Top

Current Obesity Reports

Published in:

01-12-2019 | Obesity | Metabolism (M Dalamaga, Section Editor)

Sarcopenic Obesity: Epidemiologic Evidence, Pathophysiology, and Therapeutic Perspectives

Authors: Chrysi Koliaki, Stavros Liatis, Maria Dalamaga, Alexander Kokkinos

Published in: Current Obesity Reports | Issue 4/2019

Abstract

Purpose of Review

This review provides a comprehensive update on the definition, assessment, epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical implications, and therapeutic approach of sarcopenic obesity (SO) and highlights the challenges, limitations, and knowledge gaps in SO research.

Recent Findings

The confluence of a rapidly aging population with rising obesity rates has led to the phenotype of SO, defined as the concurrent presence of sarcopenia and obesity. Despite efforts, a standardized definition of SO is still lacking. Its prevalence varies widely between studies, depending on population characteristics and different definitions. The major pathogenetic mechanisms include age-related changes in body composition and hormonal milieu, positive energy balance, pro-inflammatory pathways, and insulin resistance. Lifestyle interventions, including caloric restriction and physical activity, are the cornerstones of SO treatment.

Summary

SO is a multifaceted syndrome with serious clinical implications. The development and implementation of effective prevention and treatment strategies is a top priority based on its dramatically increasing health impact.

Nations United, Department of Economic Population Division. World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP/248 (United Nations, 2017).

•• Batsis JA, Villareal DT. Sarcopenic obesity in older adults: aetiology, epidemiology and treatment strategies. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14:513–37 This comprehensive review discusses the definitions, causes, consequences and current epidemiologic trends of SO, as well as treatment modalities.PubMedPubMedCentral

Flegal KM, Kruszon-Moran D, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, Ogden CL. Trends in obesity among adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. JAMA. 2016;315:2284–91.PubMed

Finkelstein EA, Khavjou OA, Thompson H. Obesity and severe obesity forecasts through 2030. Am J Prev Med. 2012;42:563–70.PubMed

Roubenoff R. Sarcopenic obesity: the confluence of two epidemics. Obes Res. 2004;12:887–8.PubMed

• Lee DC, Shook RP, Drenowatz C, Blair SN. Physical activity and sarcopenic obesity: definition, assessment, prevalence and mechanism. Future Sci OA. 2016;2:FSO127 This review summarizes the definitions, assessment methods, prevalence and underlying pathophysiology of SO, focusing on its association with physical activity.PubMedPubMedCentral

Goodpaster BH, Carlson CL, Visser M, Kelley DE, Scherzinger A, Harris TB, et al. Attenuation of skeletal muscle and strength in the elderly: The Health ABC Study. J Appl Physiol. 2001;90:2157–65.PubMed

Stenholm S, Harris TB, Rantanen T, Visser M, Kritchevsky SB, Ferrucci L. Sarcopenic obesity: definition, cause and consequences. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008;11:693–700.PubMedPubMedCentral

Baumgartner RN, Wayne SJ, Waters DL, Janssen I, Gallagher D, Morley JE. Sarcopenic obesity predicts instrumental activities of daily living disability in the elderly. Obes Res. 2004;12:1995–2004.PubMed

10.

El Ghoch M, Calugi S, Grave RD. Sarcopenic Obesity: Definition, Health Consequences and Clinical Management. Open Nutr J. 2018;12:70–3. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874288201812010070.CrossRef

11.

• Barazzoni R, Bischoff S, Boirie Y, Busetto L, Cederholm T, Dicker D, et al. Sarcopenic Obesity: Time to Meet the Challenge. Obes Facts. 2018;11:294–305 This critical review highlights the current challenges and knowledge gaps in SO research, and provides an update on its definition, pathophysiology, epidemiology and treatment. PubMedPubMedCentral

12.

Heymsfield SB, Gonzalez MC, Shen W, Redman L, Thomas D. Weight loss composition is one-fourth fat-free mass: a critical review and critique of this widely cited rule. Obes Rev. 2014;15:310–21.PubMedPubMedCentral

13.

