Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Pediatric Drugs 2/2014

01-04-2014 | Therapy in Practice

Postoperative Pain Management in Children and Infants: An Update

Authors: Christopher Brasher, Benjamin Gafsous, Sophie Dugue, Anne Thiollier, Joelle Kinderf, Yves Nivoche, Robert Grace, Souhayl Dahmani

Published in: Pediatric Drugs | Issue 2/2014

Login to get access

Abstract

Many factors contribute to suboptimal pain management in children. Current evidence suggests that severe pain in children has significant long-lasting effects, even more so than in adults. In particular, recent evidence suggests a lack of optimal postoperative pain management in children, especially following ambulatory surgery. This review provides simple guidelines for the management of postoperative pain in children. It discusses the long-term effects of severe pain and how to evaluate pain in both healthy and neurologically impaired children, including neonates. Currently available treatment options are discussed with reference to the efficacy and side effects of opioid and non-opioid and regional analgesic techniques. The impact of preoperative anxiety on postoperative pain, and the efficacy of some nonpharmacological techniques such as hypnosis or distraction, are also discussed. Finally, basic organizational strategies are described, aiming to promote safer and more efficient postoperative pain management in children.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Stanko D, Bergesio R, Davies K, Hegarty M, von Ungern-Sternberg BS. Postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting following adeno-tonsillectomy—a long-term follow-up. Pediatric Anesthesia. 2013;23(8):690–6.CrossRefPubMed Stanko D, Bergesio R, Davies K, Hegarty M, von Ungern-Sternberg BS. Postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting following adeno-tonsillectomy—a long-term follow-up. Pediatric Anesthesia. 2013;23(8):690–6.CrossRefPubMed
2.
go back to reference Segerdahl M, Warrén-Stomberg M, Rawal N, Brattwall M, Jakobsson J. Children in day surgery: clinical practice and routines. The results from a nation-wide survey. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2008;52(6):821–8.CrossRefPubMed Segerdahl M, Warrén-Stomberg M, Rawal N, Brattwall M, Jakobsson J. Children in day surgery: clinical practice and routines. The results from a nation-wide survey. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2008;52(6):821–8.CrossRefPubMed
3.
go back to reference Mohammed BS, Engelhardt T, Cameron GA, Cameron L, Hawksworth GM, Hawwa AF, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of single-dose intravenous paracetamol in children. Br J Anaesth. 2012;108(5):823–9.CrossRefPubMed Mohammed BS, Engelhardt T, Cameron GA, Cameron L, Hawksworth GM, Hawwa AF, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of single-dose intravenous paracetamol in children. Br J Anaesth. 2012;108(5):823–9.CrossRefPubMed
4.
go back to reference Kart T, Christrup LL, Rasmussen M. Recommended use of morphine in neonates, infants and children based on a literature review: part 2—clinical use. Paediatr Anaesth. 1997;7(2):93–101.CrossRefPubMed Kart T, Christrup LL, Rasmussen M. Recommended use of morphine in neonates, infants and children based on a literature review: part 2—clinical use. Paediatr Anaesth. 1997;7(2):93–101.CrossRefPubMed
5.
go back to reference Kart T, Christrup LL, Rasmussen M. Recommended use of morphine in neonates, infants and children based on a literature review: part 1—pharmacokinetics. Paediatr Anaesth. 1997;7(1):5–11.CrossRefPubMed Kart T, Christrup LL, Rasmussen M. Recommended use of morphine in neonates, infants and children based on a literature review: part 1—pharmacokinetics. Paediatr Anaesth. 1997;7(1):5–11.CrossRefPubMed
6.
go back to reference Ceelie I, de Wildt SN, van Dijk M, van den Berg MMJ, van den Bosch GE, Duivenvoorden HJ, et al. Effect of intravenous paracetamol on postoperative morphine requirements in neonates and infants undergoing major noncardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2013;309(2):149–54.CrossRefPubMed Ceelie I, de Wildt SN, van Dijk M, van den Berg MMJ, van den Bosch GE, Duivenvoorden HJ, et al. Effect of intravenous paracetamol on postoperative morphine requirements in neonates and infants undergoing major noncardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2013;309(2):149–54.CrossRefPubMed
7.
go back to reference Verghese ST, Hannallah RS. Acute pain management in children. J Pain Res. 2010;2010(3):105–23.CrossRef Verghese ST, Hannallah RS. Acute pain management in children. J Pain Res. 2010;2010(3):105–23.CrossRef
8.
go back to reference Walker SM, Meredith-Middleton J, Cooke-Yarborough C, Fitzgerald M. Neonatal inflammation and primary afferent terminal plasticity in the rat dorsal horn. Pain. 2003;105(1–2):185–95.CrossRefPubMed Walker SM, Meredith-Middleton J, Cooke-Yarborough C, Fitzgerald M. Neonatal inflammation and primary afferent terminal plasticity in the rat dorsal horn. Pain. 2003;105(1–2):185–95.CrossRefPubMed
9.
go back to reference Hohmeister J, Kroll A, Wollgarten-Hadamek I, Zohsel K, Demirakça S, Flor H, et al. Cerebral processing of pain in school-aged children with neonatal nociceptive input: an exploratory fMRI study. Pain. 2010;150(2):257–67.CrossRefPubMed Hohmeister J, Kroll A, Wollgarten-Hadamek I, Zohsel K, Demirakça S, Flor H, et al. Cerebral processing of pain in school-aged children with neonatal nociceptive input: an exploratory fMRI study. Pain. 2010;150(2):257–67.CrossRefPubMed
10.
go back to reference Hohmeister J, Demirakça S, Zohsel K, Flor H, Hermann C. Responses to pain in school-aged children with experience in a neonatal intensive care unit: cognitive aspects and maternal influences. Eur J Pain. 2009;13(1):94–101.CrossRefPubMed Hohmeister J, Demirakça S, Zohsel K, Flor H, Hermann C. Responses to pain in school-aged children with experience in a neonatal intensive care unit: cognitive aspects and maternal influences. Eur J Pain. 2009;13(1):94–101.CrossRefPubMed
11.
