Top

European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience

Published in:

01-11-2014 | Review

Multistage drug effects of ketamine in the treatment of major depression

Authors: Martin Walter, Shijia Li, Liliana Ramona Demenescu

Published in: European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience | Special Issue 1/2014

Abstract

A substantial number of patients diagnosed with major depression disorder show poor or no response to standard antidepressive drugs. Recent studies showed that ketamine promotes a rapid and sustained antidepressive effect in treatment-resistant depression. Importantly, after a single dose, such antidepressant action appears very fast, reaching maximum efficacy after 1–2 days before it slowly decays after 3–7 days. This temporal pattern is especially interesting since most effects are investigated following single, subanesthetic doses. This means that effects are observed at time points when the blood levels have long fallen below any active threshold. Mechanisms of action thus may be sought either in secondary or compensatory processes, which develop after acute systemic derangement or in molecular downstream mechanisms of action, which after initiation do not require the presence of active drug levels. We here review acute and delayed effects of subanesthetic ketamine infusion and discuss potential origins of antidepressant drug action. We will provide evidences that both acute effects on abnormal network configuration and delayed effects at the level of homeostatic synaptic plasticity may be necessary for antidepressant action. We further argue that such effects should be followed by a temporally well-defined exploitation of these transient changes by therapeutic processes, aiming at sustained changes of network configuration via psychotherapeutic or other methods.

Bobo WV, Chen H, Trivedi MH et al (2011) Randomized comparison of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (escitalopram) monotherapy and antidepressant combination pharmacotherapy for major depressive disorder with melancholic features: a CO-MED report. J Affect Disord 133:467–476. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.04.032 PubMed

Miller AH (2013) Conceptual confluence : the kynurenine pathway as a common target for ketamine and the convergence of the inflammation and glutamate hypotheses of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 38(9):1607–1608. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.140 PubMedPubMedCentral

Zarate CA Jr, Singh JB, Carlson PJ et al (2006) A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:856–864PubMed

Berman RM, Cappiello A, Anand A et al (2000) Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry 47:351–354PubMed

Rasmussen KG (2014) Psychiatric side effects of ketamine in hospitalized medical patients administered subanesthetic doses for pain control. Acta Neuropsychiatr 26:230–233PubMed

Murrough JW, Iosifescu DV, Chang LC et al (2013) Antidepressant efficacy of ketamine in treatment-resistant major depression: a two-site randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 170:1134–1142PubMedPubMedCentral

Fond G, Loundou A, Rabu C et al (2014) Ketamine administration in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 231(18):3663–3676. doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3664-5

McGirr A, Berlim MT, Bond DJ, Fleck MP, Yatham LN, Lam RW (2014) A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of ketamine in the rapid treatment of major depressive episodes. Psychol Med 10:1–12

Caddy C, Giaroli G, White TP, Shergill SS, Tracy DK (2013) Ketamine as the prototype glutamatergic antidepressant: pharmacodynamics actions, and a systematic review and meta-analysis of efficacy. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. doi:10.1177/2045125313507739

10.

Glue P, Gulati A, Le Nedelec M, Duffull S (2011) Dose-and exposure-response to ketamine in depression. Biol Psychiatry 70:e9–e10PubMed

11.

Lapidus KA, Levitch CF, Perez AM et al (2014) A randomized controlled trial of intranasal ketamine in major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.03.026 PubMed

12.

aan het Rot M, Collins KA, Murrough JW et al (2010) Safety and efficacy of repeated-dose intravenous ketamine for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry 67:139–145PubMed

13.

Rasmussen KG, Lineberry TW, Galardy CW et al (2013) Serial infusions of low-dose ketamine for major depression. J Psychopharmacol. doi:10.1177/0269881113478283

14.

Murrough JW, Perez AM, Pillemer S et al (2013) Rapid and longer-term antidepressant effects of repeated ketamine infusions in treatment-resistant major depression. Biol Psychiatry 74:250–256. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.022 PubMedPubMedCentral

15.

Phelps LE, Brutsche N, Moral JR et al (2009) Family history of alcohol dependence and initial antidepressant response to an N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonist. Biol Psychiatry 65:181–184. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.029 PubMedPubMedCentral

16.

Rowland LM, Bustillo JR, Mullins PG et al (2005) Effects of ketamine on anterior cingulate glutamate metabolism in healthy humans: a 4-T proton MRS study. Am J Psychiatry 162:394–396PubMed

17.

