Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Sports Medicine
Published in: Sports Medicine 7/2009

01-07-2009 | Review Article

Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome

A Critical Review

Authors: Dr Maarten H. Moen, Johannes L. Tol, Adam Weir, Miriam Steunebrink, Theodorus C. De Winter

Published in: Sports Medicine | Issue 7/2009

Login to get access

Abstract

Medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS) is one of the most common leg injuries in athletes and soldiers. The incidence of MTSS is reported as being between 4% and 35% in military personnel and athletes. The name given to this condition refers to pain on the posteromedial tibial border during exercise, with pain on palpation of the tibia over a length of at least 5 cm. Histological studies fail to provide evidence that MTSS is caused by periostitis as a result of traction. It is caused by bony resorption that outpaces bone formation of the tibial cortex. Evidence for this overloaded adaptation of the cortex is found in several studies describing MTSS findings on bone scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scan and dual energy x-ray absorptiometry.
The diagnosis is made based on physical examination, although only one study has been conducted on this subject. Additional imaging such as bone, CT and MRI scans has been well studied but is of limited value. The prevalence of abnormal findings in asymptomatic subjects means that results should be interpreted with caution.
Excessive pronation of the foot while standing and female sex were found to be intrinsic risk factors in multiple prospective studies. Other intrinsic risk factors found in single prospective studies are higher body mass index, greater internal and external ranges of hip motion, and calf girth. Previous history of MTSS was shown to be an extrinsic risk factor.
The treatment of MTSS has been examined in three randomized controlled studies. In these studies rest is equal to any intervention. The use of neoprene or semi-rigid orthotics may help prevent MTSS, as evidenced by two large prospective studies.
Literature
1.
Clanton TO, Solcher BW. Chronic leg pain in the athlete. Clin Sports Med 1994 Oct; 13 (4): 743–59PubMed
2.
Andrish JT, Bergfeld JA, Walheim J. A prospective study on the management of shin splints. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1974 Dec; 56A (8): 1697–700
3.
Bennett JE, Reinking MF, Pluemer B, et al. Factors contributing to the development of medial tibial stress syndrome in high school runners. Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2001 Sep; 31 (9): 504–10
4.
Yates B, White S. The incidence and risk factors in the development of medial tibial stress syndrome among naval recruits. Am J Sports Med 2004 Apr-May; 32 (3): 772–80PubMedCrossRef
5.
Arendt EA, Griffiths H. The use of MR imaging in the assessment and clinical management of stress reactions of bone in high performance athletes. Clin Sports Med 1997 Apr; 16 (2): 291–306PubMedCrossRef
6.
Lassus J, Tulikoura I, Konttinen Y, et al. Bone stress injuries of the lower extremity. Acta Orthop Scand 2002 Jun; 73 (3): 359–68PubMedCrossRef
7.
Devas MB. Stress fracture of the tibia in athletes or “shin soreness”. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1958 May; 40B (2): 227–39
8.
9.
Puranen J. The medial tibial syndrome: exercise ischaemia in the medial fascial compartment of the leg. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1974 Nov; 56-B (4): 712–5PubMed
10.
Mubarak SJ, Gould RN, Lee YF, et al. The medial tibial stress syndrome: a cause of shin splints. Am J Sports Med 1982 Jul-Aug; 10 (4): 201–5PubMedCrossRef
11.
Slocum DB. The shin splints syndrome: medical aspects and differential diagnosis. Am J Surg 1967 Dec; 114 (6): 875–81PubMedCrossRef
12.
Devas MB. Shin splints, or stress fractures of the metacarpal bone in horses, and shin soreness, or stress fractures of the tibia, in man. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1967 May; 49 (2): 310–3PubMed
13.
