Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 6/2016

01-06-2016 | Neurology of Systemic Diseases (J Biller, Section Editor)

Neurologic Complications in the Intensive Care Unit

Authors: Clio Rubinos, Sean Ruland

Published in: Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports | Issue 6/2016

Login to get access

Abstract

Complications involving the central and peripheral nervous system are frequently encountered in critically ill patients. All components of the neuraxis can be involved including the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, neuromuscular junction, and muscles. Neurologic complications adversely impact outcome and length of stay. These complications can be related to underlying critical illness, pre-existing comorbid conditions, and commonly used and life-saving procedures and medications. Familiarity with the myriad neurologic complications that occur in the intensive care unit can facilitate their timely recognition and treatment. Additionally, awareness of treatment-related neurologic complications may inform decision-making, mitigate risk, and improve outcomes.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Bleck T, Smith M, Pierre-Louis S, Jares JJ, Murray J. Neurologic complications of critical medical illness. Crit Care Med. 1993;21:98–103.PubMedCrossRef Bleck T, Smith M, Pierre-Louis S, Jares JJ, Murray J. Neurologic complications of critical medical illness. Crit Care Med. 1993;21:98–103.PubMedCrossRef
2.
go back to reference Plum F, Posner J. The diagnosis of stupor and coma. New York: Oxford University Press; 1981. Plum F, Posner J. The diagnosis of stupor and coma. New York: Oxford University Press; 1981.
3.
go back to reference Teasdale G, Jennet B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet. 1974;2(7872):81–4.PubMedCrossRef Teasdale G, Jennet B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet. 1974;2(7872):81–4.PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference Wijdicks EFM, Bamlet WR, Maramattom BV, et al. Validation of a new coma scale: the FOUR score. Ann Neurol. 2005;58(4):585–93.PubMedCrossRef Wijdicks EFM, Bamlet WR, Maramattom BV, et al. Validation of a new coma scale: the FOUR score. Ann Neurol. 2005;58(4):585–93.PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Boeson MB, Hranchook A, Stoller J. Peripheral nerve injury from intravenous cannulation: a case report. AANA J. 2000;68(1):53–7.PubMed Boeson MB, Hranchook A, Stoller J. Peripheral nerve injury from intravenous cannulation: a case report. AANA J. 2000;68(1):53–7.PubMed
6.
go back to reference Ramos JA. Venipuncture-related lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve injury: what to know? Brazilian J Anesthesiol (English Ed). 2014;64(2):131–3. Ramos JA. Venipuncture-related lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve injury: what to know? Brazilian J Anesthesiol (English Ed). 2014;64(2):131–3.
7.
go back to reference Horowitz SH. Peripheral nerve injury and causalgia secondary to routine venipuncture. Neurology. 1994;44(5):962–4.PubMedCrossRef Horowitz SH. Peripheral nerve injury and causalgia secondary to routine venipuncture. Neurology. 1994;44(5):962–4.PubMedCrossRef
9.
go back to reference Macon WL, Futrell JW. Median-nerve neuropathy after percutaneous puncture of the brachial artery in patients receiving anticoagulants. N Engl J Med. 1973;288(26):1396.PubMedCrossRef Macon WL, Futrell JW. Median-nerve neuropathy after percutaneous puncture of the brachial artery in patients receiving anticoagulants. N Engl J Med. 1973;288(26):1396.PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Defalque RJ, Fletcher MV. Neurological complications of central venous cannulation. Jpen J Parenter Enter Nutr. 1988;12(4):406–9.CrossRef Defalque RJ, Fletcher MV. Neurological complications of central venous cannulation. Jpen J Parenter Enter Nutr. 1988;12(4):406–9.CrossRef
12.
go back to reference Thomas S, Bhandari V. Nerve plexus injury with internal jugular cannulation. Indian J Anaesth. 2004;48(3):228–30. Thomas S, Bhandari V. Nerve plexus injury with internal jugular cannulation. Indian J Anaesth. 2004;48(3):228–30.
13.
go back to reference Ahn EJ, Baek CW, Shin HY, Kang H, Jung YH. Phrenic nerve palsy after internal jugular venous catheter placement. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2012;63(2):183–4.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Ahn EJ, Baek CW, Shin HY, Kang H, Jung YH. Phrenic nerve palsy after internal jugular venous catheter placement. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2012;63(2):183–4.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
14.
go back to reference Ho KM, Lim H. Femoral nerve palsy: an unusual complication after femoral vein puncture in a patient with severe coagulopathy. Anesth Analg. 1999;89(3):672–3.PubMed Ho KM, Lim H. Femoral nerve palsy: an unusual complication after femoral vein puncture in a patient with severe coagulopathy. Anesth Analg. 1999;89(3):672–3.PubMed
15.
go back to reference Heckmann JG, Lang C, Kindler K, et al. Neurologic manifestations of cerebral air embolism as a complication of central venous catheterization. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(5):1621–5.PubMedCrossRef Heckmann JG, Lang C, Kindler K, et al. Neurologic manifestations of cerebral air embolism as a complication of central venous catheterization. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(5):1621–5.PubMedCrossRef
16.
go back to reference Naik-Tolani S, Oropello JM, Benjamin E. Neurologic complications in the intensive care unit. Clin Chest Med. 1999;20(2):423–34.PubMedCrossRef Naik-Tolani S, Oropello JM, Benjamin E. Neurologic complications in the intensive care unit. Clin Chest Med. 1999;20(2):423–34.PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference Gursoy S, Duger K, Kaygusuz K, et al. Cerebral arterial air embolism associated with mechanical ventilation and deep tracheal aspiration. Case Rep Pulmonol. 2012;2012:416360.PubMedPubMedCentral Gursoy S, Duger K, Kaygusuz K, et al. Cerebral arterial air embolism associated with mechanical ventilation and deep tracheal aspiration. Case Rep Pulmonol. 2012;2012:416360.PubMedPubMedCentral
18.
go back to reference Blanc P, Boussuges A, Henriette K, Sainty JM, et al. Iatrogenic cerebral air embolism: importance of an early hyperbaric oxygenation. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(5):559–63.PubMedCrossRef Blanc P, Boussuges A, Henriette K, Sainty JM, et al. Iatrogenic cerebral air embolism: importance of an early hyperbaric oxygenation. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(5):559–63.PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Cruz-Flores S, Diamond AL, Leira EC. Cerebral air embolism secondary to intra-aortic balloon pump rupture. Neurocrit Care. 2005;2(1):49–50.PubMedCrossRef Cruz-Flores S, Diamond AL, Leira EC. Cerebral air embolism secondary to intra-aortic balloon pump rupture. Neurocrit Care. 2005;2(1):49–50.PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference Shaw A, Cooperman A, Fusco J. Gas embolism produced by hydrogen peroxide. N Engl J Med. 1967;277(5):238–41.PubMedCrossRef Shaw A, Cooperman A, Fusco J. Gas embolism produced by hydrogen peroxide. N Engl J Med. 1967;277(5):238–41.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Holloway KL, Barnes T, Choi S, et al. Ventriculostomy infections: the effect of monitoring duration and catheter exchange in 584 patients. J Neurosurg. 1996;85(3):419–24.PubMedCrossRef Holloway KL, Barnes T, Choi S, et al. Ventriculostomy infections: the effect of monitoring duration and catheter exchange in 584 patients. J Neurosurg. 1996;85(3):419–24.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Bekar A, Doğan S, Abaş F, et al. Risk factors and complications of intracranial pressure monitoring with a fiberoptic device. J Clin Neurosci. 2009;16(2):236–40.PubMedCrossRef Bekar A, Doğan S, Abaş F, et al. Risk factors and complications of intracranial pressure monitoring with a fiberoptic device. J Clin Neurosci. 2009;16(2):236–40.PubMedCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Rebuck JA, Murry KR, Rhoney DH, Michael DB, Coplin WM. Infection related to intracranial pressure monitors in adults: analysis of risk factors and antibiotic prophylaxis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69(3):69. 381–384.CrossRef Rebuck JA, Murry KR, Rhoney DH, Michael DB, Coplin WM. Infection related to intracranial pressure monitors in adults: analysis of risk factors and antibiotic prophylaxis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69(3):69. 381–384.CrossRef