Walter M, Henning A, Grimm S et al (2009) The relationship between aberrant neuronal activation in the pregenual anterior cingulate, altered glutamatergic metabolism, and anhedonia in major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66:478–486. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.39 PubMed

18.

Salvadore G, Cornwell BR, Sambataro F et al (2010) Anterior cingulate desynchronization and functional connectivity with the amygdala during a working memory task predict rapid antidepressant response to ketamine. Neuropsychopharmacology 35:1415–1422. doi:10.1038/npp.2010.24 PubMedPubMedCentral

19.

Brennan BP, Hudson JI, Jensen JE et al (2009) Rapid Enhancement of Glutamatergic Neurotransmission in Bipolar Depression Following Treatment with Riluzole. Neuropsychopharmacology. doi:10.1038/npp.2009.191

20.

Salvadore G, van der Veen JW, Zhang Y et al (2012) An investigation of amino-acid neurotransmitters as potential predictors of clinical improvement to ketamine in depression. Int J Neuropsychop 15:1063–1072. doi:10.1017/S1461145711001593

21.

Mayberg HS, Brannan SK, Mahurin RK et al (1997) Cingulate function in depression: a potential predictor of treatment response. Neuroreport 8:1057–1061PubMed

22.

Mayberg HS, Brannan SK, Tekell JL, Silva JA, Mahurin RK, McGinnis S, Jerabek PA (2000) Regional metabolic effects of fluoxetine in major depression: serial changes and relationship to clinical response. Biol Psychiatry 48:830–843. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(00)01036-2 PubMed

23.

Wehrl HF, Hossain M, Lankes K et al (2013) Simultaneous PET-MRI reveals brain function in activated and resting state on metabolic, hemodynamic and multiple temporal scales. Nat Med. doi:10.1038/nm.3290 PubMed

24.

Li M, Metzger CD, Li W et al (2014) Dissociation of glutamate and cortical thickness is restricted to regions subserving trait but not state markers in major depressive disorder. JAD. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.001

25.

Horn DI, Yu C, Steiner J et al (2010) Glutamatergic and resting-state functional connectivity correlates of severity in major depression: the role of pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula. Front Syst Neurosci 4(July):1–10. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2010.00033

26.

Chang C, Metzger CD, Glover GH, Duyn JH, Heinze HJ, Walter M (2013) Association between heart rate variability and fluctuations in resting-state functional connectivity. Neuroimage 68:93. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.11.038 PubMedPubMedCentral

27.

Zalesky A, Fornito A, Cocchi L, Gollo LL, Breakspear M (2014) Time-resolved resting-state brain networks. PNAS 111(28):10341–10346. doi:10.1073/pnas.1400181111 PubMedPubMedCentral

28.

Hutchison RM, Womelsdorf T, Allen EA et al (2013) Dynamic functional connectivity: promise, issues, and interpretations. Neuroimage 80:360–378. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.079 PubMed

29.

Pittenger C, Duman RS (2008) Stress, depression, and neuroplasticity: a convergence of mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology 33(1):88–109. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301574 PubMed

30.

Collerton D (2013) Psychotherapy and brain plasticity. Front Psychol 4:548PubMedPubMedCentral

31.

Ghaziri J, Tucholka A, Larue V et al (2013) Neurofeedback training induces changes in white and gray matter. Clin EEG Neurosci 44:265–272. doi:10.1177/1550059413476031 PubMed

32.

Seitz AR (2013) Cognitive neuroscience: targeting neuroplasticity with neural decoding and biofeedback. Curr Biol 23:R210–R212. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.015 PubMed

33.

Spedding M, Neau I, Harsing L (2003) Brain plasticity and pathology in psychiatric disease: sites of action for potential therapy. Curr Opin Pharmacol 3:33–40. doi:10.1016/S1471-4892(02)00008-5 PubMed

34.

Caldeira MV, Melo CV, Pereira DB, Carvalho RF, Carvalho AL, Duarte CB (2007) BDNF regulates the expression and traffic of NMDA receptors in cultured hippocampal neurons. Mol Cell Neurosci 35:208–219. doi:10.1016/j.mcn.2007.02.019 PubMed

35.

McAllister AK (1999) Subplate neurons: a missing link among neurotrophins, activity, and ocular dominance plasticity? PNAS 96:13600–13602. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.24.13600 PubMedPubMedCentral

36.