go back to reference Peters JWB, Schouw R, Anand KJS, van Dijk M, Duivenvoorden HJ, Tibboel D. Does neonatal surgery lead to increased pain sensitivity in later childhood? Pain. 2005;114(3):444–54.CrossRefPubMed Peters JWB, Schouw R, Anand KJS, van Dijk M, Duivenvoorden HJ, Tibboel D. Does neonatal surgery lead to increased pain sensitivity in later childhood? Pain. 2005;114(3):444–54.CrossRefPubMed
12.
go back to reference Kim S-H, Lee MH, Seo H, Lee I-G, Hong J-Y, Hwang J-H. Intraoperative infusion of 0.6–0.9 μg·kg(−1)·min(−1) remifentanil induces acute tolerance in young children after laparoscopic ureteroneocystostomy. Anesthesiology. 2013;118(2):337–43.CrossRefPubMed Kim S-H, Lee MH, Seo H, Lee I-G, Hong J-Y, Hwang J-H. Intraoperative infusion of 0.6–0.9 μg·kg(−1)·min(−1) remifentanil induces acute tolerance in young children after laparoscopic ureteroneocystostomy. Anesthesiology. 2013;118(2):337–43.CrossRefPubMed
13.
go back to reference Engelhardt T, Zaarour C, Naser B, Pehora C, de Ruiter J, Howard A, et al. Intraoperative low-dose ketamine does not prevent a remifentanil-induced increase in morphine requirement after pediatric scoliosis surgery. Anesth Analg. 2008;107(4):1170–5.CrossRefPubMed Engelhardt T, Zaarour C, Naser B, Pehora C, de Ruiter J, Howard A, et al. Intraoperative low-dose ketamine does not prevent a remifentanil-induced increase in morphine requirement after pediatric scoliosis surgery. Anesth Analg. 2008;107(4):1170–5.CrossRefPubMed
15.
go back to reference Martinez V, Baudic S, Fletcher D. Chronic postsurgical pain. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(6):422–35.CrossRefPubMed Martinez V, Baudic S, Fletcher D. Chronic postsurgical pain. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(6):422–35.CrossRefPubMed
16.
go back to reference Pagé MG, Stinson J, Campbell F, Isaac L, Katz J. Identification of pain-related psychological risk factors for the development and maintenance of pediatric chronic postsurgical pain. J Pain Res. 2013;2013(6):167–80.CrossRef Pagé MG, Stinson J, Campbell F, Isaac L, Katz J. Identification of pain-related psychological risk factors for the development and maintenance of pediatric chronic postsurgical pain. J Pain Res. 2013;2013(6):167–80.CrossRef
17.
go back to reference Ghai B, Makkar JK, Wig J. Postoperative pain assessment in preverbal children and children with cognitive impairment. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18(6):462–77.CrossRefPubMed Ghai B, Makkar JK, Wig J. Postoperative pain assessment in preverbal children and children with cognitive impairment. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18(6):462–77.CrossRefPubMed
18.
go back to reference von Baeyer CL, Spagrud LJ. Systematic review of observational (behavioral) measures of pain for children and adolescents aged 3 to 18 years. Pain. 2007;127(1–2):140–50.CrossRef von Baeyer CL, Spagrud LJ. Systematic review of observational (behavioral) measures of pain for children and adolescents aged 3 to 18 years. Pain. 2007;127(1–2):140–50.CrossRef
19.
go back to reference Stinson JN, Kavanagh T, Yamada J, Gill N, Stevens B. Systematic review of the psychometric properties, interpretability and feasibility of self-report pain intensity measures for use in clinical trials in children and adolescents. Pain. 2006;125(1–2):143–57.CrossRefPubMed Stinson JN, Kavanagh T, Yamada J, Gill N, Stevens B. Systematic review of the psychometric properties, interpretability and feasibility of self-report pain intensity measures for use in clinical trials in children and adolescents. Pain. 2006;125(1–2):143–57.CrossRefPubMed
20.
go back to reference Wong DL, Baker CM. Pain in children: comparison of assessment scales. Pediatr Nurs. 1988;14(1):9–17.PubMed Wong DL, Baker CM. Pain in children: comparison of assessment scales. Pediatr Nurs. 1988;14(1):9–17.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Voepel-Lewis T, Zanotti J, Dammeyer JA, Merkel S. Reliability and validity of the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability behavioral tool in assessing acute pain in critically ill patients. Am J Crit Care. 2010;19(1):55–61; quiz 62. Voepel-Lewis T, Zanotti J, Dammeyer JA, Merkel S. Reliability and validity of the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability behavioral tool in assessing acute pain in critically ill patients. Am J Crit Care. 2010;19(1):55–61; quiz 62.
22.
go back to reference Crellin D, Sullivan TP, Babl FE, O’Sullivan R, Hutchinson A. Analysis of the validation of existing behavioral pain and distress scales for use in the procedural setting. Paediatr Anaesth. 2007;17(8):720–33.CrossRefPubMed Crellin D, Sullivan TP, Babl FE, O’Sullivan R, Hutchinson A. Analysis of the validation of existing behavioral pain and distress scales for use in the procedural setting. Paediatr Anaesth. 2007;17(8):720–33.CrossRefPubMed
23.
go back to reference Valkenburg AJ, Boerlage AA, Ista E, Duivenvoorden HJ, Tibboel D, van Dijk M. The COMFORT-behavior scale is useful to assess pain and distress in 0- to 3-year-old children with Down syndrome. Pain. 2011;152(9):2059–64.CrossRefPubMed Valkenburg AJ, Boerlage AA, Ista E, Duivenvoorden HJ, Tibboel D, van Dijk M. The COMFORT-behavior scale is useful to assess pain and distress in 0- to 3-year-old children with Down syndrome. Pain. 2011;152(9):2059–64.CrossRefPubMed
24.
go back to reference Bai J, Hsu L, Tang Y, van Dijk M. Validation of the COMFORT behavior scale and the FLACC scale for pain assessment in Chinese children after cardiac surgery. Pain Manag Nurs. 2012;13(1):18–26.CrossRefPubMed Bai J, Hsu L, Tang Y, van Dijk M. Validation of the COMFORT behavior scale and the FLACC scale for pain assessment in Chinese children after cardiac surgery. Pain Manag Nurs. 2012;13(1):18–26.CrossRefPubMed
25.