24.•
go back to reference Wright BLC, Lai JTF, Sinclair AJ. Cerebrospinal fluid and lumbar puncture: a practical review. J Neurol. 2012;259(8):1530–45. A comprehensive review of the physiology and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid, lumbar puncture indications, and technique.PubMedCrossRef Wright BLC, Lai JTF, Sinclair AJ. Cerebrospinal fluid and lumbar puncture: a practical review. J Neurol. 2012;259(8):1530–45. A comprehensive review of the physiology and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid, lumbar puncture indications, and technique.PubMedCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Hillemacher T, Bleich S, Witfang J, et al. Should aspirin be discontinued for diagnostic lumbar puncture? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54(1):181–2.PubMedCrossRef Hillemacher T, Bleich S, Witfang J, et al. Should aspirin be discontinued for diagnostic lumbar puncture? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54(1):181–2.PubMedCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Layton KF, Kallmes DF, Horlocker TT. Recommendations for anticoagulated patients undergoing image-guided spinal procedures. Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27(3):468–70.PubMed Layton KF, Kallmes DF, Horlocker TT. Recommendations for anticoagulated patients undergoing image-guided spinal procedures. Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27(3):468–70.PubMed
27.
go back to reference AçIkbaş SC, Akyüz M, Kazan S, Tuncer R. Complications of closed continuous lumbar drainage of cerebrospinal fluid. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2002;144(5):475–48.CrossRef AçIkbaş SC, Akyüz M, Kazan S, Tuncer R. Complications of closed continuous lumbar drainage of cerebrospinal fluid. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2002;144(5):475–48.CrossRef
28.
go back to reference Scherer R, Schmutzler M, Giebler R, et al. Complications related to thoracic epidural analgesia: a prospective study in 1071 surgical patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1993;37(4):370–4.PubMedCrossRef Scherer R, Schmutzler M, Giebler R, et al. Complications related to thoracic epidural analgesia: a prospective study in 1071 surgical patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1993;37(4):370–4.PubMedCrossRef
29.
go back to reference Piccioni F, Bernardelli SL, Casiraghi C, Langer M. Minor complications during thoracic epidural catheter placement. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32(7):512–3.PubMedCrossRef Piccioni F, Bernardelli SL, Casiraghi C, Langer M. Minor complications during thoracic epidural catheter placement. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32(7):512–3.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Yan K, Diggan MF. A case of central cord syndrome caused by intubation: a case report. J Spinal Cord Med. 1997;20(2):230–2.PubMedCrossRef Yan K, Diggan MF. A case of central cord syndrome caused by intubation: a case report. J Spinal Cord Med. 1997;20(2):230–2.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Oppenlander ME, Hsu FD, Bolton P, Theodore N. Catastrophic neurological complications of emergent endotracheal intubation: report of 2 cases. J Neurosurg Spine. 2015;22(5):454–8.PubMedCrossRef Oppenlander ME, Hsu FD, Bolton P, Theodore N. Catastrophic neurological complications of emergent endotracheal intubation: report of 2 cases. J Neurosurg Spine. 2015;22(5):454–8.PubMedCrossRef
32.
go back to reference Evers KA, Eindhoven GB, Wierda JM. Transient nerve damage following intubation for trans-sphenoidal hypophysectomy. Can J Anaesth. 1999;46(12):1143–5.PubMedCrossRef Evers KA, Eindhoven GB, Wierda JM. Transient nerve damage following intubation for trans-sphenoidal hypophysectomy. Can J Anaesth. 1999;46(12):1143–5.PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Cavo JW. True vocal cord paralysis following intubation. Laryngoscope. 1985;172(2):991–3. Cavo JW. True vocal cord paralysis following intubation. Laryngoscope. 1985;172(2):991–3.
34.
go back to reference Shin YH, An DA, Choi WJ, Kim YH. Unilateral vocal cord paralysis following a short period of endotracheal intubation anesthesia. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2013;65(5):357–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Shin YH, An DA, Choi WJ, Kim YH. Unilateral vocal cord paralysis following a short period of endotracheal intubation anesthesia. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2013;65(5):357–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
35.
go back to reference Barlas I, Oropello JM, Benjamin E. Neurologic complications in intensive care. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2001;7(2):68–73.PubMedCrossRef Barlas I, Oropello JM, Benjamin E. Neurologic complications in intensive care. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2001;7(2):68–73.PubMedCrossRef
36.
go back to reference McGuire G, Crossley D, Richards J, Wong D. Effects of varying levels of positive end-expiratory pressure on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure. Crit Care Med. 1997;25(6):1059–62.PubMedCrossRef McGuire G, Crossley D, Richards J, Wong D. Effects of varying levels of positive end-expiratory pressure on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure. Crit Care Med. 1997;25(6):1059–62.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Muench E, Bauhuf C, Roth H, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and brain tissue oxygenation. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(1):2367–72.PubMedCrossRef Muench E, Bauhuf C, Roth H, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and brain tissue oxygenation. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(1):2367–72.PubMedCrossRef
38.
go back to reference Caricato A, Conti G, Della Corte F, et al. Effects of PEEP on the intracranial system of patients with head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage: the role of respiratory system compliance. J Trauma. 2005;58(3):571–6.PubMedCrossRef Caricato A, Conti G, Della Corte F, et al. Effects of PEEP on the intracranial system of patients with head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage: the role of respiratory system compliance. J Trauma. 2005;58(3):571–6.PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Georgiadis D, Schwarz S, Baumgartner RW, et al. Influence of positive end-expiratory pressure on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in patients with acute stroke. Stroke. 2001;32(9):2088–92.PubMedCrossRef Georgiadis D, Schwarz S, Baumgartner RW, et al. Influence of positive end-expiratory pressure on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in patients with acute stroke. Stroke. 2001;32(9):2088–92.PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Stringer WA, Hasso AN, Thompson JR, et al. Hyperventilation-induced cerebral ischemia in patients with acute brain lesions: demonstration by xenon-enhanced CT. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1993;14(2):475–84.PubMed Stringer WA, Hasso AN, Thompson JR, et al. Hyperventilation-induced cerebral ischemia in patients with acute brain lesions: demonstration by xenon-enhanced CT. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1993;14(2):475–84.PubMed
41.
go back to reference Soustiel JF, Mahamid E, Chistyakov A, et al. Comparison of moderate hyperventilation and mannitol for control of intracranial pressure control in patients with severe traumatic brain injury—a study of cerebral blood flow and metabolism. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2006;148(8):845–51.CrossRef Soustiel JF, Mahamid E, Chistyakov A, et al. Comparison of moderate hyperventilation and mannitol for control of intracranial pressure control in patients with severe traumatic brain injury—a study of cerebral blood flow and metabolism. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2006;148(8):845–51.CrossRef
