Top

Published in:

01-05-2015 | Disaster Psychiatry: Trauma, PTSD, and Related Disorders (E Foa and A Asnaani, Section Editors)

Prevalence of, Risk Factors for, and Consequences of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Other Mental Health Problems in Military Populations Deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan

Authors: Rajeev Ramchand, Rena Rudavsky, Sean Grant, Terri Tanielian, Lisa Jaycox

Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports | Issue 5/2015

Abstract

This review summarizes the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related mental health problems among persons who served in the armed forces during the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts, as reflected in the literature published between 2009 and 2014. One-hundred and sixteen research studies are reviewed, most of which are among non-treatment-seeking US service members or treatment-seeking US veterans. Evidence is provided for demographic, military, and deployment-related risk factors for PTSD, though most derive from cross-sectional studies and few control for combat exposure, which is a primary risk factor for mental health problems in this cohort. Evidence is also provided linking PTSD with outcomes in the following domains: physical health, suicide, housing and homelessness, employment and economic well-being, social well-being, and aggression, violence, and criminality. Also included is evidence about the prevalence of mental health service use in this cohort. In many instances, the current suite of studies replicates findings observed in civilian samples, but new findings emerge of relevance to both military and civilian populations, such as the link between PTSD and suicide. Future research should make effort to control for combat exposure and use longitudinal study designs; promising areas for investigation are in non-treatment-seeking samples of US veterans and the role of social support in preventing or mitigating mental health problems in this group.

Fisher MP. PTSD in the U.S. military, and the politics of prevalence. Soc Sci Med. 2014;115:1–9.PubMed

Ramchand R, Karney B, Osilla KC, et al. Prevalence of PTSD, depression, and TBI in returning servicemembers. In: Tanielian T, Jaycox L, editors. Invisible wounds of war: mental and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation; 2008.

Ramchand R, Schell TL, Jaycox LH, Tanielian T. Epidemiology of trauma events and mental health outcomes among service members deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan. In: Ruzek J et al., editors. Caring for veterans with deployment-related stress disorders: Iraq, Afghanistan, and beyond. Washington: American Psychological Association; 2011.

Ramchand R, Schell T, Karney B, et al. Disparate prevalence estimates of PTSD among service members who served in Iraq and Afghanistan: possible explanations. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(1):59–68.

Griffith JL. Citizens coping as soldiers: a review of deployment stress symptoms among reservists. Mil Psychol. 2010;22(2):176–206.

Kok BC et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with combat service in Iraq or Afghanistan: reconciling prevalence differences between studies. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2012;200(5):444–50.PubMed

Sundin J et al. PTSD after deployment to Iraq: conflicting rates, conflicting claims. Psychol Med. 2010;40(3):367–82.PubMed

Magruder KM, Yeager DE. The prevalence of PTSD across war eras and the effect of deployment on PTSD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatr Ann. 2009;39(8):778–88.

Richardson LK, Frueh BC, Acierno RE. Prevalence estimates of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: critical review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010;44(1):4–19.PubMedCentralPubMed

10.

Bean-Mayberry B et al. Systematic review of women veterans’ health: update on successes and gaps. Womens Health Issues. 2011;21(4S):S84–94.PubMed

11.

Conard PL, Sauls DJ. Deployment and PTSD in the female combat veteran: a systematic review. Nurs Forum. 2014;49(1):1–10.PubMed

12.

Crum-Cianflone NF, Jacobson IG. Gender differences of postdeployment post-traumatic stress disorder among service members and veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. Epidemiol Rev. 2014;36(1):5–18.PubMed

13.

Rivera JC, Johnson AE. Female veterans of operations enduring and Iraqi freedom: status and future directions. Mil Med. 2014;179(2):133–6.PubMed

14.

Larson MJ et al. Military combat deployments and substance use: review and future directions. J Soc Work Pract Addict. 2012;12(1):6–27.PubMedCentralPubMed

15.

Bahraini NH et al. Traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2014;37(1):55–75.

16.