Castren E, Rantamaki T (2010) The role of BDNF and its receptors in depression and antidepressant drug action: reactivation of developmental plasticity. Dev Neurobiol 70:289–297. doi:10.1002/dneu.20758 PubMed

37.

Hayley S, Litteljohn D (2013) Neuroplasticity and the next wave of antidepressant strategies. Front Cell Neurosci 7:218. doi:10.3389/fncel.2013.00218 PubMedPubMedCentral

38.

Haile CN, Murrough JW, Iosifescu DV et al (2014) Plasma brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and response to ketamine in treatment-resistant depression. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 17:331–336. doi:10.1017/S1461145713001119 PubMedPubMedCentral

39.

Brunoni AR, Lopes M, Fregni F (2008) A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies on major depression and BDNF levels: implications for the role of neuroplasticity in depression. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 11:1169–1180. doi:10.1017/S1461145708009309 PubMed

40.

Sen S, Duman R, Sanacora G (2008) Serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor, depression, and antidepressant medications: meta-analyses and implications. Biol Psychiatry 64:527–532. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.005 PubMedPubMedCentral

41.

Moghaddam B, Adams B, Verma A, Daly D (1997) Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 17(8):2921–2927PubMed

42.

Koike H, Iijima M, Chaki S (2011) Involvement of AMPA receptor in both the rapid and sustained antidepressant-like effects of ketamine in animal models of depression. Behav Brain Res 224:107–111. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.05.035 PubMed

43.

Tizabi Y, Bhatti BH, Manaye KF, Das JR, Akinfiresoye L (2012) Antidepressant-like effects of low ketamine dose is associated with increased hippocampal AMPA/NMDA receptor density ratio in female Wistar–Kyoto rats. Neuroscience 213:72–80. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.03.052 PubMedPubMedCentral

44.

Zhou W, Wang N, Yang C, Li XM, Zhou ZQ, Yang JJ (2013) Ketamine-induced antidepressant effects are associated with AMPA receptors-mediated upregulation of mTOR and BDNF in rat hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Eur Psychiatry. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2013.10.005 PubMed

45.

Li N, Lee B, Liu RJ et al (2010) mTOR-dependent synapse formation underlies the rapid antidepressant effects of NMDA antagonists. Science 329(5994):959–964. doi:10.1126/science.1190287 PubMedPubMedCentral

46.

Abel T, Lattal KM (2001) Molecular mechanisms of memory acquisition, consolidation and retrieval. Curr Opin Neurobiol 11:180–187

47.

Dunning J, During MJ (2003) Molecular mechanisms of learning and memory. Expert Rev Mol Med 5(25):1–11. doi:10.1017/S1462399403006707 PubMed

48.

Jourdi H, Hsu YT, Zhou M et al (2009) Positive AMPA receptor modulation rapidly stimulates BDNF release and increases dendritic mRNA translation. J Neurosci 29:8688–8697. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6078-08.2009 PubMedPubMedCentral

49.

Riedel G, Platt B, Micheau J (2003) Glutamate receptor function in learning and memory. Behav Brain Res 140:1–47. doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00272-3 PubMed

50.

Sharma AC, Kulkarni SK (1991) Effects of MK-801 and ketamine on short-term memory deficits in passive avoidance step-down task paradigm in mice. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 13:155–159PubMed

51.

Pellicano MP, Siciliano F, Sadile AG (1993) NMDA receptors modulate long-term habituation to spatial novelty: dose- and genotype-dependent differential effects of posttrial MK-801 and CPP in rats. Physiol Behav 54:563–568. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(93)90250-J PubMed

52.

Danysz W, Zajaczkowski W, Parsons CG (1995) Modulation of learning processes by ionotropic glutamate receptor ligands. Behav Pharmacol 6:455–474PubMed

53.

Clements JA, Nimmo WS, Grant IS (1982) Bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and analgesic activity of ketamine in humans. J Pharm Sci 71:539–542. doi:10.1002/jps.2600710516 PubMed

54.

Hu H, Real E, Takamiya K et al (2007) Emotion enhances learning via norepinephrine regulation of AMPA-receptor trafficking. Cell 131:160–173. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.09.017 PubMed

55.

Fox CJ, Russell K, Titterness AK, Wang YT, Christie BR (2007) Tyrosine phosphorylation of the GluR2 subunit is required for long-term depression of synaptic efficacy in young animals in vivo. Hippocampus 17:600–605. doi:10.1002/hipo.20302 PubMed

56.