go back to reference van Dijk M, de Boer JB, Koot HM, Tibboel D, Passchier J, Duivenvoorden HJ. The reliability and validity of the COMFORT scale as a postoperative pain instrument in 0 to 3-year-old infants. Pain. 2000;84(2–3):367–77.CrossRefPubMed van Dijk M, de Boer JB, Koot HM, Tibboel D, Passchier J, Duivenvoorden HJ. The reliability and validity of the COMFORT scale as a postoperative pain instrument in 0 to 3-year-old infants. Pain. 2000;84(2–3):367–77.CrossRefPubMed
26.
go back to reference Suraseranivongse S, Santawat U, Kraiprasit K, Petcharatana S, Prakkamodom S, Muntraporn N. Cross-validation of a composite pain scale for preschool children within 24 hours of surgery. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87(3):400–5.CrossRefPubMed Suraseranivongse S, Santawat U, Kraiprasit K, Petcharatana S, Prakkamodom S, Muntraporn N. Cross-validation of a composite pain scale for preschool children within 24 hours of surgery. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87(3):400–5.CrossRefPubMed
27.
go back to reference Wilson GA, Doyle E. Validation of three paediatric pain scores for use by parents. Anaesthesia. 1996;51(11):1005–7.CrossRefPubMed Wilson GA, Doyle E. Validation of three paediatric pain scores for use by parents. Anaesthesia. 1996;51(11):1005–7.CrossRefPubMed
28.
go back to reference Finley GA, Chambers CT, McGrath PJ, Walsh TM. Construct validity of the Parents’ Postoperative Pain Measure. Clin J Pain. 2003;19(5):329–34. Finley GA, Chambers CT, McGrath PJ, Walsh TM. Construct validity of the Parents’ Postoperative Pain Measure. Clin J Pain. 2003;19(5):329–34.
29.
go back to reference Chambers CT, Finley GA, McGrath PJ, Walsh TM. The Parents’ Postoperative Pain Measure: replication and extension to 2–6-year-old children. Pain. 2003;105(3):437–43.CrossRefPubMed Chambers CT, Finley GA, McGrath PJ, Walsh TM. The Parents’ Postoperative Pain Measure: replication and extension to 2–6-year-old children. Pain. 2003;105(3):437–43.CrossRefPubMed
30.
go back to reference von Baeyer CL, Chambers CT, Eakins DM. Development of a 10-item short form of the Parents’ Postoperative Pain Measure: the PPPM-SF. J Pain. 2011;12(3):401–6.CrossRef von Baeyer CL, Chambers CT, Eakins DM. Development of a 10-item short form of the Parents’ Postoperative Pain Measure: the PPPM-SF. J Pain. 2011;12(3):401–6.CrossRef
31.
go back to reference Johansson M, Carlberg EB, Jylli L. Validity and reliability of a Swedish version of the Non-communicating Children’s Pain Checklist—Postoperative Version. Acta Paediatr. 2010;99(6):929–33.CrossRefPubMed Johansson M, Carlberg EB, Jylli L. Validity and reliability of a Swedish version of the Non-communicating Children’s Pain Checklist—Postoperative Version. Acta Paediatr. 2010;99(6):929–33.CrossRefPubMed
32.
go back to reference Solodiuk JC, Scott-Sutherland J, Meyers M, Myette B, Shusterman C, Karian VE, et al. Validation of the Individualized Numeric Rating Scale (INRS): a pain assessment tool for nonverbal children with intellectual disability. Pain. 2010;150(2):231–6.CrossRefPubMed Solodiuk JC, Scott-Sutherland J, Meyers M, Myette B, Shusterman C, Karian VE, et al. Validation of the Individualized Numeric Rating Scale (INRS): a pain assessment tool for nonverbal children with intellectual disability. Pain. 2010;150(2):231–6.CrossRefPubMed
33.
go back to reference Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Burke C, Merkel S, Tait AR. The revised FLACC observational pain tool: improved reliability and validity for pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment. Paediatr Anaesth. 2006;16(3):258–65.CrossRefPubMed Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Burke C, Merkel S, Tait AR. The revised FLACC observational pain tool: improved reliability and validity for pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment. Paediatr Anaesth. 2006;16(3):258–65.CrossRefPubMed
34.
go back to reference Dahmani S, Stany I, Brasher C, Lejeune C, Bruneau B, Wood C, et al. Pharmacological prevention of sevoflurane- and desflurane-related emergence agitation in children: a meta-analysis of published studies. Br J Anaesth. 2010;104(2):216–23.CrossRefPubMed Dahmani S, Stany I, Brasher C, Lejeune C, Bruneau B, Wood C, et al. Pharmacological prevention of sevoflurane- and desflurane-related emergence agitation in children: a meta-analysis of published studies. Br J Anaesth. 2010;104(2):216–23.CrossRefPubMed
35.
go back to reference Dahmani S, Michelet D, Abback P-S, Wood C, Brasher C, Nivoche Y, et al. Ketamine for perioperative pain management in children: a meta-analysis of published studies. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011;21(6):636–52.CrossRefPubMed Dahmani S, Michelet D, Abback P-S, Wood C, Brasher C, Nivoche Y, et al. Ketamine for perioperative pain management in children: a meta-analysis of published studies. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011;21(6):636–52.CrossRefPubMed
36.
go back to reference van den Berg AA, Montoya-Pelaez LF, Halliday EM, Hassan I, Baloch MS. Analgesia for adenotonsillectomy in children and young adults: a comparison of tramadol, pethidine and nalbuphine. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1999;16(3):186–94.CrossRefPubMed van den Berg AA, Montoya-Pelaez LF, Halliday EM, Hassan I, Baloch MS. Analgesia for adenotonsillectomy in children and young adults: a comparison of tramadol, pethidine and nalbuphine. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1999;16(3):186–94.CrossRefPubMed
37.
go back to reference Bressolle F, Khier S, Rochette A, Kinowski JM, Dadure C, Capdevila X. Population pharmacokinetics of nalbuphine after surgery in children. Br J Anaesth. 2011;106(4):558–65.CrossRefPubMed Bressolle F, Khier S, Rochette A, Kinowski JM, Dadure C, Capdevila X. Population pharmacokinetics of nalbuphine after surgery in children. Br J Anaesth. 2011;106(4):558–65.CrossRefPubMed
38.