American Medical Association. Standard nomenclature of athletic injuries presented by subcommittee on classification of sports injuries [abstract]. Chicago (IL): AMA, 1966: 122
14.
Detmer DE. Chronic shin splints: classification and management of medial tibial stress syndrome. Sports Med 1986 Nov-Dec; 3 (6): 436–46PubMedCrossRef
15.
16.
Holder LE, Michael RH. The specific scintigraphic pattern of “shin splints in the lower leg”: concise communication. J Nucl Med 1984 Aug; 25 (8): 865–9PubMed
17.
Chisin R, Milgrom C, Giladi M, et al. Clinical significance of nonfocal findings in suspected tibial stress fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1987 Jul; 220: 200–5PubMed
18.
Batt ME, Ugalde V, Anderson MW, et al. A prospective controlled study of diagnostic imaging for acute shin splints. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998 Nov; 30 (11): 1564–71PubMedCrossRef
19.
Gaeta M, Minutoli F, Scribano E, et al. CT and MRI imaging findings in athletes with early tibial stress injuries: comparison of bone scintigraphy findings and emphasis on cortical abnormalities. Radiology 2005 May; 235 (2): 553–61PubMedCrossRef
20.
Gaeta M, Minutoli F, Vinci S, et al. High resolution CT grading of tibial stress reactions in distance runners. AJR 2006 Sep; 187 (3): 789–93PubMedCrossRef
21.
Fredericson M, Gabrielle Bergman A, Hoffman KL, et al. Tibial stress reaction in runners: correlation of clinical symptoms and scintigraphy with a new magnetic resonance imaging grading system. Am J Sports Med 1995 Jul-Aug; 23 (4): 472–81PubMedCrossRef
22.
Arendt EA, Agel J, Heikes C, et al. Stress injuries to bone in college athletes: a retrospective review of experience at a single institution. Am J Sports Med 2003 Nov-Dec; 31 (6): 959–68PubMed
23.
Rupani HD, Holder LE, Espinola DA, et al. Three-phase radionuclide bone imaging in sports medicine. Radiology 1985 Jul; 156 (1): 187–96PubMed
24.
Nielsen M, Hansen K, Holmer P, et al. Tibial peristeal reaction in soldiers: a scintigraphic study of 29 cases of lower leg pain. Acta Orthop Scand 1991 Dec; 62 (6): 531–4PubMedCrossRef
25.
Anderson MW, Ugalde V, Batt M, et al. Shin splints: MR appearance in a preliminary study. Radiology 1997 Jul; 204 (1): 177–80PubMed
26.
Matilla KT, Komu MES, Dahlstrom S, et al. Medial tibial pain: a dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI study. Magn Reson Imaging 1999 Sep; 17 (7): 947–54CrossRef
27.
Aoki Y, Yasuda K, Tohyama H, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging in stress fractures and shin splints. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2004 Apr; 421: 260–7PubMedCrossRef
28.
Delacerda FG. A study of anatomical factors involved in shin splints. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1980 Fall; 2 (2): 55–9PubMed
29.
Burne SG, Khan KM, Boudville PB, et al. Risk factors associated with exertional tibial pain: a twelve months prospective clinical study. Br J Sports Med 2004 Aug; 38(4): 441–5PubMedCrossRef
30.
Plisky MS, Rauh MJ, Heiderscheit B, et al. Medial tibial stress syndrome in high school cross-country runners: incidence and risk factors. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2007 Feb; 37 (2): 40–7PubMedCrossRef
31.
Hubbard TJ, Carpenter EM, Cordova ML. Contributing factors to medial tibial stress syndrome; a prospective investigation. Med Sci Sports Exer 2009 Mar; 41 (3): 490–6CrossRef
32.
Gehlsen GM, Seger A. Selected measures of angular displacement, strength and flexibility in subjects with and without shin splints. Res Q Excerc Sport 1980 Oct; 51 (3): 478–85
33.
Viitasalo JK, Kvist M. Some biomechanical aspects of the foot and ankle in athletes with and without shin splints. Am J Sports Med 1983 May-Jun; 11 (3): 125–30PubMedCrossRef
34.
Sommer HM, Vallentyne SW. Effect of foot posture on the incidence of medial tibial stress syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995 Jun; 27 (6): 800–4PubMed
35.
Madeley LT, Munteanu SE, Bonanno DR. Endurance of the ankle joint plantar flexor muscles in athletes with medial tibial stress syndrome: a case-control study. J Sci Med Sport 2007 Dec; 10 (6): 356–62PubMedCrossRef
36.