42.
go back to reference Bricker MB, Morris WP, Allen SJ, et al. Venous air embolism in patients with pulmonary barotrauma. Crit Care Med. 1994;22(1):1692–8.PubMedCrossRef Bricker MB, Morris WP, Allen SJ, et al. Venous air embolism in patients with pulmonary barotrauma. Crit Care Med. 1994;22(1):1692–8.PubMedCrossRef
43.•
go back to reference Nasr D, Rabinstein A. Neurologic complications of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Clin Neurol. 2015;11(4):383–9. A large retrospective study of 23,951 patients that investigated outcomes and neurologic complication of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Nasr D, Rabinstein A. Neurologic complications of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Clin Neurol. 2015;11(4):383–9. A large retrospective study of 23,951 patients that investigated outcomes and neurologic complication of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Mateen FJ, Muralidharan R, Shinohara RT, et al. Neurological injury in adults treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Arch Neurol. 2011;68(12):1543–9.PubMedCrossRef Mateen FJ, Muralidharan R, Shinohara RT, et al. Neurological injury in adults treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Arch Neurol. 2011;68(12):1543–9.PubMedCrossRef
45.
go back to reference Kakkar R, Ellis M, Fearon PV. Compartment syndrome of the thigh as a complication of anticoagulant therapy in a patient with a left ventricular assist device (Berlin Heart). Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010;58(9):477–9.PubMedCrossRef Kakkar R, Ellis M, Fearon PV. Compartment syndrome of the thigh as a complication of anticoagulant therapy in a patient with a left ventricular assist device (Berlin Heart). Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010;58(9):477–9.PubMedCrossRef
46.•
go back to reference Frontera JA. Metabolic encephalopathies in the critical care unit. Contin Lifelong Learn Neurol. 2012;18(3):611–39. A comprehensive overview of common etiologies of metabolic encephalopathy and the approach to its management. The article also included cases and tables that highlight key points in evaluation, diagnosis and management.CrossRef Frontera JA. Metabolic encephalopathies in the critical care unit. Contin Lifelong Learn Neurol. 2012;18(3):611–39. A comprehensive overview of common etiologies of metabolic encephalopathy and the approach to its management. The article also included cases and tables that highlight key points in evaluation, diagnosis and management.CrossRef
47.
go back to reference Kennedy AC, Linton AL, Eaton JC. Urea levels in cerebrospinal fluid after haemodialysis. Lancet. 1962;1(7226):410–1.PubMedCrossRef Kennedy AC, Linton AL, Eaton JC. Urea levels in cerebrospinal fluid after haemodialysis. Lancet. 1962;1(7226):410–1.PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference Patel N, Dalal P, Panesar M. Dialysis disequilibrium syndrome: a narrative review. Semin Dial. 2008;21(5):493–8.PubMedCrossRef Patel N, Dalal P, Panesar M. Dialysis disequilibrium syndrome: a narrative review. Semin Dial. 2008;21(5):493–8.PubMedCrossRef
50.•
go back to reference Kato TS, Schulze PC, Yang J, et al. Pre-operative and post-operative risk factors associated with neurologic complications in patients with advanced heart failure supported by a left ventricular assist device. J Hear Lung Transplant. 2012;31(1):1–8. A retrospective study of 307 patients that underwent LVAD surgery showing previous stroke, malnutrition and heart failure severity as predisposing pre-operative risk factors for neurological complications.CrossRef Kato TS, Schulze PC, Yang J, et al. Pre-operative and post-operative risk factors associated with neurologic complications in patients with advanced heart failure supported by a left ventricular assist device. J Hear Lung Transplant. 2012;31(1):1–8. A retrospective study of 307 patients that underwent LVAD surgery showing previous stroke, malnutrition and heart failure severity as predisposing pre-operative risk factors for neurological complications.CrossRef
51.
go back to reference Shuhaiber JH, Jenkins D, Berman M, et al. The Papworth experience with the Levitronix CentriMag ventricular assist device. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2008;27(2):158–64.PubMedCrossRef Shuhaiber JH, Jenkins D, Berman M, et al. The Papworth experience with the Levitronix CentriMag ventricular assist device. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2008;27(2):158–64.PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Thomas CE, Jichici D, Petrucci R, et al. Neurologic complications of the Novacor left ventricular assist device. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;72(4):1311–5.PubMedCrossRef Thomas CE, Jichici D, Petrucci R, et al. Neurologic complications of the Novacor left ventricular assist device. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;72(4):1311–5.PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference Wiis J, Qvist J. Peroneal nerve paresis after long-term bed rest in intensive care patients. Ugeskr Laeger. 1999;161(33):4641–2.PubMed Wiis J, Qvist J. Peroneal nerve paresis after long-term bed rest in intensive care patients. Ugeskr Laeger. 1999;161(33):4641–2.PubMed
54.
go back to reference Sahathevan R, Hamidon B, Maniam T, Raymond A. Peripheral neuropathy secondary to traction injury resulting from the use of physical restraints. Neurol Asia. 2012;15(3):267–9. Sahathevan R, Hamidon B, Maniam T, Raymond A. Peripheral neuropathy secondary to traction injury resulting from the use of physical restraints. Neurol Asia. 2012;15(3):267–9.
55.
go back to reference Parissis H, Soo A, Al-Alao B. Intra aortic balloon pump: literature review of risk factors related to complications of the intraaortic balloon pump. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2011;6:147.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Parissis H, Soo A, Al-Alao B. Intra aortic balloon pump: literature review of risk factors related to complications of the intraaortic balloon pump. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2011;6:147.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Hazelrigg SR, Auer JE, Seifert PE. Experience in 100 transthoracic balloon pumps. Ann Thorac Surg. 1992;54(3):528–32.PubMedCrossRef Hazelrigg SR, Auer JE, Seifert PE. Experience in 100 transthoracic balloon pumps. Ann Thorac Surg. 1992;54(3):528–32.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Ho ACY, Hong C, Yang M, Lu P, Lin P. Stroke after intraaortic balloon counterpulsation associated with mobile atheroma in thoracic aorta diagnosed using transesophageal echocardiography. Chang Gung Med J. 2002;25(9):612–6.PubMed Ho ACY, Hong C, Yang M, Lu P, Lin P. Stroke after intraaortic balloon counterpulsation associated with mobile atheroma in thoracic aorta diagnosed using transesophageal echocardiography. Chang Gung Med J. 2002;25(9):612–6.PubMed
58.
go back to reference Honet J, Wajszczuk W, Rubenfire M, Kantrowitz A. Neurological abnormalities in the leg(s) after use of intraaortic balloon pump: report of six cases. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1975;56(8):346–52.PubMed Honet J, Wajszczuk W, Rubenfire M, Kantrowitz A. Neurological abnormalities in the leg(s) after use of intraaortic balloon pump: report of six cases. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1975;56(8):346–52.PubMed
59.