Wall PL. Posttraumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury in current military populations: a critical analysis. J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc. 2012;18(5):278–98.PubMed

17.

Gates MA et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in veterans and military personnel: epidemiology, screening, and case recognition. Psychol Serv. 2012;9(4):361–82.PubMed

18.

Shiner B. Health services use in the Department of Veterans Affairs among returning Iraq war and Afghan war veterans with PTSD. PTSD Res Q. 2011;22(2):1–4.

19.

Tuerk PW et al. Health service utilization before and after evidence-based treatment for PTSD. Psychol Serv. 2013;10(4):401–9.PubMed

20.

Hermann BA, Shiner B, Friedman MJ. Epidemiology and prevention of combat-related post-traumatic stress in OEF/OIF/OND service members. Mil Med. 2012;177(8 Supplement):1–6.PubMed

21.

Wells TS et al. Mental health impact of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts: a review of US research, service provision, and programmatic responses. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2011;23(2):144–52.PubMed

22.

Besterman-Dahan K et al. The role of military chaplains in mental health care of the deployed service member. Mil Med. 2012;171(9):1028–33.

23.

Biehn TL et al. Relations between the underlying dimensions of PTSD and major depression using an epidemiological survey of deployed Ohio National Guard soldiers. J Affect Disord. 2013;144(1–2):106–11.PubMed

24.

Booth-Kewley S et al. Correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Marines back from war. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(1):69–77.PubMed

25.

Brown MC et al. Factors associated with interest in receiving help for mental health problems in combat veterans returning from deployment to Iraq. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2011;199(10):797–801.PubMed

26.

Bryan CJ et al. Posttraumatic stress symptoms and work-related accomplishment as predictors of general health and medical utilization among Special Operations Forces personnel. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2014;202(2):105–10.PubMed

27.

Carter-Visscher RM et al. Predeployment gender differences in stressors and mental health among U.S. National Guard troops poised for Operation Iraqi Freedom deployment. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(1):78–85.PubMed

28.

Elnitsky CA et al. Gender differences in combat medic mental health services utilization, barriers, and stigma. Mil Med. 2013;178(7):775–84.PubMed

29.

Gorman LA et al. National Guard families after combat: mental health, use of mental health services, and perceived treatment barriers. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):28–34.PubMed

30.

Guerra VS et al. Examining the relation between posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation in an OEF/OIF veteran sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2011;25(1):12–8.PubMedCentralPubMed

31.

Hickling EJ et al. The psychological impact of deployment on OEF/OIF healthcare providers. J Trauma Stress. 2011;24(6):726–34.PubMed

32.

Hyman J et al. Suicide incidence and risk factors in an active duty US military population. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(Supplement 1):S138–46.PubMedCentralPubMed

33.

Jacobson IG et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among U.S. military health care professionals deployed in support of operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. J Trauma Stress. 2012;25(6):616–23.PubMed

34.

Kehle SM et al. Psychiatric diagnoses, comorbidity, and functioning in National Guard troops deployed to Iraq. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(1):126–32.PubMed

35.

Khaylis A et al. Posttraumatic stress, family adjustment, and treatment preferences among National Guard soldiers deployed to OEF/OIF. Mil Med. 2011;176(2):126–31.PubMed

36.

Lane ME et al. Prevalence of perceived stress and mental health indicators among reserve-component and active-duty military personnel. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(6):1213–20.PubMedCentralPubMed

37.

LeardMann CA et al. Risk factors associated with suicide in current and former US military personnel. J Am Med Assoc. 2013;310(5):496–506.

38.

LeardMann CA et al. Baseline self reported functional health and vulnerability to post-traumatic stress disorder after combat deployment: prospective US military cohort study. Br Med J. 2009;338:1.

39.

Levy HC et al. Deployment stressors and outcomes among Air Force chaplains. J Trauma Stress. 2011;24(3):342–6.PubMed

40.•

Luxton DD, Skopp NA, Maguen S. Gender differences in depression and PTSD symptoms following combat exposure. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27(11):1027–33. One of the few studies to show relationships between constructs and PTSD that controls for combat exposure. PubMed

41.