go back to reference Bessard G, Alibeu JP, Cartal M, Nicolle E, Serre Debeauvais F, Devillier P. Pharmacokinetics of intrarectal nalbuphine in children undergoing general anaesthesia. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 1997;11(2):133–7.CrossRefPubMed Bessard G, Alibeu JP, Cartal M, Nicolle E, Serre Debeauvais F, Devillier P. Pharmacokinetics of intrarectal nalbuphine in children undergoing general anaesthesia. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 1997;11(2):133–7.CrossRefPubMed
39.
go back to reference Yeh YC, Lin TF, Lin FS, Wang YP, Lin CJ, Sun WZ. Combination of opioid agonist and agonist-antagonist: patient-controlled analgesia requirement and adverse events among different-ratio morphine and nalbuphine admixtures for postoperative pain. Br J Anaesth. 2008;101(4):542–8.CrossRefPubMed Yeh YC, Lin TF, Lin FS, Wang YP, Lin CJ, Sun WZ. Combination of opioid agonist and agonist-antagonist: patient-controlled analgesia requirement and adverse events among different-ratio morphine and nalbuphine admixtures for postoperative pain. Br J Anaesth. 2008;101(4):542–8.CrossRefPubMed
40.
go back to reference Bouwmeester NJ, van den Anker JN, Hop WCJ, Anand KJS, Tibboel D. Age- and therapy-related effects on morphine requirements and plasma concentrations of morphine and its metabolites in postoperative infants. Br J Anaesth. 2003;90(5):642–52.CrossRefPubMed Bouwmeester NJ, van den Anker JN, Hop WCJ, Anand KJS, Tibboel D. Age- and therapy-related effects on morphine requirements and plasma concentrations of morphine and its metabolites in postoperative infants. Br J Anaesth. 2003;90(5):642–52.CrossRefPubMed
41.
go back to reference Bouwmeester NJ, Hop WCJ, van Dijk M, Anand KJS, van den Anker JN, Tibboel D. Postoperative pain in the neonate: age-related differences in morphine requirements and metabolism. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29(11):2009–15.CrossRefPubMed Bouwmeester NJ, Hop WCJ, van Dijk M, Anand KJS, van den Anker JN, Tibboel D. Postoperative pain in the neonate: age-related differences in morphine requirements and metabolism. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29(11):2009–15.CrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Krekels EHJ, DeJongh J, van Lingen RA, van der Marel CD, Choonara I, Lynn AM, et al. Predictive performance of a recently developed population pharmacokinetic model for morphine and its metabolites in new datasets of (preterm) neonates, infants and children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2011;50(1):51–63.CrossRefPubMed Krekels EHJ, DeJongh J, van Lingen RA, van der Marel CD, Choonara I, Lynn AM, et al. Predictive performance of a recently developed population pharmacokinetic model for morphine and its metabolites in new datasets of (preterm) neonates, infants and children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2011;50(1):51–63.CrossRefPubMed
43.
go back to reference Lotsch J, Weiss M, Kobal G, Geisslinger G. Pharmacokinetics of morphine-6-glucuronide and its formation from morphine after intravenous administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1998;63(6):629–39.CrossRefPubMed Lotsch J, Weiss M, Kobal G, Geisslinger G. Pharmacokinetics of morphine-6-glucuronide and its formation from morphine after intravenous administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1998;63(6):629–39.CrossRefPubMed
44.
go back to reference Hain RD, Hardcastle A, Pinkerton CR, Aherne GW. Morphine and morphine-6-glucuronide in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;48(1):37–42.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Hain RD, Hardcastle A, Pinkerton CR, Aherne GW. Morphine and morphine-6-glucuronide in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;48(1):37–42.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
46.
go back to reference Kanagasundaram SA, Cooper MG, Lane LJ. Nurse-controlled analgesia using a patient-controlled analgesia device: an alternative strategy in the management of severe cancer pain in children. J Paediatr Child Health. 1997;33(4):352–5.CrossRefPubMed Kanagasundaram SA, Cooper MG, Lane LJ. Nurse-controlled analgesia using a patient-controlled analgesia device: an alternative strategy in the management of severe cancer pain in children. J Paediatr Child Health. 1997;33(4):352–5.CrossRefPubMed
47.
go back to reference Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers and other drugs among women—United States, 1999–2010. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62(26):537–42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers and other drugs among women—United States, 1999–2010. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62(26):537–42.
48.
go back to reference Duedahl TH, Hansen EH. A qualitative systematic review of morphine treatment in children with postoperative pain. Paediatr Anaesth. 2007;17(8):756–74.CrossRefPubMed Duedahl TH, Hansen EH. A qualitative systematic review of morphine treatment in children with postoperative pain. Paediatr Anaesth. 2007;17(8):756–74.CrossRefPubMed
49.
go back to reference Racoosin JA, Roberson DW, Pacanowski MA, Nielsen DR. New evidence about an old drug—risk with codeine after adenotonsillectomy. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(23):2155–7.CrossRefPubMed Racoosin JA, Roberson DW, Pacanowski MA, Nielsen DR. New evidence about an old drug—risk with codeine after adenotonsillectomy. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(23):2155–7.CrossRefPubMed
51.
go back to reference Prins SA, Van Dijk M, Van Leeuwen P, Searle S, Anderson BJ, Tibboel D, et al. Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effects of intravenous propacetamol vs rectal paracetamol in children after major craniofacial surgery. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18(7):582–92.CrossRefPubMed Prins SA, Van Dijk M, Van Leeuwen P, Searle S, Anderson BJ, Tibboel D, et al. Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effects of intravenous propacetamol vs rectal paracetamol in children after major craniofacial surgery. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18(7):582–92.CrossRefPubMed
52.
go back to reference Capici F, Ingelmo PM, Davidson A, Sacchi CA, Milan B, Sperti LR, et al. Randomized controlled trial of duration of analgesia following intravenous or rectal acetaminophen after adenotonsillectomy in children. Br J Anaesth. 2008;100(2):251–5.CrossRefPubMed Capici F, Ingelmo PM, Davidson A, Sacchi CA, Milan B, Sperti LR, et al. Randomized controlled trial of duration of analgesia following intravenous or rectal acetaminophen after adenotonsillectomy in children. Br J Anaesth. 2008;100(2):251–5.CrossRefPubMed
53.