Kendler DL, Borges JL, Fielding RA, Itabashi A, Krueger D, Mulligan K, et al. The Official Positions of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry: indications of use and reporting of DXA for body composition. J Clin Densitom. 2013;16:496–507.PubMed

14.

Bosy-Westphal A, Jensen B, Braun W, Pourhassan M, Gallagher D, Müller MJ. Quantification of whole-body and segmental skeletal muscle mass using phase-sensitive 8-electrode medical bioelectrical impedance devices. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2017;71:1061–7.PubMedPubMedCentral

15.

Chumlea WC, Guo SS, Kuczmarski RJ, Flegal KM, Johnson CL, Heymsfield SB, et al. Body composition estimates from NHANES III bioelectrical impedance data. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2002;26:1596–609.PubMed

16.

Woodrow G. Body composition analysis techniques in the aged adult: indications and limitations. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2009;12:8–14.PubMed

17.

Rosenberg I. Summary comments: epidemiological and methodological problems in determining nutritional status of older persons. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989;50:1231–3.

18.

Vellas B, Fielding RA, Bens C, Bernabei R, Cawthon PM, Cederholm T, et al. Implications of ICD-10 for sarcopenia clinical practice and clinical trials: report by the International Conference on Frailty and Sarcopenia Research Task Force. J Frailty Aging. 2018;7:2–9.PubMed

19.

Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Baeyens JP, Bauer JM, Boirie Y, Cederholm T, Landi F, et al. Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis: Report of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People. Age Ageing. 2010;39:412–23.PubMedPubMedCentral

20.

Larsson L. Morphological and functional characteristics of the aging skeletal muscle in man. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl. 1978;457(Suppl):1–36.PubMed

21.

Fried LP, Tangen CM, Walston J, Newman AB, Hirsch C, Gottdiener J, et al. Frailty in older adults: evidence for a phenotype. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2001;56:M146–56.PubMed

22.

Visser M, Newman AB, Nevitt MC, Kritchevsky SB, Stamm EB, Goodpaster BH, et al. Reexamining the sarcopenia hypothesis. Muscle mass versus muscle strength. Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study Research Group. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;904:456–61.PubMed

23.

Newman AB, Kupelian V, Visser M, Simonsick EM, Goodpaster BH, Kritchevsky SB, et al. Strength, but not muscle mass, is associated with mortality in the health, aging and body composition study cohort. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61A:M72–7.

24.

Clark BC, Manini TM. Sarcopenia =/= dynapenia. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63:829–34.PubMed

25.

Bouchard DR, Janssen I. Dynapenic-obesity and physical function in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;65:71–7.PubMed

26.

Sénéchal M, McGavock JM, Church TS, Lee DC, Earnest CP, Sui X, et al. Cut points of muscle strength associated with metabolic syndrome in men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46:1475–81.PubMedPubMedCentral

27.

Ruiz JR, Sui X, Lobelo F, Lee DC, Morrow JR Jr, Jackson AW, et al. Muscular strength and adiposity as predictors of adulthood cancer mortality in men. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2009;18:1468–76.

28.

•• Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Bahat G, Bauer J, Boirie Y, Bruyère O, Cederholm T, et al. Writing Group for the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People 2 (EWGSOP2), and the Extended Group for EWGSOP2. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age Ageing. 2019;48:16–31 This is the revised consensus report of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia, providing an evidence-based update on the definition and diagnosis of sarcopenia.PubMed

29.

Fielding RA, Vellas B, Evans WJ, Bhasin S, Morley JE, Newman AB, et al. Sarcopenia: an undiagnosed condition in older adults. Current consensus definition: prevalence, etiology, and consequences. International working group on sarcopenia. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2011;12:249–56.PubMed

30.

Chen LK, Liu LK, Woo J, Assantachai P, Auyeung TW, Bahyah KS, et al. Sarcopenia in Asia: consensus report of the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2014;15:95–101.PubMed

31.