Tweed JL, Avil SJ, Campbell JA. Biomechanical risk factors in the development of medial tibial stress syndrome indistance runners. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 2008 Nov-Dec; 98 (6): 436–44PubMed
37.
Bandholm T, Boysen L, Haugaard S, et al. Foot medial longitudinal arch deformation during quiet standing and gait in subjects with medial tibial stress syndrome. J Foot Ankle Surg 2008 Mar-Apr; 47 (2): 89–95PubMedCrossRef
38.
Taunton JE, Ryan MB, Clement DB. A retrospective case-control analysis of 2002 running injuries. Br J Sports Med 2002 Apr; 36 (2): 95–101PubMedCrossRef
39.
Verhagen AP, de Vet HCW, de Bie RA, et al. The Delphi list: a criteria list for quality assessment of randomised clinical trials for conducting systematic reviews developed by Delphi consensus. J Clin Epidemiol 1998 Dec; 51 (12): 1235–41PubMedCrossRef
40.
Nissen LR, Astvad K, Madsen L. Low-energy laser treatment of medial tibial stress syndrome. Ugeskr Laeger 1994 Dec; 156 (49): 7329–31PubMed
41.
Johnston E, Flynn T, Bean M, et al. A randomised controlled trial of a leg orthosis versus traditional treatment for soldiers with shin splints: a pilot study. Mil Med 2006 Jan; 171 (1): 40–4PubMed
42.
Bensel CK, Kish RN. Lower extremity disorders among men and women in army basic training and effects of two types of boots. Natick (MA): United States Army Natick Research & Development Laboratories, 1983
43.
Bensel CK. Wear test of boot inserts: memorandum for the record. Natick (MA): United States Army Natick Research & Development Laboratories, 1986: 1–8
44.
Schwellnus MP, Jordaan G, Noakes TD. Prevention of common overuse injuries by the use of shock absorbing insoles. Am J Sports Med 1990 Nov-Dec; 18 (6): 636–41PubMedCrossRef
45.
Schwellnus MP, Jordaan G. Does calcium supplementation prevent bone stress injuries? A clinical trial. Int J Sports Nutr 1992 Jun; 2 (2): 165–74
46.
Pope RD, Herbert RP, Kirwan JD, et al. A randomised trial of preexercise stretching for prevention of lower limb injury. Med Sci Sports Exer 2000 Feb; 32 (2): 271–7CrossRef
47.
Larsen K, Weidich F, LeBoeuf-Yde C. Can custom-made biomechanic shoe orthoses prevent problems in the back and lower extremities? a randomised controlled intervention trial of 146 military conscripts. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2002 Jun; 25 (5): 326–31PubMedCrossRef
48.
Brushöy C, Larsen K, Albrecht-Beste E, et al. Prevention of overuse injuries by a concurrent exercise program in subjects exposed to an increase in training load; a randomized controlled trial of 1020 army recruits. Am J Sports Med 2008 Apr; 36 (4): 663–70CrossRef
49.
Michael RH, Holder LE. The soleus syndrome: a cause of medial tibial stress syndrome (shin splints). Am J Sports Med 1985 Mar-Apr; 13 (2): 87–94PubMedCrossRef
50.
Saxena A, O’Brien T, Bruce D. Anatomic dissection of the tibialis posterior muscle and its correlation to the medial tibial stress syndrome. J Foot Surg 1990 Mar-Apr; 29 (2): 105–8PubMed
51.
Beck BR, Osterig LR, Oregon E. Medial tibial stress syndrome: the location of muscles in the leg in relation to symptoms. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1994 Jul; 76 (7): 1057–61PubMed
52.
Garth WP, Miller ST. Evaluation of claw toe deformity, weakness of the foot intrinsics, and posteromedial shin pain. Am J Sports Med 1989 Nov-Dec; 17 (6): 821–7PubMedCrossRef
53.
Bouché RT, Johnson CH. Medial tibial stress syndrome (tibial fasciitis): a proposed pathomechanical model involving fascial traction. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 2007 Jan-Feb; 97 (1): 31–6PubMed
54.
Hayes WC. Biomechanics of cortical and trabecular bone: implications for assessment of fracture risk. In: Mow VC, Hayes WC, editors. Basic orthopaedic biomechanics. New York: Raven Press, 1991: 93–142
55.
Goodship AE, Lanyon LE, McFie H. Functional adaptation of bone to increased stress. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1979 Jun; 61 (4): 539–46PubMed
56.
Beck BR. Tibial stress injuries: an aetiological review for the purposes of guiding management. Sports Med 1998 Oct; 26 (4): 265–79PubMedCrossRef
57.