Polusny MA et al. Prospective risk factors for new-onset post-traumatic stress disorder in National Guard soldiers deployed to Iraq. Psychol Med. 2011;41(4):687–98.PubMed

42.

Renshaw KD. Deployment experiences and postdeployment PTSD symptoms in National Guard/Reserve service members serving in operations enduring freedom and Iraqi freedom. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(6):815–8.PubMed

43.

Sharkey JM, Rennix CP. Assessment of changes in mental health conditions among sailors and marines during postdeployment phase. Mil Med. 2011;176(8):915–21.PubMed

44.

Shea MT et al. Risk factors for post-deployment posttraumatic stress disorder in National Guard/Reserve service members. Psychiatry Res. 2013;210(3):1042–8.

45.•

Sundin J et al. Mental health outcomes in US and UK military personnel returning from Iraq. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;204:200–7. The only study to directly compare outcomes from US and UK deployed service members and finds that differential exposure to combat may explain some of the differences in outcomes.PubMed

46.

Taubman SB. Risk factors for migraine after OEF/OIF deployment, active component, U.S. Armed Forces. Med Surveill Mon Rep. 2009;16(12):10–3.

47.

Thomas JL et al. Prevalence of mental health problems and functional impairment among Active Component and National Guard soldiers 3 and 12 months following combat in Iraq. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(6):614–23.PubMed

48.

Allison-Aipa TS et al. The impact of deployment on the psychological health status, level of alcohol consumption, and use of psychological health resources of postdeployed U.S. Army Reserve soldiers. Mil Med. 2010;175(9):630–7.PubMed

49.

Blow AJ et al. Hazardous drinking and family functioning in National Guard veterans and spouses postdeployment. J Fam Psychol. 2013;27(2):303–13.PubMed

50.

Bray RM et al. Substance use and mental health trends among U.S. military active duty personnel: key findings from the 2008 DoD health behavior survey. Mil Med. 2010;175(6):390–9.PubMed

51.

Eisen SV et al. Mental and physical health status and alcohol and drug use following return from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(Supplement 1):S66–73.PubMedCentralPubMed

52.

Kline A et al. Increased risk of alcohol dependency in a cohort of National Guard troops with PTSD: a longitudinal study. J Psychiatr Res. 2014;50:18–25.PubMed

53.

Burnett-Zeigler I et al. Prevalence and correlates of alcohol misuse among returning Afghanistan and Iraq veterans. Addict Behav. 2011;36(8):801–6.PubMed

54.

Burnett-Zeigler I et al. Civilian employment among recently returning Afghanistan and Iraq National Guard veterans. Mil Med. 2011;176(6):639–46.PubMed

55.

Gallaway MS et al. Factors associated with physical aggression among US army soldiers. Aggress Behav. 2012;38(5):357–67.PubMed

56.

Heron EA et al. Military mental health: the role of daily hassles while deployed. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2013;201(12):1035–9.PubMed

57.

Warner CH et al. Importance of anonymity to encourage honest reporting in mental health screening after combat deployment. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(10):1065–71.PubMed

58.

Elbogen EB et al. Self-report and longitudinal predictors of violence in Iraq and Afghanistan war era veterans. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2013;201(10):872–6.PubMedCentralPubMed

59.•

Golub A et al. Unmet need for treatment of substance use disorders and serious psychological distress among veterans: a nationwide analysis using the NSDUH. Mil Med. 2013;178(1):107–14. A nationally representative study of non-treatment seeking veterans that describes prevalence of various substance use outcomes.PubMedCentralPubMed

60.

Owens GP, Herrera CJ, Whitesell AA. A preliminary investigation of mental health needs and barriers to mental health care for female veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. Traumatology. 2009;15(2):31–7.

61.

Pietrzak RH et al. Subsyndromal posttraumatic stress disorder is associated with health and psychosocial difficulties in veterans of operations enduring freedom and Iraqi freedom. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(8):739–44.PubMed

62.

