Top

BMC Public Health

Published in:

Open Access 01-12-2018 | Research article

Mass media and risk factors for cancer: the under-representation of age

Authors: Sara Macdonald, Yvonne Cunningham, Chris Patterson, Katie Robb, Una Macleod, Thomas Anker, Shona Hilton

Published in: BMC Public Health | Issue 1/2018

Abstract

Background

Increasing age is a risk factor for developing cancer. Yet, older people commonly underestimate this risk, are less likely to be aware of the early symptoms, and are more likely to be diagnosed with advanced stage cancer. Mass media are a key influence on the public’s understanding health issues, including cancer risk. This study investigates how news media have represented age and other risk factors in the most common cancers over time.

Methods

Eight hundred articles about the four most common cancers (breast, prostate, lung and colorectal) published within eight UK national newspapers in 2003, 2004, 2013 and 2014 were identified using the Nexis database. Relevant manifest content of articles was coded quantitatively and subjected to descriptive statistical analysis in SPSS to identify patterns across the data.

Results

Risk was presented in half of the articles but this was rarely discussed in any depth and around a quarter of all articles introduced more than one risk factor, irrespective of cancer site. Age was mentioned as a risk factor in approximately 12% of all articles and this varied by cancer site. Age was most frequently reported in relation to prostate cancer and least often in articles about lung cancer. Articles featuring personal narratives more frequently focused on younger people and this was more pronounced in non-celebrity stories; only 15% of non-celebrity narratives were about people over 60. Other common risks discussed were family history and genetics, smoking, diet, alcohol, and environmental factors. Family history and genetics together featured as the most common risk factors. Risk factor reporting varied by site and family history was most commonly associated with breast cancer, diet with bowel cancer and smoking with lung cancer.

Conclusion

Age and older adults were largely obscured in media representation of cancer and cancer experience. Indeed common risk factors in general were rarely discussed in any depth. Our findings will usefully inform the development of future cancer awareness campaigns and media guidelines. It is important that older adults appreciate their heightened risk, particularly in the context of help-seeking decisions.

World Health Organisation (2014) Cancer, accessed 1 February 2014. www.who.int/cancer/en.

Cancer Research UK (2016) Cancer incidence by age, accessed 14 March 2017. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/incidence/age.

Ahmad AS, Ormiston-Smith & Sasieni PD (2015) Trends in the lifetime risk of developing cancer in great Britain: comparison of risk for those born from 1930-1960. Br J Cancer 112, 943–947.

Coleman M, Forman D, Bryant H, Butler J, Rachet B, Maringe C, Nur U, Tracey E, Coory M, Hatcher J. Cancer survival in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the UK, 1995–2007 (the international Cancer benchmarking partnership): an analysis of population-based cancer registry data. Lancet. 2011;377(9760):127–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62231-3.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Foot C, Harrison T. How to improve Cancer survival. London: Kings Fund; 2011.

Lyratzopoulos G, Greenberg D, Rubin G, Abel G, Walter F, Neal R. Advanced stage diagnosis of cancer: who is at greater risk? Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2012;12(8):993–6. https://doi.org/10.1586/era.12.77.CrossRefPubMed

Robb K, Stubbings S, Ramirez A, Macleod U, Austoker J, Waller J, Hiom S, Wardle J. Public awareness of cancer in Britain: a population-based survey of adults. Br J Cancer. 2009;101(Suppl 2):S18–23. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6605386.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Wardle J, Waller J, Brunswick N, Jarvis M. Awareness of risk factors for cancer among British adults. Public Health. 2001;115:173–4. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj/ph/1900752.CrossRefPubMed

Quaife S, Forbes L, Ramierez A, Brain K, Donnelly C, Simon AE, Wardle J. Recognition of cancer warning signs and anticipated delay in help-seeking in a population sample of adults in the UK. Br J Cancer. 2014;110(1):12–8.CrossRefPubMed

10.

Be Clear on Cancer National Cancer Intelligence Network Add in full online link. http://www.ncin.org.uk/cancer_type_and_topic_specific_work/topic_specific_work/be_clear_on_cancer/.

11.

Smith S, Osborne K, Tring S, George H, Power E. Evaluatiing the impact of a community-based cancer awareness roadshow on awareness, attitudes and behaviours. Prev Med. 2016;87:138–43.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

12.

CRUK ‘don’t assume you’re past it’ link. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/awareness-and-prevention/be-clear-on-cancer/breast-cancer-in-women-over-70-campaign.