Studenski SA, Peters KW, Alley DE, Cawthon PM, McLean RR, Harris TB, et al. The FNIH sarcopenia project: rationale, study description, conference recommendations, and final estimates. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2014;69:547–58.PubMedPubMedCentral

32.

Dam TT, Peters KW, Fragala M, Cawthon PM, Harris TB, McLean R, et al. An evidence-based comparison of operational criteria for the presence of sarcopenia. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2014;69:584–90.PubMedPubMedCentral

33.

Villareal DT, Apovian CM, Kushner RF, Klein S, American Society for Nutrition; NAASO, The Obesity Society. Obesity in older adults: technical review and position statement of the American Society for Nutrition and NAASO, The Obesity Society. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82:923–34.PubMed

34.

Bouchard DR, Dionne IJ, Brochu M. Sarcopenic/obesity and physical capacity in older men and women: data from the Nutrition as a Determinant of Successful Aging (NuAge)-the Quebec longitudinal Study. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009;17:2082–8.

35.

Newman AB, Kupelian V, Visser M, Simonsick E, Goodpaster B, Nevitt M, et al. Health ABC Study Investigators. Sarcopenia: alternative definitions and associations with lower extremity function. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2003;51:1602–9.PubMed

36.

Delmonico MJ, Harris TB, Lee JS, Visser M, Nevitt M, Kritchevsky SB, et al. Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. Alternative definitions of sarcopenia, lower extremity performance, and functional impairment with aging in older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007;55:769–74.PubMed

37.

Johnson Stoklossa CA, Sharma AM, Forhan M, Siervo M, Padwal RS, Prado CM. Prevalence of sarcopenic obesity in adults with class II/III obesity using different diagnostic criteria. J Nutr Metab. 2017;2017:7307618.PubMedPubMedCentral

38.

Roberts HC, Denison HJ, Martin HJ, Patel HP, Syddall H, Cooper C, et al. A review of the measurement of grip strength in clinical and epidemiological studies: towards a standardised approach. Age Ageing. 2011;40:423–9.PubMed

39.

Guralnik JM, Simonsick EM, Ferrucci L, Glynn RJ, Berkman LF, Blazer DG, et al. A short physical performance battery assessing lower extremity function: association with self-reported disability and prediction of mortality and nursing home admission. J Gerontol. 1994;49:M85–94.PubMed

40.

Despres JP. Body fat distribution and risk of cardiovascular disease: an update. Circulation. 2012;126:1301–13.PubMed

41.

Batsis JA, Mackenzie TA, Bartels SJ, Sahakyan KR, Somers VK, Lopez-Jimenez F. Diagnostic accuracy of body mass index to identify obesity in older adults: NHANES 1999–2004. Int J Obes. 2016;40:761–7.

42.

Baumgartner RN. Body composition in healthy aging. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;904:437–48.PubMed

43.

Schrager MA, Metter EJ, Simonsick E, Ble A, Bandinelli S, Lauretani F, et al. Sarcopenic obesity and inflammation in the InCHIANTI study. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2007;102:919–25.

44.

WHO. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic Report of a WHO Consultation. Geneva: WHO; 2000.

45.

Garvey WT, Mechanick JI, Brett EM, Garber AJ, Hurley DL, Jastreboff AM, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology comprehensive clinical practice guidelines for medical care of patients with obesity. Endocr Pract. 2016;22(Suppl. 3):1–203.PubMed

46.

Mathus-Vliegen EM. Obesity and the elderly. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;46:533–44.PubMed

47.

•• Du K, Goates S, Arensberg MB, Pereira S, Gaillard T. Prevalence of Sarcopenia and Sarcopenic Obesity Vary with Race/Ethnicity and Advancing Age. Divers Equal Health Care. 2018;15:175–83 This paper reports that the prevalence of SO among older adults in USA varies with race/ethnicity and advancing age, and highlights the variation of SO prevalence depending on population characteristics.