go back to reference McCabe JC, Abel RM, Subramanian VA, Guy WA. Complications of intra-aortic balloon insertion and counterpulsation. Circulation. 1978;57(4):769–73.PubMedCrossRef McCabe JC, Abel RM, Subramanian VA, Guy WA. Complications of intra-aortic balloon insertion and counterpulsation. Circulation. 1978;57(4):769–73.PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Singh BM, Fass AE, Pooley RW, Wallach R. Paraplegia associated with intraaortic balloon pump counterpulsation. Stroke. 1983;14(6):983–6.PubMedCrossRef Singh BM, Fass AE, Pooley RW, Wallach R. Paraplegia associated with intraaortic balloon pump counterpulsation. Stroke. 1983;14(6):983–6.PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference Spronk PE, Riekerk B, Hofhuis J, Rommes JH. Occurrence of delirium is severely underestimated in the ICU during daily care. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35(7):1276–80.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Spronk PE, Riekerk B, Hofhuis J, Rommes JH. Occurrence of delirium is severely underestimated in the ICU during daily care. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35(7):1276–80.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Razvi SSM, Bone I. Neurological consultations in the medical intensive care unit. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74 Suppl 3:iii16–23.PubMedPubMedCentral Razvi SSM, Bone I. Neurological consultations in the medical intensive care unit. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74 Suppl 3:iii16–23.PubMedPubMedCentral
63.
go back to reference Witlox J, Eurelings LS, de Jonghe JF, et al. Delirium in elderly patients and the risk of postdischarge mortality. JAMA. 2012;304(4):443–51.CrossRef Witlox J, Eurelings LS, de Jonghe JF, et al. Delirium in elderly patients and the risk of postdischarge mortality. JAMA. 2012;304(4):443–51.CrossRef
64.
go back to reference Ely EW, Inouye SK, Bernard GR, et al. Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients validity and reliability of the confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA. 2001;286(21):2703–10.PubMedCrossRef Ely EW, Inouye SK, Bernard GR, et al. Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients validity and reliability of the confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA. 2001;286(21):2703–10.PubMedCrossRef
65.
go back to reference Bergeron N, Dubois M-J, Dumont M, Dial S, Skrobik Y. Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27(5):859–64.PubMedCrossRef Bergeron N, Dubois M-J, Dumont M, Dial S, Skrobik Y. Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27(5):859–64.PubMedCrossRef
66.
go back to reference Riggs JE. Neurologic manifestations of electrolyte disturbances. Neurol Clin. 2002;20(1):227–39. vii.PubMedCrossRef Riggs JE. Neurologic manifestations of electrolyte disturbances. Neurol Clin. 2002;20(1):227–39. vii.PubMedCrossRef
67.
go back to reference Yee AH, Rabinstein AA. Neurologic presentations of acid-base imbalance, electrolyte abnormalities, and endocrine emergencies. Neurol Clin. 2012;28(1):1–16.CrossRef Yee AH, Rabinstein AA. Neurologic presentations of acid-base imbalance, electrolyte abnormalities, and endocrine emergencies. Neurol Clin. 2012;28(1):1–16.CrossRef
68.
go back to reference Kumar N. Neurologic presentations of nutritional deficiencies. Neurol Clin. 2012;28(1):107–70.CrossRef Kumar N. Neurologic presentations of nutritional deficiencies. Neurol Clin. 2012;28(1):107–70.CrossRef
69.
go back to reference Zuccoli G et al. MR imaging findings in 56 patients with Wernicke encephalopathy: nonalcoholics may differ from alcoholics. Am J Neuroradiol. 2009;30(1):171–6.PubMedCrossRef Zuccoli G et al. MR imaging findings in 56 patients with Wernicke encephalopathy: nonalcoholics may differ from alcoholics. Am J Neuroradiol. 2009;30(1):171–6.PubMedCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Caine D, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Operational criteria for the classification of chronic alcoholics: identification of Wernicke’s encephalopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;62(1):51–60.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Caine D, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, Harper CG. Operational criteria for the classification of chronic alcoholics: identification of Wernicke’s encephalopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;62(1):51–60.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Venkatram S, Chilimuri S, Adrish M, et al. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with mortality in the medical intensive care unit. Crit Care. 2011;15(6):R292.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Venkatram S, Chilimuri S, Adrish M, et al. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with mortality in the medical intensive care unit. Crit Care. 2011;15(6):R292.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
72.
go back to reference Adrogué HJ, Madias NE. Management of life-threatening acid-base disorders. First of two parts. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(1):26–34.PubMedCrossRef Adrogué HJ, Madias NE. Management of life-threatening acid-base disorders. First of two parts. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(1):26–34.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference Abdel-Motleb M. The neuropsychiatric aspect of Addison’s disease: a case report. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2012;9(10):34–6.PubMedPubMedCentral Abdel-Motleb M. The neuropsychiatric aspect of Addison’s disease: a case report. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2012;9(10):34–6.PubMedPubMedCentral
74.•
go back to reference Ishii M. Neurologic complications of nondiabetic endocrine disorders. Contin Lifelong Learn Neurol. 2014;20(3 Neurology of Systemic Disease):560–79. Detailed review of neurologic complications from endocrine disorders highlighting clinical findings and etiologies.CrossRef Ishii M. Neurologic complications of nondiabetic endocrine disorders. Contin Lifelong Learn Neurol. 2014;20(3 Neurology of Systemic Disease):560–79. Detailed review of neurologic complications from endocrine disorders highlighting clinical findings and etiologies.CrossRef
75.
go back to reference Young GB. Neurologic complications of systemic critical illness. Neurol Clin. 1995;13(3):645–58.PubMed Young GB. Neurologic complications of systemic critical illness. Neurol Clin. 1995;13(3):645–58.PubMed
76.•
go back to reference Alberto San Román J, Vilacosta I. Neurological complications in infective endocarditis. Eur Heart J. 2012;34(45):3467–8a. A summary of neurological complications in infective endocarditis patients and the challenges of surgical treatment. Alberto San Román J, Vilacosta I. Neurological complications in infective endocarditis. Eur Heart J. 2012;34(45):3467–8a. A summary of neurological complications in infective endocarditis patients and the challenges of surgical treatment.
77.
go back to reference Bolton CF, Young GB, Zochodne DW. The neurological complications of sepsis. Ann Neurol. 1993;33(1):94–100.PubMedCrossRef Bolton CF, Young GB, Zochodne DW. The neurological complications of sepsis. Ann Neurol. 1993;33(1):94–100.PubMedCrossRef
78.•
go back to reference Hocker S, Wijdicks EFM. Neurologic complications of sepsis. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2012;20(3 Neurology of Systemic Disease):598–613. A comprehensive review of evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of neurologic complications of sepsis. Hocker S, Wijdicks EFM. Neurologic complications of sepsis. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2012;20(3 Neurology of Systemic Disease):598–613. A comprehensive review of evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of neurologic complications of sepsis.
79.
go back to reference Oddo M, Carrera E, Claassen J, Mayer SA, Hirsch LJ. Continuous electroencephalography in the medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(6):2051–6.PubMedCrossRef Oddo M, Carrera E, Claassen J, Mayer SA, Hirsch LJ. Continuous electroencephalography in the medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(6):2051–6.PubMedCrossRef
80.
go back to reference Young G, Bolton C, Archibald Y, Austin T, Wells G. The electroencephalogram in sepsis-associated encephalopathy. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;9(1):145–52.PubMedCrossRef Young G, Bolton C, Archibald Y, Austin T, Wells G. The electroencephalogram in sepsis-associated encephalopathy. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;9(1):145–52.PubMedCrossRef
81.
go back to reference Sharma P, Eesa M, Scott JN. Toxic and acquired metabolic encephalopathies: MRI appearance. Am J Roentgenol. 2009;193(3):879–86.CrossRef Sharma P, Eesa M, Scott JN. Toxic and acquired metabolic encephalopathies: MRI appearance. Am J Roentgenol. 2009;193(3):879–86.CrossRef
