn Psychiatry. 2008;36:625–42.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference Canadian Medical Association. Continue coverage for refugees: CMA. Canadian Medical Association Bulletin. Can Med Assoc J. 2012;184:1212. Canadian Medical Association. Continue coverage for refugees: CMA. Canadian Medical Association Bulletin. Can Med Assoc J. 2012;184:1212.
Metadata
Title
Refugee Children: Mental Health and Effective Interventions
Authors
Laura Pacione
Toby Measham
Cécile Rousseau
Publication date
01-02-2013
Publisher
Current Science Inc.
Published in
Current Psychiatry Reports / Issue 2/2013
Print ISSN: 1523-3812
Electronic ISSN: 1535-1645
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0341-4

Other articles of this Issue 2/2013

Current Psychiatry Reports 2/2013 Go to the issue

Genetic Disorders (JF Cubells and EB Binder, Section Editors)

The Gut Microbiome: A New Frontier in Autism Research

Personality Disorders (C Schmahl, Section Editor)

Social Interaction in Borderline Personality Disorder

Child and Adolescent Disorders (TD Benton, Section Editor)

Longitudinal Outcomes for Victims of Child Abuse

Child and Adolescent Disorders (TD Benton, Section Editor)

Assessment and Management of Pediatric Iatrogenic Medical Trauma