48.

Pedrero-Chamizo R, Gómez-Cabello A, Meléndez A, Vila-Maldonado S, Espino L, Gusi N, et al. Higher levels of physical fitness are associated with a reduced risk of suffering sarcopenic obesity and better perceived health among the elderly: the EXERNET multi-center study. J Nutr Health Aging. 2015;19:211–7.PubMed

49.

Kemmler W, Teschler M, Weißenfels A, Sieber C, Freiberger E, von Stengel S. Prevalence of sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity in older German men using recognized definitions: high accordance but low overlap! Osteoporos Int. 2017;28:1881–91.PubMed

50.

Batsis JA, Barre LK, Mackenzie TA, Pratt SI, Lopez-Jimenez F, Bartels SJ. Variation in the prevalence of sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity in older adults associated with different research definitions: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2004. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:974–80.PubMed

51.

Kemmler W, von Stengel S, Engelke K, Sieber C, Freiberger E. Prevalence of sarcopenic obesity in Germany using established definitions: baseline data of the FORMOsA study. Osteoporos Int. 2016;27:275–81.PubMed

52.

Batsis JA, Mackenzie TA, Emeny RT, Lopez-Jimenez F, Bartels SJ. Low lean mass with and without obesity, and mortality: results from the 1999-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2017;72:1445–51.PubMedPubMedCentral

53.

Kim TN, Yang SJ, Yoo HJ, Lim KI, Kang HJ, Song W, et al. Prevalence of sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity in Korean adults: the Korean sarcopenic obesity study. Int J Obes. 2009;33:885–92.

54.

Stenholm S, Alley D, Bandinelli S, Griswold ME, Koskinen S, Rantanen T, et al. The effect of obesity combined with low muscle strength on decline in mobility in older persons: results from the InCHIANTI study. Int J Obes. 2009;33:635–44.

55.

Stephen WC, Janssen I. Sarcopenic-obesity and cardiovascular disease risk in the elderly. J Nutr Health Aging. 2009;13:460–6.PubMed

56.

Alley DE, Shardell MD, Peters KW, McLean RR, Dam TT, Kenny AM, et al. Grip strength cutpoints for the identification of clinically relevant weakness. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2014;69:559–66.PubMedPubMedCentral

57.

Lang T, Streeper T, Cawthon P, Baldwin K, Taaffe DR, Harris TB. Sarcopenia: etiology, clinical consequences, intervention, and assessment. Osteoporos Int. 2010;21:543–59.PubMed

58.

Murton AJ, Marimuthu K, Mallinson JE, Selby AL, Smith K, Rennie MJ, et al. Obesity appears to be associated with altered muscle protein synthetic and breakdown responses to increased nutrient delivery in older men, but not reduced muscle mass or contractile function. Diabetes. 2015;64:3160–71.PubMed

59.

Guillet C, Delcourt I, Rance M, Giraudet C, Walrand S, Bedu M, et al. Changes in basal and insulin and amino acid response of whole body and skeletal muscle proteins in obese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:3044–50.PubMed

60.

Smeuninx B, Mckendry J, Wilson D, Martin U, Breen L. Age-related anabolic resistance of myofibrillar protein synthesis is exacerbated in obese inactive individuals. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102:3535–45.PubMedPubMedCentral

61.

Bauer J, Biolo G, Cederholm T, Cesari M, Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Morley JE, et al. Evidence-based recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: a position paper from the PROT-AGE Study Group. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2013;14:542–59.PubMed

62.

Hughes VA, Roubenoff R, Wood M, Frontera WR, Evans WJ, Fiatarone Singh MA. Anthropometric assessment of 10-y changes in body composition in the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:475–82.PubMed

63.

Frontera WR, Hughes VA, Fielding RA, Fiatarone MA, Evans WJ, Roubenoff R. Aging of skeletal muscle: a 12-yr longitudinal study. J Appl Physiol. 2000;88:1321–6.PubMed

64.