82.
go back to reference Corcoran TB, O’Neill MA, Webb SAR, Ho KM. Prevalence of vitamin deficiencies on admission: relationship to hospital mortality in critically ill patients. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2009;37(2):254–60.PubMed Corcoran TB, O’Neill MA, Webb SAR, Ho KM. Prevalence of vitamin deficiencies on admission: relationship to hospital mortality in critically ill patients. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2009;37(2):254–60.PubMed
83.•
go back to reference Klubo-Gwiezdzinska J, Wartofsky L. Thyroid emergencies. Med Clin North Am. 2012;96(2):385–403. An important reference that covers epidemiology, etiologies, clinical signs and symptoms, treatment and prognosis of thyroid emergencies.PubMedCrossRef Klubo-Gwiezdzinska J, Wartofsky L. Thyroid emergencies. Med Clin North Am. 2012;96(2):385–403. An important reference that covers epidemiology, etiologies, clinical signs and symptoms, treatment and prognosis of thyroid emergencies.PubMedCrossRef
84.
go back to reference Mistry N, Wass J, Turner MR. When to consider thyroid dysfunction in the neurology clinic. Pract Neurol. 2009;9(3):145–56.PubMedCrossRef Mistry N, Wass J, Turner MR. When to consider thyroid dysfunction in the neurology clinic. Pract Neurol. 2009;9(3):145–56.PubMedCrossRef
85.
go back to reference Boddu NJ, Badireddi S, Straub KD, et al. Acute thyrotoxic bulbar myopathy with encephalopathic behaviour: an uncommon complication of hyperthyroidism. Case Rep Endocrinol. 2013;2013:369807.PubMedPubMedCentral Boddu NJ, Badireddi S, Straub KD, et al. Acute thyrotoxic bulbar myopathy with encephalopathic behaviour: an uncommon complication of hyperthyroidism. Case Rep Endocrinol. 2013;2013:369807.PubMedPubMedCentral
86.
go back to reference Song T-J, Kim S-J, Kim GS, et al. The prevalence of thyrotoxicosis-related seizures. Thyroid. 2010;20(9):955–8.PubMedCrossRef Song T-J, Kim S-J, Kim GS, et al. The prevalence of thyrotoxicosis-related seizures. Thyroid. 2010;20(9):955–8.PubMedCrossRef
87.
go back to reference Khatri M, Wright CB, Nickolas TL, et al. Chronic kidney disease is associated with white matter hyperintensity volume: the Northern Manhattan Study (NOMAS). Stroke. 2007;38(12):3121–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Khatri M, Wright CB, Nickolas TL, et al. Chronic kidney disease is associated with white matter hyperintensity volume: the Northern Manhattan Study (NOMAS). Stroke. 2007;38(12):3121–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
88.
go back to reference Kumar G, Goyal MK. Lentiform fork sign: a unique MRI picture. Is metabolic acidosis responsible? Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010;112:805–12.PubMedCrossRef Kumar G, Goyal MK. Lentiform fork sign: a unique MRI picture. Is metabolic acidosis responsible? Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010;112:805–12.PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference Albrecht J, Norenberg MD. Glutamine: a Trojan horse in ammonia neurotoxicity. Hepatology. 2006;44(4):788–94.PubMedCrossRef Albrecht J, Norenberg MD. Glutamine: a Trojan horse in ammonia neurotoxicity. Hepatology. 2006;44(4):788–94.PubMedCrossRef
90.
go back to reference Voils SA, Human T, Brophy GM. Adverse neurologic effects of medications commonly used in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Clin. 2014;30(4):795–811.PubMedCrossRef Voils SA, Human T, Brophy GM. Adverse neurologic effects of medications commonly used in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Clin. 2014;30(4):795–811.PubMedCrossRef
92.
go back to reference Grosset KA, Grosset DG. Prescribed drugs and neurological complications. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75 Suppl 3:iii2–i8.PubMedPubMedCentral Grosset KA, Grosset DG. Prescribed drugs and neurological complications. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75 Suppl 3:iii2–i8.PubMedPubMedCentral
93.•
go back to reference Karceski S. Acute symptomatic seizures and systemic illness. Contin Lifelong Learn Neurol. 2014;20(3 Neurology of Systemic Disease):614–23. A detailed review of medical causes of acute symptomatic seizures.CrossRef Karceski S. Acute symptomatic seizures and systemic illness. Contin Lifelong Learn Neurol. 2014;20(3 Neurology of Systemic Disease):614–23. A detailed review of medical causes of acute symptomatic seizures.CrossRef
94.
go back to reference Sullivan JT, Sykora K, Schneiderman J, et al. Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addict. 1989;84(11):1353–7.PubMedCrossRef Sullivan JT, Sykora K, Schneiderman J, et al. Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addict. 1989;84(11):1353–7.PubMedCrossRef
95.
go back to reference Khantzian EJ, McKenna GJ. Acute toxic and withdrawal reactions associated with drug use and abuse. Ann Intern Med. 1979;90(3):361–72.PubMedCrossRef Khantzian EJ, McKenna GJ. Acute toxic and withdrawal reactions associated with drug use and abuse. Ann Intern Med. 1979;90(3):361–72.PubMedCrossRef
96.
97.
go back to reference Duquaine S, Kitchell E, Tate T, et al. Central nervous system toxicity associated with ertapenem use. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(1):e6.PubMedCrossRef Duquaine S, Kitchell E, Tate T, et al. Central nervous system toxicity associated with ertapenem use. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45(1):e6.PubMedCrossRef
98.•
go back to reference Fugate JE, Kalimullah EA, Hocker SE, et al. Cefepime neurotoxicity in the intensive care unit: a cause of severe, underappreciated encephalopathy. Crit Care. 2013;17(6):R264. A retrospective study of adult ICU patients that had neurotoxicity after the initiation of cefepime therapy. Myoclonus, seizures and encephalopathy were the main clinical manifestation.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Fugate JE, Kalimullah EA, Hocker SE, et al. Cefepime neurotoxicity in the intensive care unit: a cause of severe, underappreciated encephalopathy. Crit Care. 2013;17(6):R264. A retrospective study of adult ICU patients that had neurotoxicity after the initiation of cefepime therapy. Myoclonus, seizures and encephalopathy were the main clinical manifestation.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
99.
go back to reference Jallon P, Fankhauser L, Du Pasquier R, et al. Severe but reversible encephalopathy associated with cefepime. Neurophysiol Clin. 2000;30(6):383–6.PubMedCrossRef Jallon P, Fankhauser L, Du Pasquier R, et al. Severe but reversible encephalopathy associated with cefepime. Neurophysiol Clin. 2000;30(6):383–6.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference Kim E, Na DG, Kim EY, et al. MR imaging of metronidazole-induced encephalopathy: lesion distribution and diffusion-weighted imaging findings. Am J Neuroradiol. 2007;28(9):1652–8.PubMedCrossRef Kim E, Na DG, Kim EY, et al. MR imaging of metronidazole-induced encephalopathy: lesion distribution and diffusion-weighted imaging findings. Am J Neuroradiol. 2007;28(9):1652–8.PubMedCrossRef
101.
go back to reference Brooks DE, Levine M, O’Connor AD, et al. Toxicology in the ICU. Part 2: specific toxins. Chest. 2011;140(4):1072–785.PubMedCrossRef Brooks DE, Levine M, O’Connor AD, et al. Toxicology in the ICU. Part 2: specific toxins. Chest. 2011;140(4):1072–785.PubMedCrossRef
102.
go back to reference Karim A, Ahmed S, Siddiqui R, Mattana J. Methemoglobinemia complicating topical lidocaine used during endoscopic procedures. Am J Med. 2001;111(2):150–3.PubMedCrossRef Karim A, Ahmed S, Siddiqui R, Mattana J. Methemoglobinemia complicating topical lidocaine used during endoscopic procedures. Am J Med. 2001;111(2):150–3.PubMedCrossRef
103.
105.
go back to reference Polsonetti BW, Joy SD, Laos LF. Steroid-induced myopathy in the ICU. Ann Pharmacother. 2002;36(11):1741–4.PubMedCrossRef Polsonetti BW, Joy SD, Laos LF. Steroid-induced myopathy in the ICU. Ann Pharmacother. 2002;36(11):1741–4.PubMedCrossRef
106.•