Wong TP, Howland JG, Robillard JM et al (2007) Hippocampal long-term depression mediates acute stress-induced spatial memory retrieval impairment. PNAS 104:11471–11476. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702308104 PubMedPubMedCentral

57.

Kessels HW, Malinow R (2009) Synaptic AMPA receptor plasticity and behavior. Neuron 61:40–50. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.01.015

58.

Humeau Y, Reisel D, Johnson AW et al (2007) A pathway-specific function for different AMPA receptor subunits in amygdala long-term potentiation and fear conditioning. J Neurosci 27:10947–10956. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2603-07.2007 PubMed

59.

Rumpel S, LeDoux J, Zador A, Malinow R (2005) Postsynaptic receptor trafficking underlying a form of associative learning. Science 308:83–88. doi:10.1126/science.1103944 PubMed

60.

Hoeffer CA, Klann E (2010) mTOR signaling: at the crossroads of plasticity, memory and disease. Trends Neurosci 33:67–75. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2009.11.003 PubMedPubMedCentral

61.

Holtmaat A, Svoboda K (2009) Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 10:647–658. doi:10.1038/nrn2699 PubMed

62.

Yoshihara Y, De Roo M, Muller D (2009) Dendritic spine formation and stabilization. Curr Opin Neurobiol 19:146–153. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2009.05.013 PubMed

63.

Kandel ER (2001) The molecular biology of memory storage: a dialogue between genes and synapses. Science 294:1030–1038. doi:10.1126/science.1067020 PubMed

64.

Tabuchi A, Nakaoka R, Amano K et al (2000) Differential activation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene promoters I and III by Ca2+ signals evoked via L-type voltage-dependent and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor Ca2+ channels. J Biol Chem 275:17269–17275. doi:10.1074/jbc.M9095381 PubMed

65.

Ou LC, Gean PW (2007) Transcriptional regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the amygdala during consolidation of fear memory. Mol Pharmacol 72:350–358. doi:10.1124/mol.107.034934 PubMed

66.

Takei N, Inamura N, Kawamura M et al (2004) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor induces mammalian target of rapamycin-dependent local activation of translation machinery and protein synthesis in neuronal dendrites. J Neurosci 24:9760–9769. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1427-04.2004 PubMed

67.

Slipczuk L, Bekinschtein P, Katche C et al (2009) BDNF activates mTOR to regulate GluR1 expression required for memory formation. PLoS One 4:e6007. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006007 PubMedPubMedCentral

68.

Bekinschtein P, Cammarota M, Izquierdo I, Medina JH (2008) BDNF and memory formation and storage. Neuroscientist 14:147–156. doi:10.1177/1073858407305850 PubMed

69.

Bramham CR, Messaoudi E (2005) BDNF function in adult synaptic plasticity: the synaptic consolidation hypothesis. Prog Neurobiol 76:99–125. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.06.003 PubMed

70.

Tyler WJ, Alonso M, Bramham CR, Pozzo-Miller LD (2002) From acquisition to consolidation: on the role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling in hippocampal-dependent learning. Learn Mem 9:224–237. doi:10.1101/lm.51202 PubMedPubMedCentral

71.

Cao W, Duan J, Wang X et al (2014) Early enriched environment induces an increased conversion of proBDNF to BDNF in the adult rat’s hippocampus. Behav Brain Res 265C:76–83. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.02.022

72.

Karege F, Vaudan G, Schwald M, Perroud N, La Harpe R (2005) Neurotrophin levels in postmortem brains of suicide victims and the effects of antemortem diagnosis and psychotropic drugs. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 136:29–37. doi:10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.12.020 PubMed

73.

Krishnan V, Han MH, Graham DL et al (2007) Molecular adaptations underlying susceptibility and resistance to social defeat in brain reward regions. Cell 131:391–404. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.09.018 PubMed

74.

Krishnan V, Nestler EJ (2008) The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature 455(7215):894–902. doi:10.1038/nature07455 PubMedPubMedCentral

75.

Egan MF, Kojima M, Callicott JH et al (2003) The BDNF val66met polymorphism affects activity-dependent secretion of BDNF and human memory and hippocampal function. Cell 112:257–269. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00035-7 PubMed

76.

Chen ZY, Jing D, Bath KG et al (2006) Genetic variant BDNF (Val66Met) polymorphism alters anxiety-related behavior. Science 314:140–143. doi:10.1126/science.1129663 PubMedPubMedCentral

77.