Tremollieres FA, Pouilles JM, Ribot CA. Relative influence of age and menopause on total and regional body composition changes in postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175:1594–600.PubMed

65.

Yeap BB. Are declining testosterone levels a major risk factor for ill-health in aging men? Int J Impot Res. 2009;21:24–36.PubMed

66.

Sakuma K, Yamaguchi A. Sarcopenic obesity and endocrinal adaptation with age. Int J Endocrinol. 2013;2013:204164.PubMedPubMedCentral

67.

Lipina C, Hundal HS. Lipid modulation of skeletal muscle mass and function. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2017;8:190–201.PubMed

68.

Kohara K. Sarcopenic obesity in aging population: current status and future directions for research. Endocrine. 2014;45:15–25.PubMed

69.

Consitt LA, Clark BC. The Vicious Cycle of Myostatin Signaling in Sarcopenic Obesity: Myostatin Role in Skeletal Muscle Growth, Insulin Signaling and Implications for Clinical Trials. J Frailty Aging. 2018;7:21–7.PubMedPubMedCentral

70.

Thornell LE. Sarcopenic obesity: satellite cells in the aging muscle. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2011;14:22–7.PubMed

71.

•• Kalinkovich A, Livshits G. Sarcopenic obesity or obese sarcopenia: A cross talk between age-associated adipose tissue and skeletal muscle inflammation as a main mechanism of the pathogenesis. Ageing Res Rev. 2017;35:200–21 This paper sheds light into the pathophysiology of SO, and proposes that the pathogenetic cascade originates from adipose tissue inflammation and dysfunction. Based on this concept, the authors suggest that SO should be rather renamed into obese sarcopenia to better reflect the dominant direction of the pathogenetic pathway.PubMed

72.

Kim TN, Choi KM. Sarcopenia: definition, epidemiology, and pathophysiology. J Bone Metab. 2013;20:1–10.PubMedPubMedCentral

73.

Kang C, Ji LL. Muscle immobilization and remobilization downregulates PGC-1α signaling and the mitochondrial biogenesis pathway. J Appl Physiol. 2013;115:1618–25.PubMed

74.

Hoppeler H, Vogt M, Weibel ER, Fluck M. Response of skeletal muscle mitochondria to hypoxia. Exp Physiol. 2003;88:109–19.PubMed

75.

Bischoff SC, Boirie Y, Cederholm T, Chourdakis M, Cuerda C, Delzenne NM, et al. Towards a multidisciplinary approach to understand and manage obesity and related diseases. Clin Nutr. 2017;36:917–38.PubMed

76.

Chaston TB, Dixon JB, O'Brien PE. Changes in fat-free mass during significant weight loss: a systematic review. Int J Obes. 2007;31:743–50.

77.

Hirani V, Naganathan V, Blyth F, Le Couteur DG, Seibel MJ, Waite LM, et al. Longitudinal associations between body composition, sarcopenic obesity and outcomes of frailty, disability, institutionalisation and mortality in community-dwelling older men: The Concord Health and Ageing in Men Project. Age Ageing. 2017;46:413–20.PubMed

78.

Chung JY, Kang HT, Lee DC, Lee HR, Lee YJ. Body composition and its association with cardiometabolic risk factors in the elderly: a focus on sarcopenic obesity. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2013;56:270–8.PubMed

79.

Scott D, Chandrasekara SD, Laslett LL, Cicuttini F, Ebeling PR, Jones G. Associations of sarcopenic obesity and dynapenic obesity with bone mineral density and incident fractures over 5-10 years in community-dwelling older adults. Calcif Tissue Int. 2016;99:30–42.PubMed

80.

Hamer M, Batty GD, Kivimaki M. Sarcopenic obesity and risk of new onset depressive symptoms in older adults: English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Int J Obes. 2015;39:1717–20.

81.

Mei KL, Batsis JA, Mills JB, Holubar SD. Sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity: do they predict inferior oncologic outcomes after gastrointestinal cancer surgery? Perioper Med (Lond). 2016;5:30.