go back to reference Gandhi R, Sunder R. Postoperative analgesic efficacy of single high dose and low dose rectal acetaminophen in pediatric ophthalmic surgery. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2012;28(4):460–4.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Gandhi R, Sunder R. Postoperative analgesic efficacy of single high dose and low dose rectal acetaminophen in pediatric ophthalmic surgery. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2012;28(4):460–4.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
54.
go back to reference Dashti GA, Amini S, Zanguee E. The prophylactic effect of rectal acetaminophen on postoperative pain and opioid requirements after adenotonsillectomy in children. Middle East J Anesthesiol. 2009;20(2):245–9.PubMed Dashti GA, Amini S, Zanguee E. The prophylactic effect of rectal acetaminophen on postoperative pain and opioid requirements after adenotonsillectomy in children. Middle East J Anesthesiol. 2009;20(2):245–9.PubMed
55.
go back to reference Owczarzak V, Haddad J Jr. Comparison of oral versus rectal administration of acetaminophen with codeine in postoperative pediatric adenotonsillectomy patients. Laryngoscope. 2006;116(8):1485–8.CrossRefPubMed Owczarzak V, Haddad J Jr. Comparison of oral versus rectal administration of acetaminophen with codeine in postoperative pediatric adenotonsillectomy patients. Laryngoscope. 2006;116(8):1485–8.CrossRefPubMed
56.
go back to reference Wong I, St John-Green C, Walker SM. Opioid-sparing effects of perioperative paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2013;23(6):475–95. Wong I, St John-Green C, Walker SM. Opioid-sparing effects of perioperative paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2013;23(6):475–95.
57.
go back to reference Kennedy JM, van Rij AM. Drug absorption from the small intestine in immediate postoperative patients. Br J Anaesth. 2006;97(2):171–80.CrossRefPubMed Kennedy JM, van Rij AM. Drug absorption from the small intestine in immediate postoperative patients. Br J Anaesth. 2006;97(2):171–80.CrossRefPubMed
58.
go back to reference Elfant AB, Levine SM, Cencora B, Spiegel TA, Méndez L, Pello MJ, et al. Bioavailability of medication after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. J Laparoendosc Surg. 1995;5(4):237–40.CrossRefPubMed Elfant AB, Levine SM, Cencora B, Spiegel TA, Méndez L, Pello MJ, et al. Bioavailability of medication after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. J Laparoendosc Surg. 1995;5(4):237–40.CrossRefPubMed
59.
go back to reference Elfant AB, Levine SM, Peikin SR, Cencora B, Méndez L, Pello MJ, et al. Bioavailability of medication delivered via nasogastric tube is decreased in the immediate postoperative period. Am J Surg. 1995;169(4):430–2.CrossRefPubMed Elfant AB, Levine SM, Peikin SR, Cencora B, Méndez L, Pello MJ, et al. Bioavailability of medication delivered via nasogastric tube is decreased in the immediate postoperative period. Am J Surg. 1995;169(4):430–2.CrossRefPubMed
60.
go back to reference Fosbøl EL, Køber L, Torp-Pedersen C, Gislason GH. Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs among healthy individuals. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2010;9(6):893–903.CrossRefPubMed Fosbøl EL, Køber L, Torp-Pedersen C, Gislason GH. Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs among healthy individuals. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2010;9(6):893–903.CrossRefPubMed
61.
go back to reference Standing JF, Savage I, Pritchard D, Waddington M. Diclofenac for acute pain in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 (4). Standing JF, Savage I, Pritchard D, Waddington M. Diclofenac for acute pain in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 (4).
62.
go back to reference Johnston PG, Gillam-Krakauer M, Fuller MP, Reese J. Evidence-based use of indomethacin and ibuprofen in the neonatal intensive care unit. Clin Perinatol. 2012;39(1):111–36.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Johnston PG, Gillam-Krakauer M, Fuller MP, Reese J. Evidence-based use of indomethacin and ibuprofen in the neonatal intensive care unit. Clin Perinatol. 2012;39(1):111–36.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
63.
go back to reference Standing JF, Ooi K, Keady S, Howard RF, Savage I, Wong ICK. Prospective observational study of adverse drug reactions to diclofenac in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;68(2):243–51.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Standing JF, Ooi K, Keady S, Howard RF, Savage I, Wong ICK. Prospective observational study of adverse drug reactions to diclofenac in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;68(2):243–51.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
64.
go back to reference Michelet D, Andreu-Gallien J, Bensalah T, Hilly J, Wood C, Nivoche Y, et al. A meta-analysis of the use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs for pediatric postoperative pain. Anesth Analg. 2012;114(2):393–406.CrossRefPubMed Michelet D, Andreu-Gallien J, Bensalah T, Hilly J, Wood C, Nivoche Y, et al. A meta-analysis of the use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs for pediatric postoperative pain. Anesth Analg. 2012;114(2):393–406.CrossRefPubMed
65.
go back to reference Kokki H. Ketoprofen pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and tolerability in pediatric patients. Paediatr Drugs. 2010;12(5):313–29.CrossRefPubMed Kokki H. Ketoprofen pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and tolerability in pediatric patients. Paediatr Drugs. 2010;12(5):313–29.CrossRefPubMed
66.
go back to reference Papacci P, De Francisci G, Iacobucci T, Giannantonio C, De Carolis MP, Zecca E, et al. Use of intravenous ketorolac in the neonate and premature babies. Paediatr Anaesth. 2004;14(6):487–92.CrossRefPubMed Papacci P, De Francisci G, Iacobucci T, Giannantonio C, De Carolis MP, Zecca E, et al. Use of intravenous ketorolac in the neonate and premature babies. Paediatr Anaesth. 2004;14(6):487–92.CrossRefPubMed
67.
go back to reference Kokki H, Karvinen M, Jekunen A. Pharmacokinetics of a 24-hour intravenous ketoprofen infusion in children. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2002;46(2):194–8.CrossRefPubMed Kokki H, Karvinen M, Jekunen A. Pharmacokinetics of a 24-hour intravenous ketoprofen infusion in children. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2002;46(2):194–8.CrossRefPubMed
68.
go back to reference Mannila A, Kokki H, Heikkinen M, Laisalmi M, Lehtonen M, Louhisto HL, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid distribution of ketoprofen after intravenous administration in young children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2006;45(7):737–43.CrossRefPubMed Mannila A, Kokki H, Heikkinen M, Laisalmi M, Lehtonen M, Louhisto HL, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid distribution of ketoprofen after intravenous administration in young children. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2006;45(7):737–43.CrossRefPubMed
69.
go back to reference Møiniche S, Rømsing J, Dahl JB, Tramèr MR. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and the risk of operative site bleeding after tonsillectomy: a quantitative systematic review. Anesth Analg. 2003;96(1):68–77, table of contents. Møiniche S, Rømsing J, Dahl JB, Tramèr MR. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and the risk of operative site bleeding after tonsillectomy: a quantitative systematic review. Anesth Analg. 2003;96(1):68–77, table of contents.