go back to reference De Loecker I, Preiser J-C. Statins in the critically ill. Ann Intensive Care. 2012;2(1):19. A review of statin mechanism of action including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant and antithrombotic effects. The clinical effects of statin use in ICU conditions such as ALI, ARDS, and sepsis is described.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef De Loecker I, Preiser J-C. Statins in the critically ill. Ann Intensive Care. 2012;2(1):19. A review of statin mechanism of action including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant and antithrombotic effects. The clinical effects of statin use in ICU conditions such as ALI, ARDS, and sepsis is described.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
107.•
go back to reference Barr J, Fraser GL, Puntillo K, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, and delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2013;41(1):263–306. Guidelines for the treatment and prevention of pain, agitation and delirium.PubMedCrossRef Barr J, Fraser GL, Puntillo K, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, and delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2013;41(1):263–306. Guidelines for the treatment and prevention of pain, agitation and delirium.PubMedCrossRef
108.
go back to reference Jacobi J, Fraser GL, Coursin DB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med. 2002;30(1):119–41.PubMedCrossRef Jacobi J, Fraser GL, Coursin DB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med. 2002;30(1):119–41.PubMedCrossRef
109.•
go back to reference Bouwes A, van Poppelen D, Koelman JH, et al. Acute posthypoxic myoclonus after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. BMC Neurol. 2012;12:63. A prospective study of 391 ICU patients post CPR that showed cortical and subcortical origin of myoclonus correlating with poor outcome.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Bouwes A, van Poppelen D, Koelman JH, et al. Acute posthypoxic myoclonus after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. BMC Neurol. 2012;12:63. A prospective study of 391 ICU patients post CPR that showed cortical and subcortical origin of myoclonus correlating with poor outcome.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
110.
go back to reference Wijdicks EFM, Sharbrough F. New-onset seizures in critically ill patients. Neurology. 1993;43(5):1042–4.PubMedCrossRef Wijdicks EFM, Sharbrough F. New-onset seizures in critically ill patients. Neurology. 1993;43(5):1042–4.PubMedCrossRef
111.
go back to reference Claassen J, Mayer S, Kowalski RG, et al. Detection of electrographic seizures with continuous EEG monitoring in critically ill patients. Neurology. 2004;62(10):1743–8.PubMedCrossRef Claassen J, Mayer S, Kowalski RG, et al. Detection of electrographic seizures with continuous EEG monitoring in critically ill patients. Neurology. 2004;62(10):1743–8.PubMedCrossRef
112.
go back to reference Towne A, Waterhouse EJ, Boggs JG, et al. Prevalence of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in comatose patients. Neurology. 2000;54(2):340–5.PubMedCrossRef Towne A, Waterhouse EJ, Boggs JG, et al. Prevalence of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in comatose patients. Neurology. 2000;54(2):340–5.PubMedCrossRef
113.
go back to reference Laver S, Farrow C, Turner D, Nolan J. Mode of death after admission to an intensive care unit following cardiac arrest. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30(11):2126–8.PubMedCrossRef Laver S, Farrow C, Turner D, Nolan J. Mode of death after admission to an intensive care unit following cardiac arrest. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30(11):2126–8.PubMedCrossRef
114.
go back to reference Wijdicks EFM, Hijdra A, Young GB, et al. Practice parameter: prediction of outcome in comatose survivors after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2006;67(2):203–10.PubMedCrossRef Wijdicks EFM, Hijdra A, Young GB, et al. Practice parameter: prediction of outcome in comatose survivors after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2006;67(2):203–10.PubMedCrossRef
115.
go back to reference Travers AH, Rea TD, Bobrow BJ, et al. Part 4: CPR overview: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2010;122(18 Suppl 3):S676–84.PubMedCrossRef Travers AH, Rea TD, Bobrow BJ, et al. Part 4: CPR overview: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2010;122(18 Suppl 3):S676–84.PubMedCrossRef
116.•
go back to reference Kamps MJ, Horn J, Oddo M, et al. Prognostication of neurologic outcome in cardiac arrest patients after mild therapeutic hypothermia: a meta-analysis of the current literature. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39:1671–82. A meta-analysis reviewing current data about neurological examination and somatosensory evoked potential as prognostic tools in patients post-CPR followed by therapeutic hypothermia.PubMedCrossRef Kamps MJ, Horn J, Oddo M, et al. Prognostication of neurologic outcome in cardiac arrest patients after mild therapeutic hypothermia: a meta-analysis of the current literature. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39:1671–82. A meta-analysis reviewing current data about neurological examination and somatosensory evoked potential as prognostic tools in patients post-CPR followed by therapeutic hypothermia.PubMedCrossRef
117.
go back to reference Levine RL, LeClerc JR, Bailey JE, et al. Venous and arterial thromboembolism in severe sepsis. Thromb Haemost. 2008;99(5):892–9.PubMed Levine RL, LeClerc JR, Bailey JE, et al. Venous and arterial thromboembolism in severe sepsis. Thromb Haemost. 2008;99(5):892–9.PubMed
118.
go back to reference Wijdicks EFM, Scott JP. Stroke in the medical intensive-care unit. Mayo Clin Proc. 1998;73(7):642–6.PubMedCrossRef Wijdicks EFM, Scott JP. Stroke in the medical intensive-care unit. Mayo Clin Proc. 1998;73(7):642–6.PubMedCrossRef
119.
go back to reference Pilato F, Profice P, Dileone M, et al. Stroke in critically ill patients. Minerva Anestesiol. 2009;75(5):245–50.PubMed Pilato F, Profice P, Dileone M, et al. Stroke in critically ill patients. Minerva Anestesiol. 2009;75(5):245–50.PubMed
120.
go back to reference Walkey AJ, Wiener RS, Ghobrial JM, et al. Incident stroke and mortality associated with new-onset atrial fibrillation in patients hospitalized with severe sepsis. JAMA. 2011;306(20):2248–54.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Walkey AJ, Wiener RS, Ghobrial JM, et al. Incident stroke and mortality associated with new-onset atrial fibrillation in patients hospitalized with severe sepsis. JAMA. 2011;306(20):2248–54.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
121.
go back to reference Vadmann H, Nielsen PB, Hjortshøj S/P, et al. Atrial flutter and thromboembolic risk: a systematic review. Heart. 2015;101(18):1446–55.PubMedCrossRef Vadmann H, Nielsen PB, Hjortshøj S/P, et al. Atrial flutter and thromboembolic risk: a systematic review. Heart. 2015;101(18):1446–55.PubMedCrossRef
122.•
go back to reference January CT, Wann LS, Alpert JS, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2014;130(23):2071–104. Guideline for the management of atrial fibrillation reviewing pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical evaluation, thromboembolic risk and treatment.PubMedCrossRef January CT, Wann LS, Alpert JS, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2014;130(23):2071–104. Guideline for the management of atrial fibrillation reviewing pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical evaluation, thromboembolic risk and treatment.PubMedCrossRef
123.
go back to reference Nagarakanti R, Ezekowitz M, Oldgren J, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation: an analysis of patients undergoing cardioversion. Circulation. 2011;123(2):131–6.PubMedCrossRef Nagarakanti R, Ezekowitz M, Oldgren J, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation: an analysis of patients undergoing cardioversion. Circulation. 2011;123(2):131–6.PubMedCrossRef
124.
go back to reference Piccini JP, Stevenns S, Lokhnygina Y, et al. Outcomes after cardioversion and atrial fibrillation ablation in patients treated with rivaroxaban and warfarin in the ROCKET AF trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61(19):1998–2006.PubMedCrossRef Piccini JP, Stevenns S, Lokhnygina Y, et al. Outcomes after cardioversion and atrial fibrillation ablation in patients treated with rivaroxaban and warfarin in the ROCKET AF trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61(19):1998–2006.PubMedCrossRef