13.

CRUK early BCC results link. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/sites/default/files/evaluation_results_2014.pdf.

14.

Brain K, Smits, S, Simon AE, Forbed LJ, Roberts C, Robbie IJ, Stewart J, White C, Neal RD and Hanson J. Ovarian Cancer symptom awareness and anticipated delayed presentation in a population sample. BMC Cancer. 2014;14:171–81. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-17.

15.

Moller H, Flatt G, Moran A. High Cancer death rates in the elderly in the UK. Cancer Epidemiol. 2011;35:407–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2011.05.015.CrossRefPubMed

16.

Mitchell E, Pickwell-Smith B, Macleod U (2015) Risk factors for emergency presentation with lung and colorectal cancers: a systematic review. BMJ Open 5, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006965

17.

Macleod U, Mitchell E, Burgess C, Macdonald S, Ramirez A. Risk factors for delayed presentation and referral of symptomatic cancer: evidence for common cancers. Br J Cancer. 2009;101:S92–S101. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6605398.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

18.

National Cancer Intelligence Network (2015) Routes to diagnosis 2006–2013 workbook.

19.

Raine R, Wong W, Scholes S, Ashton C, Obichere A, Ambler G (2010) Social variations in access to hospital care for patients with colorectal, breast, and lung cancer between 1999 and 2006: retrospective analysis of hospital episode statistics. BMJ 340, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b5479.

20.

McPhail S, Elliss-Brookes L, Shelton J, Ives A, Greenslade M, Vernon S, Morris E, Richards M. Emergency presentation of cancer and short-term mortality. Br J Cancer. 2013;109:2027–34. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2013.569.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

21.

National Screening Programme link. https://www.gov.uk/topic/population-screening-programmes.

22.

Bridges J, Lucas G, Wiseman T, et al. Preparedness of UK workforce to deliver cancer care to older people: summary report from a scoping review. Southampton: University of Southampton; 2016. http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/401192/. Accessed 10 Oct 2016.

23.

Forbes L, Simon A, Warburton F, Boniface D, Brain K, Dessaix A, Donnelly C, Haynes K, Hvidberg L, Lagerlund M, Lockwood G, Tishelman C, Vedsted P, Vigmostad M, Ramirez A, Wardle J, International Cancer Benchmarking Partnership Module 2 Working Group. Differences in cancer awareness and beliefs between Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and the UK (the international Cancer benchmarking partnership): do they contribute to differences in cancer survival? Br J Cancer. 2013;108:292–300. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2012.542.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

24.

Clarke J, Everest M. Cancer in the mass print media: fear, uncertainty and the medical model. Soc Sci Med. 2006;62(10):2591–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.11.021.CrossRefPubMed

25.

Atkin C, Smith S, McFeters C, Ferguson V. A comprehensive analysis of breast cancer news coverage in leading media outlets focusing on environmental risks and prevention. J Health Commun. 2008;13(1):3.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

26.

McCombs M, Shaw D. The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly. 1972;36:176–87. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990.CrossRef

27.

Cohen B. The press and foreign policy. New York: Harcourt; 1963. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400878611.

28.

Jensen JD, Moriarty CM, Hurley RJ, Stryker JE. Making sense of news coverage trends: a comparison og three comprehensive content analysis. J Health Commun. 2010;15:136–51.CrossRefPubMed

29.

Murray M, McMillan C. Gender differences in perceptions of cancer. J Cancer Educ. 1995;8:53–62.CrossRef

30.

Johnson J, Meischke H. Women’s preferences for cancer-related information from specific types of mass media. Health Care Women International. 1994;15:23–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399339409516091.CrossRef

31.

Meissner H. How sources of health information relate to knowledge about use of cancer-screening exams. J Community Health. 1992;17:153–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01324404.CrossRefPubMed

32.

Wright W. Mass media as a source of medical information. J Commun. 1975;25:171–3. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1975.tb00621.x.CrossRefPubMed

33.

Wade S, Schramm W. The mass media as sources of public affairs, science and health knowledge. Public Opinion Quarterly. 1969;33:197–209.CrossRef

34.

Janz N, Becker M. The health belief model: a decade later. Health Educ Behav. 1984;11:1–47.

35.

Ayers J, Althouse B, Noar S, Cohen J. Do celebrity cancer diagnoses promote primary cancer prevention? Prev Med. 2014;58(January):81–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2013.11.007.CrossRefPubMed

36.