82.

Tian S, Xu Y. Association of sarcopenic obesity with the risk of all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2016;16:155–66.PubMed

83.

Messier V, Karelis AD, Lavoie ME, Brochu M, Faraj M, Strychar I, et al. Metabolic profile and quality of life in class I sarcopenic overweight and obese postmenopausal women: a MONET study. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2009;34:18–24.PubMed

84.

Akune T, Muraki S, Oka H, Tanaka S, Kawaguchi H, Tokimura F, et al. Incidence of certified need of care in the long-term care insurance system and its risk factors in the elderly of Japanese population-based cohorts: the ROAD study. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2014;14:695–701.PubMed

85.

Areta JL, Burke LM, Camera DM, West DW, Crawshay S, Moore DR, et al. Reduced resting skeletal muscle protein synthesis is rescued by resistance exercise and protein ingestion following short-term energy deficit. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2014;306:E989–97.PubMed

86.

Goisser S, Kemmler W, Porzel S, Volkert D, Sieber CC, Bollheimer LC, et al. Sarcopenic obesity and complex interventions with nutrition and exercise in community-dwelling older persons--a narrative review. Clin Interv Aging. 2015;10:1267–82.PubMedPubMedCentral

87.

•• Batsis JA, Gill LE, Masutani RK, Adachi-Mejia AM, Blunt HB, Bagley PJ, et al. Weight loss interventions in older adults with obesity: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials since 2005. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65:257–68 This is a comprehensive systematic review of randomized trials in older adults with obesity highlighting the importance of the improvement in physical function through diet and exercise.PubMed

88.

•• Villareal DT, Aguirre L, Gurney AB, Waters DL, Sinacore DR, Colombo E, et al. Aerobic or resistance exercise, or both in dieting obese older adults. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:1943–55 This is a randomized trial of older adults with obesity and frailty, demonstrating that weight loss coupled with both aerobic and resistance activities is associated with improved physical function.PubMedPubMedCentral

89.

Paddon-Jones D, Leidy H. Dietary protein and muscle in older persons. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2014;17:5–11.PubMedPubMedCentral

90.

Dangin M, Guillet C, Garcia-Rodenas C, Gachon P, Bouteloup-Demange C, Reiffers-Magnani K, et al. The rate of protein digestion affects protein gain differently during aging in humans. J Physiol. 2003;549(Pt 2):635–44.PubMedPubMedCentral

91.

Jonker R, Engelen MP, Deutz NE. Role of specific dietary amino acids in clinical conditions. Br J Nutr. 2012;108(Suppl 2):S139–48.PubMedPubMedCentral

92.

Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA, Krieger JW. The effect of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: a meta-analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013;10:53.PubMedPubMedCentral

93.

Van Vliet S, Burd NA, van Loon LJ. The Skeletal Muscle Anabolic Response to Plant-versus Animal-Based Protein Consumption. J Nutr. 2015;145:1981–91.PubMed

94.

Mamerow MM, Mettler JA, English KL, Casperson SL, Arentson-Lantz E, Sheffield-Moore M, et al. Dietary protein distribution positively influences 24-h muscle protein synthesis in healthy adults. J Nutr. 2014;144:876–80.PubMedPubMedCentral

95.

Moyer VA, Vitamin D. and calcium supplementation to prevent fractures in adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:691–6.PubMed

96.

Wicherts IS, van Schoor NM, Boeke AJ, Visser M, Deeg DJ, Smit J, et al. Vitamin D status predicts physical performance and its decline in older persons. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:2058–65.PubMed

97.

Hassan-Smith ZK, Jenkinson C, Smith DJ, Hernandez I, Morgan SA, Crabtree NJ, et al. 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 exert distinct effects on human skeletal muscle function and gene expression. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0170665.PubMedPubMedCentral

98.