70.
go back to reference Lewis SR, Nicholson A, Cardwell ME, Siviter G, Smith AF. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and perioperative bleeding in paediatric tonsillectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2013:7. Lewis SR, Nicholson A, Cardwell ME, Siviter G, Smith AF. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and perioperative bleeding in paediatric tonsillectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2013:7.
71.
go back to reference Czarnetzki C, Elia N, Lysakowski C, Dumont L, Landis BN, Giger R, et al. Dexamethasone and risk of nausea and vomiting and postoperative bleeding after tonsillectomy in children: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008;300(22):2621–30.CrossRefPubMed Czarnetzki C, Elia N, Lysakowski C, Dumont L, Landis BN, Giger R, et al. Dexamethasone and risk of nausea and vomiting and postoperative bleeding after tonsillectomy in children: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008;300(22):2621–30.CrossRefPubMed
72.
go back to reference Evans MS, Lysakowski C, Tramer MR. Nefopam for the prevention of postoperative pain: quantitative systematic review. Br J Anaesth. 2008;101(5):610–7.CrossRefPubMed Evans MS, Lysakowski C, Tramer MR. Nefopam for the prevention of postoperative pain: quantitative systematic review. Br J Anaesth. 2008;101(5):610–7.CrossRefPubMed
73.
go back to reference Veyckemans F, Pendeville PE. Tramadol for acute postoperative pain in children. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2007;26(6):564–9.CrossRefPubMed Veyckemans F, Pendeville PE. Tramadol for acute postoperative pain in children. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2007;26(6):564–9.CrossRefPubMed
74.
go back to reference Abback PS, Ben Sallah T, Hilly J, Skhiri A, Silins V, Brasher C, et al. Opioid-sparing effect of ketamine during tonsillectomy in children. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(6):387–91. Abback PS, Ben Sallah T, Hilly J, Skhiri A, Silins V, Brasher C, et al. Opioid-sparing effect of ketamine during tonsillectomy in children. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(6):387–91.
75.
go back to reference Rusy LM, Hainsworth KR, Nelson TJ, Czarnecki ML, Tassone JC, Thometz JG, et al. Gabapentin use in pediatric spinal fusion patients: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2010;110(5):1393–8.CrossRefPubMed Rusy LM, Hainsworth KR, Nelson TJ, Czarnecki ML, Tassone JC, Thometz JG, et al. Gabapentin use in pediatric spinal fusion patients: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2010;110(5):1393–8.CrossRefPubMed
76.
go back to reference Waldron NH, Jones CA, Gan TJ, Allen TK, Habib AS. Impact of perioperative dexamethasone on postoperative analgesia and side-effects: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Anaesth. 2013;110(2):191–200.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Waldron NH, Jones CA, Gan TJ, Allen TK, Habib AS. Impact of perioperative dexamethasone on postoperative analgesia and side-effects: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Anaesth. 2013;110(2):191–200.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
77.
go back to reference Khalili G, Sajedi P, Shafa A, Hosseini B, Seyyedyousefi H. A randomized evaluation of intravenous dexamethasone versus oral acetaminophen codeine in pediatric adenotonsillectomy: emergence agitation and analgesia. Middle East J Anesthesiol. 2012;21(4):499–504.PubMed Khalili G, Sajedi P, Shafa A, Hosseini B, Seyyedyousefi H. A randomized evaluation of intravenous dexamethasone versus oral acetaminophen codeine in pediatric adenotonsillectomy: emergence agitation and analgesia. Middle East J Anesthesiol. 2012;21(4):499–504.PubMed
78.
go back to reference Aissaoui Y, Chkoura K, Zaini R, Moujahid M, Mergad O, Boughalem M. Effect of a single intramuscular dose of dexamethasone on pain after circumcision. A randomized controlled study. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(2):98–103.CrossRefPubMed Aissaoui Y, Chkoura K, Zaini R, Moujahid M, Mergad O, Boughalem M. Effect of a single intramuscular dose of dexamethasone on pain after circumcision. A randomized controlled study. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(2):98–103.CrossRefPubMed
79.
go back to reference Dahmani S, Brasher C, Stany I, Golmard J, Skhiri A, Bruneau B, et al. Premedication with clonidine is superior to benzodiazepines. A meta analysis of published studies. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2010;54(4):397–402.CrossRefPubMed Dahmani S, Brasher C, Stany I, Golmard J, Skhiri A, Bruneau B, et al. Premedication with clonidine is superior to benzodiazepines. A meta analysis of published studies. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2010;54(4):397–402.CrossRefPubMed
80.
go back to reference Arthurs OJ, Sury M. Anaesthesia or sedation for paediatric MRI: advantages and disadvantages. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2013;26(4):489–94.CrossRefPubMed Arthurs OJ, Sury M. Anaesthesia or sedation for paediatric MRI: advantages and disadvantages. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2013;26(4):489–94.CrossRefPubMed
81.
go back to reference He X-Y, Cao J-P, Shi X-Y, Zhang H. Dexmedetomidine versus morphine or fentanyl in the management of children after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2013;122(2):114–20.PubMed He X-Y, Cao J-P, Shi X-Y, Zhang H. Dexmedetomidine versus morphine or fentanyl in the management of children after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2013;122(2):114–20.PubMed
82.