Brown M, Potosky A. The presidential effect: the public health response to media coverage about Ronald Reagan's colon cancer episode. Public Opinion Quarterly. 1990;54(3):317–29. https://doi.org/10.1086/269209.CrossRefPubMed

37.

Chapman S, Holding S, McLeod K, Wakefield M. Impact of news of celebrity illness on breast cancer screening: Kylie Minogue's breast cancer diagnosis. Med J Aust. 2005;183(5):247–50.PubMed

38.

Lancucki L, Sasieni P, Patnick J, Dayand T, Vessey M. The impact of jade Goody’s diagnosis and death on the NHS cervical screening Programme. J Med Screen. 2012;19(2):89–93. https://doi.org/10.1258/jms.2012.012028.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

39.

Marlow L, Sangha A, Patnick J, Waller J. The jade goody effect: whose cervical screening decisions were influenced by her story? J Med Screen. 2012;19(4):184–8. https://doi.org/10.1258/jms.2012.012095.CrossRefPubMed

40.

MacArthur G, Wright M, Beer H, Paranjothy S. Impact of media reporting of cervical cancer in a UK celebrity on a population-based cervical screening programme. J Med Screen. 2011;18:204–9. https://doi.org/10.1258/jms.2011.011092.CrossRefPubMed

41.

Hilton S, Hunt K (2010) Coverage of Jade Goody's cervical cancer in UK newspapers: a missed opportunity for health promotion? BMC Public Health 10, https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-368).

42.

Desai S, Jena A (2016) Do celebrity endorsements matter? Observational study of BRCA gene testing and mastectomy rates after Angelina Jolie’s New York Times editorial. BMJ 355(i6357), https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i6357

43.

Cancer Research UK (2006) ‘Kylie effect’ can confuse women over breast cancer risk, accessed 1 February 2017 http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/news/archive/pressrelease/2006-10-23-kylie-effect-can-confuse-women-over-breast-cancer-risk

44.

Clarke J. Cancer, heart disease, and AIDS: what do the media tell us about these diseases? Health Commun. 1992;4(2):105–20. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327027hc0402_2.CrossRef

45.

Hanne M, Hawken S. Metaphors for illness in contemporary media. Medical Humanities. 2007;33:93–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/jmh.2006.000253.CrossRefPubMed

46.

Seale C. Sporting cancer: struggle language in news reports of people with cancer. Sociology of Health and Illness. 2001;23(3):308–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.00254.CrossRef

47.

Williamson J, Jones I, Hocken D. How does the media profile of cancer compare with prevalence? Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2011;93:9–12. https://doi.org/10.1308/003588411X12851639106954.CrossRefPubMed

48.

Fealy G, McNamara M, Treacy MP, Lyons I. Constructing ageing and age identities: a case study of newspaper discourses. Ageing & Society. 2012;31:85–102.CrossRef

49.

Koskinen S, Salminen L, Leino-Kilpi H. Media portrayal of older people as illustrated in Finnish newspapers. Intl J Qualitative Stud Health & Well-being. 2014;9:25304.CrossRef

50.

Williams A, Ylanne V, Wadleigh PM, Chen CH. Portrayals of older adults in UK magazine advertisments: relevance of target audience. Communications: The European Journal of Communication Research. 2010;35(1):1–27.CrossRef

51.

Ylanne V, Williams A, Wadleigh PM. Ageing well? Older peopole’s health and well-being as portrayed in UK magazine advertisments. International Jnl of Ageing and Later Life. 2009;4(2):33–62.CrossRef

52.

Gee E. Misconceptions and misapprehensions about population ageing. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31(4):750–3.CrossRefPubMed

53.

Martin R, Williams C, and O’Neill D (2009) Retrospective analysis of attitudes to ageing in the Economist: apocalyptic demography for opinion formers. BMJ 399 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b4914

54.

Newsworks (2016) Facts and figures. https://www.newsworks.org.uk/facts-figures. Accessed 1 Apr 2016.

55.

Chapman J. Over the counter painkillers halve breast cancer risk. In: Daily Mail. London: Associated Newspapers Ltd; 2003.

56.

Lupton D. Medicine as culture: illness, disease and the body. 3rd ed. London: Sage; 2012. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446254530.

57.

Clarke J. A comparison of breast, testicular and prostate cancer in mass print media (1996–2001). Soc Sci Med. 2004;59:541–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.11.018.CrossRefPubMed

58.

Seale C. Cancer heroics: a study of news reports with particular reference to gender. Sociology. 2002;36(1):107–26.CrossRef

59.