125.
go back to reference Flaker G, Lopes R, Alkhatib S, et al. Efficacy and safety of apixaban in patients after cardioversion for atrial fibrillation: insights from the ARISTOTLE Trial (Apixaban for Reduction in Stroke and Other Thromboembolic Events in Atrial Fibrillation). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(11):1082–7.PubMedCrossRef Flaker G, Lopes R, Alkhatib S, et al. Efficacy and safety of apixaban in patients after cardioversion for atrial fibrillation: insights from the ARISTOTLE Trial (Apixaban for Reduction in Stroke and Other Thromboembolic Events in Atrial Fibrillation). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(11):1082–7.PubMedCrossRef
126.
go back to reference Cappato R, Ezekowitz M, Klein A, et al. Rivaroxaban vs. vitamin K antagonists for cardioversion in atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 2014;35(47):3346–55.PubMedCrossRef Cappato R, Ezekowitz M, Klein A, et al. Rivaroxaban vs. vitamin K antagonists for cardioversion in atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 2014;35(47):3346–55.PubMedCrossRef
127.•
go back to reference Finsterer J, Stöllberger C, Wahbi K. Cardiomyopathy in neurological disorders. Cardiovasc Pathol. 2013;22(5):389–400. A detailed review of cardiomyopathy with emphasis on secondary cardiomyopathy and the most frequent neurological complications.PubMedCrossRef Finsterer J, Stöllberger C, Wahbi K. Cardiomyopathy in neurological disorders. Cardiovasc Pathol. 2013;22(5):389–400. A detailed review of cardiomyopathy with emphasis on secondary cardiomyopathy and the most frequent neurological complications.PubMedCrossRef
128.•
go back to reference Pruitt AA. Neurologic complications of infective endocarditis. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2013;15(4):465–76. A review of diagnosis, treatment, complication and special situations in patients with infective endocarditis.PubMedCrossRef Pruitt AA. Neurologic complications of infective endocarditis. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2013;15(4):465–76. A review of diagnosis, treatment, complication and special situations in patients with infective endocarditis.PubMedCrossRef
129.
go back to reference Sonneville R, Mirable M, Hajage D, et al. Neurologic complications and outcomes of infective endocarditis in critically ill patients: the ENDOcardite en REAnimation prospective multicenter study. Crit Care Med. 2011;39(6):1474–81.PubMedCrossRef Sonneville R, Mirable M, Hajage D, et al. Neurologic complications and outcomes of infective endocarditis in critically ill patients: the ENDOcardite en REAnimation prospective multicenter study. Crit Care Med. 2011;39(6):1474–81.PubMedCrossRef
130.
go back to reference Thuny F, Di Salvo G, Belliard O, et al. Risk of embolism and death in infective endocarditis: prognostic value of echocardiography: a prospective multicenter study. Circulation. 2005;112(1):69–75.PubMedCrossRef Thuny F, Di Salvo G, Belliard O, et al. Risk of embolism and death in infective endocarditis: prognostic value of echocardiography: a prospective multicenter study. Circulation. 2005;112(1):69–75.PubMedCrossRef
131.
go back to reference Salgado AV, Furlan AJ, Keys TF, et al. Neurologic complications of endocarditis: a 12-year experience. Neurology. 1989;39(2 Pt 1):173–8.PubMedCrossRef Salgado AV, Furlan AJ, Keys TF, et al. Neurologic complications of endocarditis: a 12-year experience. Neurology. 1989;39(2 Pt 1):173–8.PubMedCrossRef
132.
133.•
go back to reference Sorgun MH, Rzayev S, Yilmaz V, Isıkay CT. Etiologic subtypes of watershed infarcts. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2015;24(11):2478–83. A retrospective study of stroke patients showing that cardioembolism and large-artery atherosclerosis were the most common causes of cortical and subcortical border-zone infarct respectively.PubMedCrossRef Sorgun MH, Rzayev S, Yilmaz V, Isıkay CT. Etiologic subtypes of watershed infarcts. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2015;24(11):2478–83. A retrospective study of stroke patients showing that cardioembolism and large-artery atherosclerosis were the most common causes of cortical and subcortical border-zone infarct respectively.PubMedCrossRef
134.•
go back to reference Joinlambert C, Saliou G, Flamand-Roze C, et al. Cortical border-zone infarcts: clinical features, causes and outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2012;83(8):771–5. A prospective cohort study of stroke patients showing clinical presentation and prognosis of border-zone infarct.PubMedCrossRef Joinlambert C, Saliou G, Flamand-Roze C, et al. Cortical border-zone infarcts: clinical features, causes and outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2012;83(8):771–5. A prospective cohort study of stroke patients showing clinical presentation and prognosis of border-zone infarct.PubMedCrossRef
135.•
go back to reference Windecker S, Stortecky S, Meier B. Paradoxical embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64(4):403–15. A review of clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of paradoxical embolism.PubMedCrossRef Windecker S, Stortecky S, Meier B. Paradoxical embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64(4):403–15. A review of clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of paradoxical embolism.PubMedCrossRef
136.
137.•
go back to reference Artoni A, Bucciarelli P, Martinelli I. Cerebral thrombosis and myeloproliferative neoplasms. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2014;14(11):496. A detailed review of the pathophysiology, epidemiology, prevention and treatment of arterial and venous cerebral thrombosis due to myeloproliferative neoplasms.PubMedCrossRef Artoni A, Bucciarelli P, Martinelli I. Cerebral thrombosis and myeloproliferative neoplasms. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2014;14(11):496. A detailed review of the pathophysiology, epidemiology, prevention and treatment of arterial and venous cerebral thrombosis due to myeloproliferative neoplasms.PubMedCrossRef
138.
go back to reference Blumenthal DT, Glenn MJ. Neurologic manifestations of hematologic disorders. Neurol Clin. 2002;20(1):265–81. viii.PubMedCrossRef Blumenthal DT, Glenn MJ. Neurologic manifestations of hematologic disorders. Neurol Clin. 2002;20(1):265–81. viii.PubMedCrossRef
139.
go back to reference Meloni G, Proia A, Antonini G, et al. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: prospective neurologic, neuroimaging and neurophysiologic evaluation. Hemost Thromb. 2001;86(11):1194–9. Meloni G, Proia A, Antonini G, et al. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: prospective neurologic, neuroimaging and neurophysiologic evaluation. Hemost Thromb. 2001;86(11):1194–9.
140.
go back to reference Boattini M, Procaccianti G. Stroke due to typical thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura treated successfully with intravenous thrombolysis and therapeutic plasma exchange. BMJ Case Rep. 2013. doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-008426. Boattini M, Procaccianti G. Stroke due to typical thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura treated successfully with intravenous thrombolysis and therapeutic plasma exchange. BMJ Case Rep. 2013. doi:10.​1136/​bcr-2012-008426.
141.
go back to reference Yun YW, Chung S, You SJ, et al. Cerebral infarction as a complication of nephrotic syndrome: a case report with a review of the literature. J Korean Med Sci. 2004;19(2):315–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Yun YW, Chung S, You SJ, et al. Cerebral infarction as a complication of nephrotic syndrome: a case report with a review of the literature. J Korean Med Sci. 2004;19(2):315–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
143.•
go back to reference Ramot Y, Nyska A, Spectre G. Drug-induced thrombosis: an update. Drug Saf. 2013;36(8):585–603. A comprehensive review of the different mechanisms of drug induced thrombosis.PubMedCrossRef Ramot Y, Nyska A, Spectre G. Drug-induced thrombosis: an update. Drug Saf. 2013;36(8):585–603. A comprehensive review of the different mechanisms of drug induced thrombosis.PubMedCrossRef