Rudd MD, Goulding J, Bryan CJ. Student veterans: a national survey exploring psychological symptoms and suicide risk. Prof Psychol Res Pract. 2011;42(5):354–60.

63.

Whealin JM et al. Evaluating PTSD prevalence and resilience factors in a predominantly Asian American and Pacific Islander sample of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. J Affect Disord. 2013;150(3):1062–8.PubMed

64.

Whealin JM et al. Deployment-related sequelae and treatment utilization in rural and urban war veterans in Hawaii. Psychol Serv. 2014;11(1):114–23.PubMed

65.

Widome R et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder and health risk behaviors among Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans attending college. Am J Health Behav. 2011;35(4):387–92.PubMedCentralPubMed

66.

Afari N et al. PTSD, combat injury, and headache in veterans returning from Iraq/Afghanistan. Headache. 2009;49(9):1267–76.PubMed

67.

Elbogen EB et al. Financial well-being and postdeployment adjustment among Iraq and Afghanistan War veterans. Mil Med. 2012;177(6):669–75.PubMedCentralPubMed

68.

Elbogen EB, et al. Protective factors and risk modification of violence in Iraq and Afghanistan War veterans. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012;73(6).

69.

Metraux S et al. Risk factors for becoming homeless among a cohort of veterans who served in the era of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(S2):S255–61.PubMedCentralPubMed

70.

Tsai J et al. Risk of incarceration and other characteristics of Iraq and Afghanistan era veterans in state and federal prisons. Psychiatr Serv. 2013;64(1):36–43.PubMed

71.

Elbogen EB et al. Are Iraq and Afghanistan veterans using mental health services?: new data from a national random-sample survey. Psychiatr Serv. 2013;64(2):134–41.PubMedCentralPubMed

72.

Schell TL and Tanielian TL. A needs assessment of New York state veterans: final report to the New York State Health Foundation, in RAND technical reports, TR-920-NYSHF2011, RAND Corporation. p. 2-xviii, 82.

73.

Iversen AC, et al. The prevalence of common mental disorders and PTSD in the UK military: using data from a clinical interview-based study. BMC Psychiatry. 2009;9.

74.

Jones N et al. Mental health and psychological support in UK armed forces personnel deployed to Afghanistan in 2010 and 2011. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;204:157–62.PubMed

75.

Mulligan K et al. Effects of home on the mental health of British forces serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;201(3):193–8. Study of UK.PubMed

76.

Sundin J et al. Impact on mental health of deploying as an individual augmentee in the U.K. Armed Forces. Mil Med. 2012;177(5):511–6.PubMed

77.

MacManus D et al. Violent behaviour in UK military personnel returning home after deployment. Psychol Med. 2012;42(8):1663–73.PubMed

78.•

Mulligan K et al. Mental health of UK military personnel while on deployment in Iraq. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;197(5):405–10. Personnel during deployment and highlights the importance of perceptions of leadership and unit support on mental health outcomes.PubMed

79.

Goodwin L et al. Prevalence of delayed-onset posttraumatic stress disorder in military personnel: is there evidence for this disorder?: results of a prospective UK cohort study. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2012;200(5):429–37.PubMed

80.

Karstoft K-I et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist-civilian version in a representative military sample. Psychol Assess. 2014;26(1):321–5.PubMed

81.

Lundin CR, Jørgensen HO, Christensen AK. Risk of post-traumatic stress disorder among Danish junior medical officers deployed to Afghanistan is not increased. Dan Med J. 2012;59(10):1.

82.

Osório C et al. Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and physical health complaints among Portuguese army special operations forces deployed in Afghanistan. Mil Med. 2012;177(8):957–62.PubMed

83.

Harvey SB et al. Coming home: social functioning and the mental health of UK reservists on return from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. Ann Epidemiol. 2011;21(9):666–72.PubMed

84.