Soliman F, Glatt CE, Bath KG et al (2010) A genetic variant BDNF polymorphism alters extinction learning in both mouse and human. Science 327:863–866. doi:10.1126/science PubMedPubMedCentral

78.

Hariri AR, Goldberg TE, Mattay VS et al (2003) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor val66met polymorphism affects human memory-related hippocampal activity and predicts memory performance. J Neurosci 23:6690–6694PubMed

79.

Strauss J, Barr CL, George CJ et al (2004) BDNF and COMT polymorphisms: relation to memory phenotypes in young adults with childhood-onset mood disorder. Neuromolecular Med 5:181–192PubMed

80.

Hansell NK, James MR, Duffy DL et al (2007) Effect of the BDNF V166M polymorphism on working memory in healthy adolescents. Genes Brain Behav 6:260–268. doi:10.1111/j.1601-183X.2006.00254.x PubMed

81.

Burgdorf J, Zhang X-l, Nicholson KL et al (2012) GLYX-13, a NMDA receptor glycine-site functional partial agonist, induces antidepressant-like effects without ketamine-like side effects. Neuropsychopharmacology 38(5):729–742. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.42 PubMed

82.

Gideons ES, Kavalali ET, Monteggia LM (2014) Mechanisms underlying differential effectiveness of memantine and ketamine in rapid antidepressant responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci 111:8649–8654. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323920111 PubMed

83.

Frohlich J, Van Horn JD (2013) Reviewing the ketamine model for schizophrenia. J Psychopharmacol. doi:10.1177/0269881113512909 PubMedPubMedCentral

84.

Morgan CJ, Curran HV (2006) Acute and chronic effects of ketamine upon human memory: a review. Psychopharmacology 188(4):408–424. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0572-3 PubMed

85.

Hetem LA, Danion JM, Diemunsch P, Brandt C (2000) Effect of a subanesthetic dose of ketamine on memory and conscious awareness in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 152(3):283–288. doi:10.1007/s002130000511 PubMed

86.

Honey GD, Honey RA, O’Loughlin C et al (2005) Ketamine disrupts frontal and hippocampal contribution to encoding and retrieval of episodic memory: an fMRI study. Cereb Cortex 15(6):749–759. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh176 PubMed

87.

Ghoneim MM, Hinrichs JV, Mewaldt SP, Petersen RC (1985) Ketamine: behavioral effects of subanesthetic doses. J Clin Psychopharmacol 5(2):70–77. doi:10.1097/00000542-198409001-00390 PubMed

88.

Newcomer JW, Farber NB, Jevtovic-Todorovic V et al (1999) Ketamine-induced NMDA receptor hypofunction as a model of memory impairment and psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 20(2):106–118. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00067-0 PubMed

89.

Venable N, Kelly PH (1990) Effects of NMDA receptor antagonists on passive avoidance learning and retrieval in rats and mice. Psychopharmacology 100(2):215–221. doi:10.1007/BF02244409 PubMed

90.

Honey GD, Honey RA, Sharar SR et al (2005) Impairment of specific episodic memory processes by sub-psychotic doses of ketamine: the effects of levels of processing at encoding and of the subsequent retrieval task. Psychopharmacology 181(3):445–457PubMed

91.

Corlett PR, Cambridge V, Gardner JM et al (2013) Ketamine effects on memory reconsolidation favor a learning model of delusions. PLoS One 8(6):e65088. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065088 PubMedPubMedCentral

92.

Samartgis JR, Schachte L, Hazi A, Crowe SF (2012) Memantine facilitates memory consolidation and reconsolidation in the day-old chick. Neurobiol Learn Mem 97(4):380–385. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2012.02.009 PubMed

93.

Greene R (2001) Circuit analysis of NMDAR hypofunction in the hippocampus, in vitro, and psychosis of schizophrenia. Hippocampus 11(5):569–577. doi:10.1002/hipo.1072 PubMed

94.

Homayoun H, Moghaddam B (2007) NMDA receptor hypofunction produces opposite effects on prefrontal cortex interneurons and pyramidal neurons. J Neurosci 27(43):11496–11500. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2213-07.2007 PubMedPubMedCentral

95.

Lisman JE, Coyle JT, Green RW et al (2008) Circuit-based framework for understanding neurotransmitter and risk gene interactions in schizophrenia. Trends Neurosci 31(5):234–242. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.02.005 PubMedPubMedCentral

96.