go back to reference Patel A, Davidson M, Tran MC, Quraishi H, Schoenberg C, Sant M, et al. Dexmedetomidine infusion for analgesia and prevention of emergence agitation in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome undergoing tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. Anesth Analg. 2010;111(4):1004–10.PubMed Patel A, Davidson M, Tran MC, Quraishi H, Schoenberg C, Sant M, et al. Dexmedetomidine infusion for analgesia and prevention of emergence agitation in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome undergoing tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. Anesth Analg. 2010;111(4):1004–10.PubMed
83.
go back to reference Pestieau SR, Quezado ZM, Johnson YJ, Anderson JL, Cheng YI, McCarter RJ, et al. High-dose dexmedetomidine increases the opioid-free interval and decreases opioid requirement after tonsillectomy in children. Can J Anaesth. 2011;58(6):540–50.CrossRefPubMed Pestieau SR, Quezado ZM, Johnson YJ, Anderson JL, Cheng YI, McCarter RJ, et al. High-dose dexmedetomidine increases the opioid-free interval and decreases opioid requirement after tonsillectomy in children. Can J Anaesth. 2011;58(6):540–50.CrossRefPubMed
84.
go back to reference O’Sullivan MJ, Mislovic B, Alexander E. Dorsal penile nerve block for male pediatric circumcision—randomized comparison of ultrasound-guided vs anatomical landmark technique. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011;21(12):1214–8.CrossRefPubMed O’Sullivan MJ, Mislovic B, Alexander E. Dorsal penile nerve block for male pediatric circumcision—randomized comparison of ultrasound-guided vs anatomical landmark technique. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011;21(12):1214–8.CrossRefPubMed
85.
go back to reference Rubin K, Sullivan D, Sadhasivam S. Are peripheral and neuraxial blocks with ultrasound guidance more effective and safe in children? Paediatr Anaesth. 2009;19(2):92–6.CrossRefPubMed Rubin K, Sullivan D, Sadhasivam S. Are peripheral and neuraxial blocks with ultrasound guidance more effective and safe in children? Paediatr Anaesth. 2009;19(2):92–6.CrossRefPubMed
86.
go back to reference Tobias JD. A review of intrathecal and epidural analgesia after spinal surgery in children. Anesth Analg. 2004;98(4):956–65; table of contents. Tobias JD. A review of intrathecal and epidural analgesia after spinal surgery in children. Anesth Analg. 2004;98(4):956–65; table of contents.
87.
go back to reference Di Pace MR, Cimador M, Catalano P, Caruso A, Sergio M, Casuccio A, et al. Efficacy of periportal infiltration and intraperitoneal instillation of ropivacaine after laparoscopic surgery in children. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 2009;19(6):821–5.CrossRefPubMed Di Pace MR, Cimador M, Catalano P, Caruso A, Sergio M, Casuccio A, et al. Efficacy of periportal infiltration and intraperitoneal instillation of ropivacaine after laparoscopic surgery in children. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 2009;19(6):821–5.CrossRefPubMed
88.
go back to reference Edwards TJ, Carty SJ, Carr AS, Lambert AW. Local anaesthetic wound infiltration following paediatric appendicectomy: a randomised controlled trial: time to stop using local anaesthetic wound infiltration following paediatric appendicectomy? Int J Surg. 2011;9(4):314–7.CrossRefPubMed Edwards TJ, Carty SJ, Carr AS, Lambert AW. Local anaesthetic wound infiltration following paediatric appendicectomy: a randomised controlled trial: time to stop using local anaesthetic wound infiltration following paediatric appendicectomy? Int J Surg. 2011;9(4):314–7.CrossRefPubMed
89.
go back to reference Randall JK, Goede A, Morgan-Warren P, Middleton SB. Randomized clinical trial of the influence of local subcutaneous infiltration vs subcutaneous and deep infiltration of local anaesthetic on pain after appendicectomy. Colorectal Dis. 2010;12(5):477–9.CrossRefPubMed Randall JK, Goede A, Morgan-Warren P, Middleton SB. Randomized clinical trial of the influence of local subcutaneous infiltration vs subcutaneous and deep infiltration of local anaesthetic on pain after appendicectomy. Colorectal Dis. 2010;12(5):477–9.CrossRefPubMed
90.
go back to reference Cyna AM, Middleton P. Caudal epidural block versus other methods of postoperative pain relief for circumcision in boys. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(4). Cyna AM, Middleton P. Caudal epidural block versus other methods of postoperative pain relief for circumcision in boys. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(4).
91.
go back to reference Ecoffey C, Lacroix F, Giaufré E, Orliaguet G, Courrèges P. Association des Anesthésistes Réanimateurs Pédiatriques d’Expression Française. Epidemiology and morbidity of regional anesthesia in children: a follow-up one-year prospective survey of the French-Language Society of Paediatric Anaesthesiologists (ADARPEF). Paediatr Anaesth. 2010;20(12):1061–9.CrossRefPubMed Ecoffey C, Lacroix F, Giaufré E, Orliaguet G, Courrèges P. Association des Anesthésistes Réanimateurs Pédiatriques d’Expression Française. Epidemiology and morbidity of regional anesthesia in children: a follow-up one-year prospective survey of the French-Language Society of Paediatric Anaesthesiologists (ADARPEF). Paediatr Anaesth. 2010;20(12):1061–9.CrossRefPubMed
92.
go back to reference Dalens BJ, Mazoit JX. Adverse effects of regional anaesthesia in children. Drug Saf. 1998;19(4):251–68.CrossRefPubMed Dalens BJ, Mazoit JX. Adverse effects of regional anaesthesia in children. Drug Saf. 1998;19(4):251–68.CrossRefPubMed
93.
go back to reference Ross AK, Bryskin RB. Chapter 16—regional anesthesia. Smith’s anesthesia for infants and children (eighth edition). Philadelphia: Mosby; 2011. p. 452–510. Ross AK, Bryskin RB. Chapter 16—regional anesthesia. Smith’s anesthesia for infants and children (eighth edition). Philadelphia: Mosby; 2011. p. 452–510.
94.
go back to reference Presley JD, Chyka PA. Intravenous lipid emulsion to reverse acute drug toxicity in pediatric patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(5):735–43.CrossRefPubMed Presley JD, Chyka PA. Intravenous lipid emulsion to reverse acute drug toxicity in pediatric patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(5):735–43.CrossRefPubMed
95.
go back to reference Rosenberg PH, Veering BT, Urmey WF. Maximum recommended doses of local anesthetics: a multifactorial concept. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2004;29(6):564–75; discussion 524. Rosenberg PH, Veering BT, Urmey WF. Maximum recommended doses of local anesthetics: a multifactorial concept. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2004;29(6):564–75; discussion 524.