Morley JE, Argiles JM, Evans WJ, Bhasin S, Cella D, Deutz NE. et al; Society for Sarcopenia, Cachexia, and Wasting Disease. Nutritional recommendations for the management of sarcopenia. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2010;11:391–6.PubMedPubMedCentral

99.

Joseph AM, Adhihetty PJ, Leeuwenburgh C. Beneficial effects of exercise on age-related mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 2016;594:5105–23.PubMed

100.

Suetta C, Aagaard P, Rosted A, Jakobsen AK, Duus B, Kjaer M, et al. Training-induced changes in muscle CSA, muscle strength, EMG, and rate of force development in elderly subjects after long-term unilateral disuse. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2004;97:1954–61.

101.

Yarasheski KE, Zachwieja JJ, Bier DM. Acute effects of resistance exercise on muscle protein synthesis rate in young and elderly men and women. Am J Phys. 1993;265:E210–4.

102.

Prestes J, Shiguemoto G, Botero JP, Frollini A, Dias R, Leite R, et al. Effects of resistance training on resistin, leptin, cytokines, and muscle force in elderly post-menopausal women. J Sports Sci. 2009;27:1607–15.PubMed

103.

Mooren FC, Kruger K. Exercise, autophagy, and apoptosis. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2015;135:407–22.PubMed

104.

Garber CE, Blissmer B, Deschenes MR, Franklin BA, Lamonte MJ, Lee IM, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: guidance for prescribing exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43:1334–59.PubMed

105.

Bouaziz W, Schmitt E, Kaltenbach G, Geny B, Vogel T. Health benefits of endurance training alone or combined with diet for obese patients over 60: A review. Int J Clin Pract. 2015;69:1032–49.PubMed

106.

Chen HT, Chung YC, Chen YJ, Ho SY, Wu HJ. Effects of different types of exercise on body composition, muscle strength, and IGF-1 in the elderly with sarcopenic obesity. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65:827–32.PubMed

107.

Youkhana S, Dean CM, Wolff M, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Yoga-based exercise improves balance and mobility in people aged 60 and over: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Age Ageing. 2016;45:21–9.PubMed

108.

Waller B, Ogonowska-Słodownik A, Vitor M, Rodionova K, Lambeck J, Heinonen A, et al. The effect of aquatic exercise on physical functioning in the older adult: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Age Ageing. 2016;45:593–601.PubMed

109.

• Trouwborst I, Verreijen A, Memelink R, Massanet P, Boirie Y, Weijs P, et al. Exercise and Nutrition Strategies to Counteract Sarcopenic Obesity. Nutrients. 2018;10:E605 This is a narrative review summarizing the different exercise and nutrition strategies to prevent and/or counteract SO.PubMed

110.

Liao CD, Tsauo JY, Lin LF, Huang SW, Ku JW, Chou LC, et al. Effects of elastic resistance exercise on body composition and physical capacity in older women with sarcopenic obesity: A CONSORT-compliant prospective randomized controlled trial. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96:e7115.

111.

Kim H, Kim M, Kojima N, Fujino K, Hosoi E, Kobayashi H, et al. Exercise and Nutritional Supplementation on Community-Dwelling Elderly Japanese Women With Sarcopenic Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2016;17:1011–9.PubMed

112.

Villareal DT, Chode S, Parimi N, Sinacore DR, Hilton T, Armamento-Villareal R, et al. Weight loss, exercise, or both and physical function in obese older adults. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1218–29.PubMedPubMedCentral

113.

Ferrando AA, Sheffield-Moore M, Yeckel CW, Gilkison C, Jiang J, Achacosa A, et al. Testosterone administration to older men improves muscle function: molecular and physiological mechanisms. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;282:E601–7.PubMed

114.

Neto WK, Gama EF, Rocha LY, Ramos CC, Taets W, Scapini KB, et al. Effects of testosterone on lean mass gain in elderly men: systematic review with meta-analysis of controlled and randomized studies. Age (Dordr). 2015;37:9742.

115.