Bennett W (2012) The Personalization of Politics: Political Identity, Social Media, and Changing Patterns of Participation. The Annals of the American Academy 644(1), doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716212451428

60.

Slater M, Long M, Bettinghaus E, Reineke J. News coverage of Cancer in the United States: a National Sample of newspapers, television, and magazines. J Health Commun. 2008;13(6):523–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730802279571.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

61.

Kitzinger J. Researching risk and the media. Health Risk & Society. 1999;1(1):55–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698579908407007.CrossRef

62.

Jones S. Coverage of breast Cancer in the Australian print media – does advertising and editorial coverage reflect correct social marketing messages? J Health Commun. 2004;9(4):309–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730490468441.CrossRefPubMed

63.

Cancer Research UK (2015) Family history and inherited cancer genes. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/inherited-cancer-genes-and-increased-cancer-risk/family-history-and-inherited-cancer-genes. Accessed 14 Mar 2017.

64.

Walsh-Childers K, Edwards H, Grobmyer S. Covering Women's greatest health fear: breast Cancer information in consumer magazines. Health Commun. 2011;26(3):209–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2010.546770.CrossRefPubMed

65.

Niederdeppe J, Frosch D, Hornik R. Cancer news coverage and information seeking. J Health Commun. 2008;13(2):181–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730701854110.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

66.

Cantor D, Coa K, Crystal-Mansour S, Davis T, Dipko S, Sigman R (2009) Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) 2007 FINAL REPORT Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.

67.

Smith S, Murchie P, Devereux G, Johnston M, Lee AJ, Macleod U, Nicolson MC, Powell R, Ritchie LD, Wyke S, Campbell NC. Developing a complex intervention to reduce time to presentation with symptoms of lung cancer. Br J Gen Pract. 2012;62(602):e605–15. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp12X654579 CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

68.

Scott SE, Khwaja M, Low EL, Weinman J, Grunfeld EA. A randomised controlled trial of a pilot intervention to encourage early presentation of oral cancer in high risk groups. Patient Educ Couns. 2012;88(2):241–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2012.03.015.CrossRefPubMed

69.

Forbes LJL, Linsell L, Atkins L, Burgess C, Tucker L, Omar L, Ramirez AJ. A promoting early presentation intervention increases breast cancer awareness in older women after 2 years: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Cancer. 2011;105(1):18–21.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

70.

Cancer Research UK. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/age-and-cancer?_ga=2.62721455.2040834430.1516811109-153888833.1511454133. (accessed Jan 2018).

71.

Corner J, Hopkinson J, Fitzsimmons D, Barclay S, Muers M. Is late diagnosis of lung cancer inevitable? Interview study of patients’ recollections of symptoms before diagnosis. Thorax. 2005;60(4):314. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2004.029264.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

72.

Smith S, Campbell N, Macleod U, Lee A, Raja A, Wyke S, Ziebland S, Duff E, Ritchie L, Nicolson M. Factors contributing to the time taken to consult with symptoms of lung cancer: a cross-sectional study. Thorax. 2009;64(6):523–31. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2008.096560.CrossRefPubMed

73.

Doyle C. Screening must not be stopped. In: The Daily Telegraph. London: Telegraph Media Group; 2004.

Title: Mass media and risk factors for cancer: the under-representation of age
Authors: Sara Macdonald
Yvonne Cunningham
Chris Patterson
Katie Robb
Una Macleod
Thomas Anker
Shona Hilton
Publication date: 01-12-2018
Publisher: BioMed Central
Published in: BMC Public Health / Issue 1/2018
Electronic ISSN: 1471-2458
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5341-9

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Mass media and risk factors for cancer: the under-representation of age

Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

At a glance: The STEP trials

Springer Medicine

Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Please log in to get access to this content

Other articles of this Issue 1/2018

Organized screening programmes for breast and cervical cancer in 17 EU countries: trajectories of attendance rates

Cardiovascular disease lifestyle risk factors in people with psychosis: a cross-sectional study

Gender-specific differences in high-risk sexual behaviors among methamphetamine users in Myanmar-China border city, Muse, Myanmar: who is at risk?

Attendance barriers experienced by female health care workers voluntarily participating in a multi-component health promotion programme at the workplace

The contribution of Ghanaian patients to the reporting of adverse drug reactions: a quantitative and qualitative study

Validation of the Schieman and Young measurement scales for work contact, work-family conflict, working conditions, psychological distress and sleep problems in construction industry professionals