Kos T, Nikiforuk A, Rafa D, Popik P (2011) The effects of NMDA receptor antagonists on attentional set-shifting task performance in mice. Psychopharmacology 214(4):911–921. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2102-6 PubMedPubMedCentral

97.

Beck AT (1967) Depression: clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects., xivHoeber Medical Division, New York, p 370

98.

Disner SG, Beevers CG, Haigh EA, Beck AT (2011) Neural mechanisms of the cognitive model of depression. Nat Rev Neurosci 12(8):467–477. doi:10.1038/nrn3027 PubMed

99.

Murphy FC, Michael A, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ (2003) Neuropsychological impairment in patients with major depressive disorder: the effects of feedback on task performance. Psychol Med 33(3):455–467. doi:10.1017/S0033291702007018 PubMed

100.

Pizzagalli DA (2011) Frontocingulate dysfunction in depression: toward biomarkers of treatment response. Neuropsychopharmacology 36(1):183–206. doi:10.1038/npp.2010.166 PubMedPubMedCentral

101.

Pizzagalli DA, Holmes AJ, Dillon DG et al (2009) Reduced caudate and nucleus accumbens response to rewards in unmedicated individuals with major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 166(6):702–710. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08081201 PubMedPubMedCentral

102.

Korn CW, Sharot T, Walter H, Heekeren HR, Dolan RJ (2014) Depression is related to an absence of optimistically biased belief updating about future life events. Psychol Med 44:579–592. doi:10.1017/S0033291713001074 PubMedPubMedCentral

103.

Der-Avakian A, Markou A (2012) The neurobiology of anhedonia and other reward-related deficits. Trends Neurosci 35(1):68–77. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2011.11.005 PubMedPubMedCentral

104.

Eshel N, Roiser JP (2010) Reward and punishment processing in depression. Biol Psychiatry 68(2):118–124. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.01.027 PubMed

105.

Robinson OJ, Cools R, Carlisi CO, Sahakian BJ, Drevets WC (2012) Ventral striatum response during reward and punishment reversal learning in unmedicated major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 169(2):152–159. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010137 PubMed

106.

Lee RS, Hermens DF, Porter MA, Redoblado-Hodge MA (2012) A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in first-episode major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 140(2):113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.023 PubMed

107.

Marazziti D, Consoli G, Picchetti M, Carlini M, Faravelli L (2010) Cognitive impairment in major depression. Eur J Pharmacol 626(1):83–86PubMed

108.

Drevets WC, Price JL, Furey ML (2008) Brain structural and functional abnormalities in mood disorders: implications for neurocircuitry models of depression. Brain Struct Funct 213(1–2):93–118. doi:10.1007/s00429-008-0189-x PubMedPubMedCentral

109.

Hautzinger M (2008) Psychotherapie der Depression. Bundesgesundheitsbl—Gesundheitsforsch—Gesundheitsschutz

110.

Swan JS, Macvicar R, Christmas D et al (2014) Cognitive behavioural analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP) for chronic depression: clinical characteristics and six month clinical outcomes in an open case series. J Affect Disord 152–154:268–276. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.09.024 PubMed

111.

Davis M, Ressler K, Rothbaum BO, Richardson R (2006) Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction: translation from preclinical to clinical work. Biol Psychiatry 60:369–375. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.084 PubMed

112.

Bontempo MA, Panza MKE, Bloch MH (2012) Meta-Analysis: D-cycloserine augmentation of behavioral therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 73:533. doi:10.4088/JCP.11r07356 PubMedPubMedCentral

113.

Hofmann SG, Wu JQ, Boettcher, H. (2013) D-cycloserine as an augmentation strategy for cognitive behavioral therapy of anxiety disorders. Biol Mood Anxiety Disord 3(11). doi:10.1186/2045-5380-3-11

114.

Luckenbaugh DA, Niciu MJ, Ionescu DF et al (2014) Do the dissociative side effects of ketamine mediate its antidepressant effects? J Affect Dis 159:56–61. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.02.017 PubMed

115.

Vollenweider FX, Kometer M (2010) The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 11(9):642–651. doi:10.1038/nrn2884 PubMed

116.

Holtzheimer PE, Mayberg HS (2011) Stuck in a rut: rethinking depression and its treatment. Trends Neurosci 34(1):1–9. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2010.10.004 PubMedPubMedCentral

117.