Armed Forces Health Surveillance, C. Associations between repeated deployments to Iraq (OIF/OND) and Afghanistan (OEF) and post-deployment illnesses and injuries, active component, U.S. Armed Forces, 2003-2010: part II, mental disorders, by gender, age group, military occupation, and “dwell times” prior to repeat (second through fifth) deployments. Med Surveill Mon Rep. 2011;18(9):2–11.

85.

Goodman GP et al. Epidemiology of psychiatric disorders sustained by a U.S. Army brigade combat team during the Iraq War. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011;33(1):51–7.PubMed

86.

Holbrook TL et al. Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(2):110–7.PubMed

87.

Larson GE et al. Predeployment and in-theater diagnoses of American military personnel serving in Iraq. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):15–21.PubMed

88.

Mayo JA et al. Role of occupation on new-onset post-traumatic stress disorder and depression among deployed military personnel. Mil Med. 2013;178(9):945–50.PubMed

89.

McLay RN, Klam WP, Volkert SL. Insomnia is the most commonly reported symptom and predicts other symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in U.S. service members returning from military deployments. Mil Med. 2010;175(10):759–62.PubMed

90.

Melcer T et al. Midterm health and personnel outcomes of recent combat amputees. Mil Med. 2010;175(3):147–54.PubMed

91.

Packnett ER et al. Temporal trends in the epidemiology of disabilities related to posttraumatic stress disorder in the U.S. Army and Marine Corps from 2005–2010. J Trauma Stress. 2012;25(5):485–93.PubMed

92.

Schmitz KJ et al. Psychiatric diagnoses and treatment of U.S. military personnel while deployed to Iraq. Mil Med. 2012;177(4):380–9.PubMed

93.

Ullrich PM et al. Pain and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms during inpatient rehabilitation among operation enduring freedom/operation Iraqi freedom veterans with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2013;94(1):80–5.PubMed

94.

Wojcik BE, Akhtar FZ, Hassell LH. Hospital admissions related to mental disorders in US Army soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan. Mil Med. 2009;174(10):1010–8.PubMed

95.

Armed Forces Health Surveillance, C. Health of women after wartime deployments: correlates of risk for selected medical conditions among females after initial and repeat deployments to Afghanistan and Iraq, active component, U.S. Armed Forces. Med Surveill Mon Rep. 2012;19(7):2–10.

96.

Andersen J et al. Association between posttraumatic stress disorder and primary care provider-diagnosed disease among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Psychosom Med. 2010;72(5):498–504.PubMed

97.

Bagalman E. Suicide, PTSD, and substance use among OEF/OIF veterans using VA health care: facts and figures, In: CRS report for Congress, R419212011, Congressional Research Service. p. 8.

98.

Baker DG et al. Trauma exposure, branch of service, and physical injury in relation to mental health among U.S. veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Mil Med. 2009;174(8):773–8.PubMed

99.

Barber J et al. Assessment of rates of overweight and obesity and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in a sample of operation enduring freedom/operation Iraqi freedom veterans. Mil Med. 2011;176(2):151–5.PubMed

100.•

Cohen BE et al. Mental health diagnoses and utilization of VA non-mental health medical services among returning Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25(1):18–24. Uses medical records to help quantify the use of VA treatment services among those with PTSD versus those with other mental disorders.PubMedCentralPubMed

101.•

Frayne SM et al. Medical care needs of returning veterans with PTSD: their other burden. J Gen Intern Med. 2011;26(1):33–9. Uses medical records to examine the number of diagnoses among new veterans with and without PTSD.PubMedCentralPubMed

102.

Haskell SG et al. Gender differences in rates of depression, PTSD, pain, obesity, and military sexual trauma among Connecticut war veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. J Women’s Health. 2010;19(2):267–71.

103.

Haskell SG et al. The burden of illness in the first year home: do male and female VA users differ in health conditions and healthcare utilization. Womens Health Issues. 2011;21(1):92–7.PubMedCentralPubMed

104.