144.
go back to reference LaMonte MP, Brown PM, Hursting MJ. Stroke in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and the effect of argatroban therapy. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(4):976–8.PubMedCrossRef LaMonte MP, Brown PM, Hursting MJ. Stroke in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and the effect of argatroban therapy. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(4):976–8.PubMedCrossRef
145.
go back to reference Bell CM, Brener SS, Gunraj N, et al. Association of ICU or hospital admission with unintentional discontinuation of medications for chronic diseases. JAMA. 2011;306(8):840–7.PubMedCrossRef Bell CM, Brener SS, Gunraj N, et al. Association of ICU or hospital admission with unintentional discontinuation of medications for chronic diseases. JAMA. 2011;306(8):840–7.PubMedCrossRef
146.
go back to reference Broderick JP, Bonomo JB, Kissela BM, et al. Withdrawal of antithrombotic agents and its impact on ischemic stroke occurrence. Stroke. 2011;42(4):2509–14.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Broderick JP, Bonomo JB, Kissela BM, et al. Withdrawal of antithrombotic agents and its impact on ischemic stroke occurrence. Stroke. 2011;42(4):2509–14.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
147.
go back to reference Hart RG, Tonarelli SB, Pearce L. Avoiding central nervous system bleeding during antithrombotic therapy: recent data and ideas. Stroke. 2005;36(7):1588–93.PubMedCrossRef Hart RG, Tonarelli SB, Pearce L. Avoiding central nervous system bleeding during antithrombotic therapy: recent data and ideas. Stroke. 2005;36(7):1588–93.PubMedCrossRef
148.
149.
go back to reference Gurwitz JH, Gore JM, Goldber RJ, et al. Risk for intracranial hemorrhage after tissue plasminogen activator treatment for acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern. 1998;129(8):597–604.CrossRef Gurwitz JH, Gore JM, Goldber RJ, et al. Risk for intracranial hemorrhage after tissue plasminogen activator treatment for acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern. 1998;129(8):597–604.CrossRef
150.
go back to reference Hacke W, Kaste M, Bluhmki E, et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(13):1317–29.PubMedCrossRef Hacke W, Kaste M, Bluhmki E, et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(13):1317–29.PubMedCrossRef
151.
go back to reference Werner N, Zahn R, Zeymer U. Stroke in patients undergoing coronary angiography and percutaneous coronary intervention: incidence, predictors, outcome and therapeutic options. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2012;10(10):1297–305.PubMedCrossRef Werner N, Zahn R, Zeymer U. Stroke in patients undergoing coronary angiography and percutaneous coronary intervention: incidence, predictors, outcome and therapeutic options. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2012;10(10):1297–305.PubMedCrossRef
152.
go back to reference Dawson DM, Fischer EG. Neurologic complications of cardiac catheterization. Neurology. 1977;27(5):496–8.PubMedCrossRef Dawson DM, Fischer EG. Neurologic complications of cardiac catheterization. Neurology. 1977;27(5):496–8.PubMedCrossRef
153.•
go back to reference Osias J, Manno E. Neuromuscular complications of critical illness. Crit Care Clin. 2012;30(4):785–94. A detailed review of the pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy, including thick filament myosin loss, rhabdomyolysis, cachetic myopathy, and acute necrotizing myopathy.CrossRef Osias J, Manno E. Neuromuscular complications of critical illness. Crit Care Clin. 2012;30(4):785–94. A detailed review of the pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy, including thick filament myosin loss, rhabdomyolysis, cachetic myopathy, and acute necrotizing myopathy.CrossRef
154.
155.•
go back to reference Apostolakis E, Papakonstantinou NA, Baikoussis NG, Papadopoulos G. Intensive care unit-related generalized neuromuscular weakness due to critical illness polyneuropathy/myopathy in critically ill patients. J Anesth. 2015;29(1):112–21. An updated review of critical illness myopathy and neuropathy focusing on risk factors, prevention and prognosis.PubMedCrossRef Apostolakis E, Papakonstantinou NA, Baikoussis NG, Papadopoulos G. Intensive care unit-related generalized neuromuscular weakness due to critical illness polyneuropathy/myopathy in critically ill patients. J Anesth. 2015;29(1):112–21. An updated review of critical illness myopathy and neuropathy focusing on risk factors, prevention and prognosis.PubMedCrossRef
156.•
go back to reference Parker AM, Sricharoenchai T, Raparla S, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in critical illness survivors : a metaanalysis. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(5):1121–9. A meta-analysis and systematic review of 40 articles of the prevalence, risk factors, prevention and treatment strategies of posttraumatic stress disorder in ICU patients.PubMedCrossRef Parker AM, Sricharoenchai T, Raparla S, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in critical illness survivors : a metaanalysis. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(5):1121–9. A meta-analysis and systematic review of 40 articles of the prevalence, risk factors, prevention and treatment strategies of posttraumatic stress disorder in ICU patients.PubMedCrossRef
157.
go back to reference Peris A, Bonizzoli M, Iozzelli D, et al. Early intra-intensive care unit psychological intervention promotes recovery from post traumatic stress disorders, anxiety and depression symptoms in critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2011;15(1):R41.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Peris A, Bonizzoli M, Iozzelli D, et al. Early intra-intensive care unit psychological intervention promotes recovery from post traumatic stress disorders, anxiety and depression symptoms in critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2011;15(1):R41.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
158.•
go back to reference Jackson JC, Pandharipande PP, Girard TD, et al. Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and functional disability in survivors of critical illness in the BRAIN-ICU (Bringing to light the Risk Factors And Incidence of Neuropsychological dysfunction in ICU survivors) study: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Respir. 2014;2(5):369–79. A prospective, multisite cohort study showing outcome and functional disability, age effects and risk factors of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder in 821 medical and surgical ICU patients.CrossRef Jackson JC, Pandharipande PP, Girard TD, et al. Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and functional disability in survivors of critical illness in the BRAIN-ICU (Bringing to light the Risk Factors And Incidence of Neuropsychological dysfunction in ICU survivors) study: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Respir. 2014;2(5):369–79. A prospective, multisite cohort study showing outcome and functional disability, age effects and risk factors of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder in 821 medical and surgical ICU patients.CrossRef
Metadata
Title
Neurologic Complications in the Intensive Care Unit
Authors
Clio Rubinos
Sean Ruland
Publication date
01-06-2016
Publisher
Springer US
Published in
Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports / Issue 6/2016
Print ISSN: 1528-4042
Electronic ISSN: 1534-6293
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-016-0651-8

Other articles of this Issue 6/2016

Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 6/2016 Go to the issue

Neuroimaging (DJ Brooks, Section Editor)

Advances of Molecular Imaging in Epilepsy

Behavior (H Kirshner, Section Editor)

Kleine-Levin Syndrome

Neuro-Ophthalmology (A Kawasaki, Section Editor)

Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia

Genetics (V Bonifati, Section Editor)

ALS: Recent Developments from Genetics Studies

Critical Care (SA Mayer, Section Editor)

Brain Multimodality Monitoring: Updated Perspectives