Menon V (2011) Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model. Trends Ccog Sci 15(10):483–506. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.003

118.

Palomero-Gallagher N, Vogt BA, Schleicher A, Mayberg HS, Zilles K (2009) Receptor architecture of human cingulate cortex: evaluation of the four-region neurobiological model. Hum Brain Map 30:2336–2355. doi:10.1002/hbm.20667

119.

Vollenweider FX (2001) Brain mechanisms of hallucinogens and entactogens. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 3:265–279PubMedPubMedCentral

120.

Niesters M, Khalili-Mahani N, Martini C et al (2012) Effect of subanesthetic ketamine on intrinsic functional brain connectivity: a placebo-controlled functional magnetic resonance imaging study in healthy male volunteers. Anesthesiology 117(4):868–877. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e31826a0db3 PubMed

121.

Gass N, Schwarz AJ, Sartorius A et al (2013) Sub-anesthetic ketamine modulates intrinsic BOLD connectivity within the hippocampal-prefrontal circuit in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 39:895–906. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.290 PubMed

122.

Dou W, Palomero-Gallagher N, van Tol MJ et al (2013) Systematic regional variations of GABA, glutamine, and glutamate concentrations follow receptor fingerprints of human cingulate cortex. J Neurosci 33:12698–12704. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1758-13.2013 PubMed

123.

Kranaster L, Hoyer C, Janke C, Sartorius A (2014) Preliminary evaluation of clinical outcome and safety of ketamine as an anesthetic for electroconvulsive therapy in schizophrenia. World J Biol Psychiatry 15:242–250. doi:10.3109/15622975.2011.647833 PubMed

124.

Scheidegger M, Walter M, Lehmann M et al (2012) Ketamine decreases resting state functional network connectivity in healthy subjects: implications for antidepressant drug action. PLoS One 7(9):e44799. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044799 PubMedPubMedCentral

125.

Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ et al (2001) A default mode of brain function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98(2):676–682. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.2.676 PubMedPubMedCentral

126.

Sheline YI, Price JL, Yan Z, Mintun MA (2010) Resting-state functional MRI in depression unmasks increased connectivity between networks via the dorsal nexus. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107(24):11020–11025. doi:10.1073/pnas.1000446107 PubMedPubMedCentral

127.

Grimm S, Boesiger P, Beck J et al (2009) Altered negative BOLD responses in the default-mode network during emotion processing in depressed subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 34(4):932–943. doi:10.1038/npp.2008.81 PubMed

128.

Sheline YI, Barch DM, Price JL et al (2009) The default mode network and self-referential processes in depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106:1942–1947. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812686106 PubMedPubMedCentral

129.

Hamilton JP, Furman DJ, Chang C et al (2011) Default-mode and task-positive network activity in major depressive disorder: implications for adaptive and maladaptive rumination. Biol Psychiatry 70(4):327–333. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.02.003 PubMedPubMedCentral

130.

Hashimoto K, Malchow B, Falkai P, Schmitt A (2013) Glutamate modulators as potential therapeutic drugs in schizophrenia and affective disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 263:367–377PubMed

131.

Wang C, Zheng D, Xu J, Lam W, Yew DT (2013) Brain damages in ketamine addicts as revealed by magnetic resonance imaging. Frontiers Neuroanat 7. doi:10.3389/fnana.2013.00023

132.

Castren E (2013) Neuronal network plasticity and recovery from depression. JAMA Psychiatry 70:983–989. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1 PubMed

Title: Multistage drug effects of ketamine in the treatment of major depression
Authors: Martin Walter
Shijia Li
Liliana Ramona Demenescu
Publication date: 01-11-2014
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience / Issue Special Issue 1/2014
Print ISSN: 0940-1334
Electronic ISSN: 1433-8491
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-014-0535-3

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Multistage drug effects of ketamine in the treatment of major depression

Abstract

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Special Issue 1/2014

A perfect match: noninvasive brain stimulation and psychotherapy

Prediction and prevention of psychosis: current progress and future tasks

Subjective and objective cognitive decline at the pre-dementia stage of Alzheimer’s disease

Evidence-based psychotherapy for the prevention and treatment of first-episode psychosis

Interaction among childhood trauma and functional polymorphisms in the serotonin pathway moderate the risk of depressive disorders

Substances used and prevalence rates of pharmacological cognitive enhancement among healthy subjects