Schroeder ET, He J, Yarasheski KE, Binder EF, Castaneda-Sceppa C, Bhasin S, et al. Value of measuring muscle performance to assess changes in lean mass with testosterone and growth hormone supplementation. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112:1123–31.PubMed

116.

Bhasin S, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, Matsumoto AM, Snyder PJ, Swerdloff RS, et al. Testosterone therapy in men with androgen deficiency syndromes: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:2536–59.PubMed

117.

Papanicolaou DA, Ather SN, Zhu H, Zhou Y, Lutkiewicz J, Scott BB, et al. A phase IIA randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial to study the efficacy and safety of the selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM), MK-0773 in female participants with sarcopenia. J Nutr Health Aging. 2013;17:533–43.PubMed

118.

Saeed A, Vaught GM, Gavardinas K, Matthews D, Green JE, Losada PG, et al. 2-Chloro-4-[[(1R,2R)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-cyclopentyl]amino]-3-methyl-benzonitrile: A Transdermal Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM) for Muscle Atrophy. J Med Chem. 2016;59:750–5.PubMed

119.

Camporez JP, Petersen MC, Abudukadier A, Moreira GV, Jurczak MJ, Friedman G, et al. Anti-myostatin antibody increases muscle mass and strength and improves insulin sensitivity in old mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016;113:2212–7.PubMedPubMedCentral

120.

Verschueren SM, Bogaerts A, Delecluse C, Claessens AL, Haentjens P, Vanderschueren D, et al. The effects of whole-body vibration training and vitamin D supplementation on muscle strength, muscle mass, and bone density in institutionalized elderly women: a 6-month randomized, controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res. 2011;26:42–9.PubMed

121.

Lau RW, Liao LR, Yu F, Teo T, Chung RC, Pang MY. The effects of whole body vibration therapy on bone mineral density and leg muscle strength in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Rehabil. 2011;25:975–88.PubMed

122.

Bemben DA, Palmer IJ, Bemben MG, Knehans AW. Effects of combined whole-body vibration and resistance training on muscular strength and bone metabolism in postmenopausal women. Bone. 2010;47:650–6.PubMed

123.

Kemmler W, Weissenfels A, Teschler M, Willert S, Bebenek M, Shojaa M, et al. Whole-body electromyostimulation and protein supplementation favorably affect sarcopenic obesity in community-dwelling older men at risk: The randomized controlled FranSO study. Clin Interv Aging. 2017;12:1503–13.PubMedPubMedCentral

Title: Sarcopenic Obesity: Epidemiologic Evidence, Pathophysiology, and Therapeutic Perspectives
Authors: Chrysi Koliaki
Stavros Liatis
Maria Dalamaga
Alexander Kokkinos
Publication date: 01-12-2019
Publisher: Springer US
Keywords: Obesity
Obesity
Sarcopenia
Published in: Current Obesity Reports / Issue 4/2019
Electronic ISSN: 2162-4968
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-019-00359-9

Live Webinar | 27-06-2024 | 18:00 (CEST)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Reserve your place

Live: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)

WHO estimates that half of all patients worldwide are non-adherent to their prescribed medication. The consequences of poor adherence can be catastrophic, on both the individual and population level.

Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.

Prof. Kevin Dolgin

Prof. Florian Limbourg

Prof. Anoop Chauhan

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Obesity Clinical Trial Summary

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Developed by: Springer Medicine

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Recent Findings

Summary

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 4/2019

Metabolic Syndrome in Children and Adolescents: Diagnostic Criteria, Therapeutic Options and Perspectives

Promoting Health-Enhancing Physical Activity: a State-of-the-art Review of Peer-Delivered Interventions

Sports Sponsorship as a Cause of Obesity

The Role of Adipokines in Breast Cancer: Current Evidence and Perspectives

Remotely Delivered Interventions for Obesity Treatment

Global Implementation of Obesity Prevention Policies: a Review of Progress, Politics, and the Path Forward

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

Live: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)

At a glance: The STEP trials