Helmer DA et al. Chronic widespread pain, mental health, and physical role function in OEF/OIF veterans. Pain Med. 2009;10(7):1174–82.PubMed

105.•

Ilgen MA et al. Psychopathology, Iraq and Afghanistan service, and suicide among Veterans Health Administration patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2012;80(3):323–30. Shows that veterans with PTSD diagnoses have an increased risk of death by suicide.PubMed

106.

Kimbrel NA et al. Deliberate self-harm and suicidal ideation among male Iraq/Afghanistan-era veterans seeking treatment for PTSD. J Trauma Stress. 2014;27(4):474–7.PubMed

107.

Kornfield SL et al. Subsyndromal posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology in primary care military veterans: treatment implications. Psychol Serv. 2012;9(4):383–9.PubMed

108.

Lemaire CM, Graham DP. Factors associated with suicidal ideation in OEF/OIF veterans. J Affect Disord. 2011;130(1–2):231–8.PubMed

109.

Lew HL et al. Impact of the “polytrauma clinical triad” on sleep disturbance in a Department of Veterans Affairs outpatient rehabilitation setting. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;89(6):437–45.PubMed

110.

Lindley SE et al. Monitoring mental health treatment acceptance and initial treatment adherence in veterans: veterans of operations enduring freedom and Iraqi freedom versus other veterans of other eras. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1208:104–13.PubMed

111.

Maguen S et al. Gender differences in military sexual trauma and mental health diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Womens Health Issues. 2012;22(1):e61–6.PubMed

112.

Maguen S et al. Association of mental health problems with gastrointestinal disorders in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Depress Anxiety. 2014;31(2):160–5.PubMed

113.

Maguen S et al. Gender differences in mental health diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans enrolled in veterans affairs health care. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(12):2450–6.PubMedCentralPubMed

114.

Mattocks KM et al. Pregnancy and mental health among women veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. J Women’s Health. 2010;19(12):2159–66.

115.

Paulus EJ, Argo TR, Egge JA. The impact of posttraumatic stress disorder on blood pressure and heart rate in a veteran population. J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(1):169–72.PubMed

116.

Possemato KA et al. The impact of PTSD, depression, and substance use disorders on disease burden and health care utilization among OEF/OIF veterans. Psychol Trauma Theory Res Pract Policy. 2010;2(3):218–23.

117.

Seal KH et al. Trends and risk factors for mental health diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans using Department of Veterans Affairs health care, 2002–2008. Am J Public Health. 2009;99(9):1651–8.PubMedCentralPubMed

118.

Seng EK et al. Prescription headache medication in OEF/OIF veterans: results from the women veterans cohort study. Headache. 2013;53(8):1312–22.PubMed

119.

Stecker T et al. Engagement in mental health treatment among veterans returning from Iraq. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2010;4:45–9.PubMedCentralPubMed

120.

Tan G et al. Associations among pain, PTSD, mTBI, and heart rate variability in veterans of operation enduring and Iraqi Freedom: a pilot study. Pain Med. 2009;10(7):1237–45.PubMed

121.

Wisco BE et al. Traumatic brain injury, PTSD, and current suicidal ideation among Iraq and Afghanistan U.S. veterans. J Trauma Stress. 2014;27(2):244–8.PubMed

122.

McDevitt-Murphy ME et al. PTSD symptoms, hazardous drinking, and health functioning among U.S. OEF and OIF veterans presenting to primary care. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(1):108–11.PubMedCentralPubMed

123.

Nazarian D, Kimerling RE, Frayne SM. Posttraumatic stress disorder, substance use disorders, and medical comorbidity among returning U.S. veterans. J Trauma Stress. 2012;25(2):220–5.PubMed

124.

Nunnink SE et al. Female veterans of the OEF/OIF conflict: concordance of PTSD symptoms and substance misuse. Addict Behav. 2010;35(7):655–9.PubMed

125.

Petrakis IL, Rosenheck RA, Desai RA. Substance use comorbidity among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric illness. Am J Addict. 2011;20(3):185–9.PubMed

126.

Scott JC et al. Gender differences in the correlates of hazardous drinking among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;127(1–3):15–22.PubMed

127.