96.
go back to reference Detsch O, Erkens U, Jacofsky U, Thiel A, Kochs E, Hempelmann G. Topographical analysis of the EEG effects of a subconvulsive dose of lidocaine in healthy volunteers. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;41(8):1039–46.CrossRefPubMed Detsch O, Erkens U, Jacofsky U, Thiel A, Kochs E, Hempelmann G. Topographical analysis of the EEG effects of a subconvulsive dose of lidocaine in healthy volunteers. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1997;41(8):1039–46.CrossRefPubMed
97.
go back to reference Ansermino M, Basu R, Vandebeek C, Montgomery C. Nonopioid additives to local anaesthetics for caudal blockade in children: a systematic review. Paediatr Anaesth. 2003;13(7):561–73.CrossRefPubMed Ansermino M, Basu R, Vandebeek C, Montgomery C. Nonopioid additives to local anaesthetics for caudal blockade in children: a systematic review. Paediatr Anaesth. 2003;13(7):561–73.CrossRefPubMed
98.
go back to reference Schnabel A, Poepping DM, Kranke P, Zahn PK, Pogatzki-Zahn EM. Efficacy and adverse effects of ketamine as an additive for paediatric caudal anaesthesia: a quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Br J Anaesth. 2011;107(4):601–11.CrossRefPubMed Schnabel A, Poepping DM, Kranke P, Zahn PK, Pogatzki-Zahn EM. Efficacy and adverse effects of ketamine as an additive for paediatric caudal anaesthesia: a quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Br J Anaesth. 2011;107(4):601–11.CrossRefPubMed
99.
go back to reference Dadure C, Capdevila X. Continuous peripheral nerve blocks in children. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2005;19(2):309–21.CrossRefPubMed Dadure C, Capdevila X. Continuous peripheral nerve blocks in children. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2005;19(2):309–21.CrossRefPubMed
100.
go back to reference Dadure C, Macq C, Sola C, Raux O. Regional anesthesia for postoperative analgesia at home in children. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(1):e17–20.CrossRefPubMed Dadure C, Macq C, Sola C, Raux O. Regional anesthesia for postoperative analgesia at home in children. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 2013;32(1):e17–20.CrossRefPubMed
102.
go back to reference Silins V, Julien F, Brasher C, Nivoche Y, Mantz J, Dahmani S. Predictive factors of PACU stay after herniorraphy in infant: a classification and regression tree analysis. Paediatr Anaesth. 2012;22(3):230–8.CrossRefPubMed Silins V, Julien F, Brasher C, Nivoche Y, Mantz J, Dahmani S. Predictive factors of PACU stay after herniorraphy in infant: a classification and regression tree analysis. Paediatr Anaesth. 2012;22(3):230–8.CrossRefPubMed
103.
go back to reference Hoelzle M, Weiss M, Dillier C, Gerber A. Comparison of awake spinal with awake caudal anesthesia in preterm and ex-preterm infants for herniotomy. Paediatr Anaesth. 2010;20(7):620–4.CrossRefPubMed Hoelzle M, Weiss M, Dillier C, Gerber A. Comparison of awake spinal with awake caudal anesthesia in preterm and ex-preterm infants for herniotomy. Paediatr Anaesth. 2010;20(7):620–4.CrossRefPubMed
104.
go back to reference Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Mayes LC, Weinberg ME, Wang S-M, MacLaren JE, et al. Family-centered preparation for surgery improves perioperative outcomes in children: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology. 2007;106(1):65–74.CrossRefPubMed Kain ZN, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Mayes LC, Weinberg ME, Wang S-M, MacLaren JE, et al. Family-centered preparation for surgery improves perioperative outcomes in children: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology. 2007;106(1):65–74.CrossRefPubMed
105.
go back to reference Kuttner L. Pediatric hypnosis: pre-, peri-, and post-anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth. 2012;22(6):573–7.CrossRefPubMed Kuttner L. Pediatric hypnosis: pre-, peri-, and post-anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth. 2012;22(6):573–7.CrossRefPubMed
106.
go back to reference Ganesh A, Rose JB, Wells L, Ganley T, Gurnaney H, Maxwell LG, et al. Continuous peripheral nerve blockade for inpatient and outpatient postoperative analgesia in children. Anesth Analg. 2007;105(5):1234–42; table of contents. Ganesh A, Rose JB, Wells L, Ganley T, Gurnaney H, Maxwell LG, et al. Continuous peripheral nerve blockade for inpatient and outpatient postoperative analgesia in children. Anesth Analg. 2007;105(5):1234–42; table of contents.
107.
go back to reference Ludot H, Berger J, Pichenot V, Belouadah M, Madi K, Malinovsky J-M. Continuous peripheral nerve block for postoperative pain control at home: a prospective feasibility study in children. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33(1):52–6. Ludot H, Berger J, Pichenot V, Belouadah M, Madi K, Malinovsky J-M. Continuous peripheral nerve block for postoperative pain control at home: a prospective feasibility study in children. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33(1):52–6.
108.
go back to reference Messerer B, Gutmann A, Weinberg A, Sandner-Kiesling A. Implementation of a standardized pain management in a pediatric surgery unit. Pediatr Surg Int. 2010;26(9):879–89.CrossRefPubMed Messerer B, Gutmann A, Weinberg A, Sandner-Kiesling A. Implementation of a standardized pain management in a pediatric surgery unit. Pediatr Surg Int. 2010;26(9):879–89.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Postoperative Pain Management in Children and Infants: An Update
Authors
Christopher Brasher
Benjamin Gafsous
Sophie Dugue
Anne Thiollier
Joelle Kinderf
Yves Nivoche
Robert Grace
Souhayl Dahmani
Publication date
01-04-2014
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
Pediatric Drugs / Issue 2/2014
Print ISSN: 1174-5878
Electronic ISSN: 1179-2019
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40272-013-0062-0

Other articles of this Issue 2/2014

Pediatric Drugs 2/2014 Go to the issue