Seal KH et al. Substance use disorders in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans in VA healthcare, 2001–2010: implications for screening, diagnosis and treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;116(1–3):93–101.PubMed

128.

Pietrzak RH, Southwick SM. Psychological resilience in OEF-OIF veterans: application of a novel classification approach and examination of demographic and psychosocial correlates. J Affect Disord. 2011;133(3):560–8.PubMed

129.

Sayer NA et al. Reintegration problems and treatment interests among Iraq and Afghanistan combat veterans receiving VA medical care. Psychiatr Serv. 2010;61(6):589–97.PubMed

130.

Strom TQ et al. An exploratory examination of risk-taking behavior and PTSD symptom severity in a veteran sample. Mil Med. 2012;177(4):390–6.PubMed

131.

Zivin K et al. Employment status of patients in the VA health system: implications for mental health services. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):35–8.PubMed

132.

Stecker T et al. Co-occurring medical, psychiatric, and alcohol-related disorders among veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Psychosomatics. 2010;51(6):503–7.PubMed

133.

Blackstock OJ et al. Gender and the use of veterans health administration homeless services programs among Iraq/Afghanistan veterans. Med Care. 2012;50(4):347–52.PubMed

134.

Lew HL et al. Prevalence and characteristics of driving difficulties in operation Iraqi freedom/operation enduring freedom combat returnees. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2011;48(8):913–25.PubMed

135.

Hawkins EJ et al. Recognition and management of alcohol misuse in OEF/OIF and other veterans in the VA: a cross-sectional study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;109(1–3):147–53.PubMed

136.

Jakupcak M et al. Hopelessness and suicidal ideation in Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans reporting subthreshold and threshold posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2011;199(4):272–5.PubMed

137.

Jones N et al. Long-term military work outcomes in soldiers who become mental health casualties when deployed on operations. Psychiatry. 2010;73(4):352–64.PubMed

138.

Cohen SP et al. Diagnoses and factors associated with medical evacuation and return to duty for service members participating in operation Iraqi freedom or operation enduring freedom: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2010;375(9711):301–9.PubMed

139.

Vogt D et al. Deployment risk and resilience inventory-2 (DRRI-2): an updated tool for assessing psychosocial risk and resilience factors among service members and veterans. J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(6):710–7.PubMed

140.

Piccinelli M, Wilkinson G. Gender differences in depression. Critical review. Br J Psychiatry. 2000;177:486–92.PubMed

141.

Brady KT, Randall CL. Gender differences in substance use disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1999;22(2):241–52.PubMed

142.

Schnurr PP, Green BL, editors. Trauma and health: physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress. Washington: American Psychological Association; 2004.

143.

Andrews B, Brewin CR, Rose S. Gender, social support, and PTSD in victims of violent crime. J Trauma Stress. 2003;16(4):421–7.PubMed

144.

King LA et al. Resilience-recovery factors in post-traumatic stress disorder among female and male Vietnam veterans: hardiness, postwar social support, and additional stressful life events. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1998;74(2):420–34.PubMed

Title: Prevalence of, Risk Factors for, and Consequences of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Other Mental Health Problems in Military Populations Deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan
Authors: Rajeev Ramchand
Rena Rudavsky
Sean Grant
Terri Tanielian
Lisa Jaycox
Publication date: 01-05-2015
Publisher: Springer US
Published in: Current Psychiatry Reports / Issue 5/2015
Print ISSN: 1523-3812
Electronic ISSN: 1535-1645
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0575-z

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Prevalence of, Risk Factors for, and Consequences of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Other Mental Health Problems in Military Populations Deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan

Abstract

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 5/2015

Gastroenterology Issues in Schizophrenia: Why the Gut Matters

Ophthalmology Issues in Schizophrenia

Application of the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Framework to Eating Disorders: Emerging Concepts and Research

Transcranial Cortical Stimulation in the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders: Efficacy Studies

Psychopharmacologic Treatment of Eating Disorders: Emerging Findings

Sexsomnia: Sleep Sex Research and Its Legal Implications