Judex S, Gross T, Zernicke RF. Strain gradients correlate with sites of exercise-induced bone-forming surfaces in the adult skeleton. J Bone Min Res 1997 Oct; 12 (10): 1737–45CrossRef
58.
Gross TS, Edwards J, McLeod KJ, et al. Strain gradients correlate with sites of periosteal bone formation. J Bone Min Res 1997 Jun; 12 (6): 982–8CrossRef
59.
Milgrom C, Giladi M, Simkin A, et al. The area moment of inertia of the tibia: a risk factor for stress fractures. J Biomech 1989; 22 (11-12): 1243–8PubMedCrossRef
60.
Cordey J, Gautier E. Strain gauges used in the mechanical testing of bones: part I, theoretical and technical aspects. Int J Care Inj 1999; 30 Suppl. 1; A7–13
61.
Frost HM. From Wolff’s law to the Utah paradigm: insights about bone physiology and its clinical applications. Anat Rec 2001 Apr; 262 (4): 398–419PubMedCrossRef
62.
Frost HM. A 2003 update of bone physiology and Wolff’s law for clinicians. Angle Orthod 2004 Feb; 74 (1): 3–15PubMed
63.
Frost HM. From Wolff’s law to the mechanostat: a new “face” of physiology. J Orthop Sci 1998; 3 (5): 282–6PubMedCrossRef
64.
Forwood MR, Turner CH. The response of rat tibiae to incremental bouts of mechanical loading: a quantum concept for bone formation. Bone 1994 Nov-Dec; 15 (6): 603–9PubMedCrossRef
65.
Franklyn M, Oakes B, Field B, et al. Section modulus is the optimum geometric predictor for stress fractures and medial tibial stress syndrome in both male and female athletes. Am J Sports Med 2008 Jun; 36 (6): 1179–89PubMedCrossRef
66.
Paul IL, Murno MB, Abernethy PJ, et al. Musculo-skeletal shock absorption: relative contribution of bone and soft tissues at various frequencies. J Biomech 1978; 11 (5): 237–9PubMedCrossRef
67.
Radin EL. Role of muscles in protecting athletes from injury. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1986; 711: 143–7PubMed
68.
69.
70.
Milgrom C, Radeva-Petrova DR, Finestone A. The effect of muscle fatigue on in vivo tibial strains. J Biomech 2007; 40 (4): 845–50PubMedCrossRef
71.
Bhatt R, Lauder I, Finlay DB, et al. Correlation of bone scintigraphy and histological findings in medial tibial syndrome. Br J Sports Med 2000 Feb; 34 (1): 49–53PubMedCrossRef
72.
Johnell O, Rausing A, Wendeberg B, et al. Morphological bone changes in shin splints. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1982 Jul; 167: 180–4PubMed
73.
Bonewald LF. Mechanosensation and transduction in osteocytes. Bone Key-Osteovision 2006 Oct; 3 (10): 7–15CrossRef
74.
Han Y, Cowen SC, Schaffler MB, et al. Mechanotransduction and strain amplification in osteocyte cell processes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004 Nov 23; 101 (47): 16689–94PubMedCrossRef
75.
Nicolella DP, Moravits DE, Gale AM. Osteocyte lacunae tissue strain in cortical bone. J Biomech 2006; 39 (9): 1735–43PubMedCrossRef
76.
77.
Magnusson HI, Westlin NE, Nyqvist F, et al. Abnormally decreased regional bone density in athletes with medial tibial stress syndrome. Am J Sports Med 2001 Nov-Dec; 29 (6): 712–5PubMed
78.
Magnusson HI, Ahlborg HG, Karlsson C, et al. Low regional tibial bone density in athletes normalizes after recovery from symptoms. Am J Sports Med 2003 Jul-Aug; 31 (4): 596–600PubMed
79.
Kortebein PM, Kaufman KR, Basford JR, et al. Medial tibial stress syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000 Mar; 32Suppl. 3: S27–33
80.
Andrish JT. The shin splint syndrome. In: De Lee JC, Drez D, editors. Orthopaedic sports medicine. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2003: chapter 29, 2155–8
81.
Edwards PH, Wright ML, Hartman JF. A practical approach for the differential diagnosis of chronic leg pain in the athlete. Am J Sports Med 2005 Aug; 33(8): 1241–9PubMedCrossRef
82.
Puranen J, Alavaikko A. Intracompartmental pressure increase on exertion in patients with chronic compartment syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1981 Oct; 63 (8): 1304–9PubMed
83.
Wallensten R, Eklund B. Intramuscular pressures in exercise-induced lower leg pain. Int J Sports Med 1984 Feb; 5 (1): 31–5PubMedCrossRef
84.
D’Ambrosia RD, Zelis RF, Chuinard RG, et al. Interstitial pressure measurements in the anterior and posterior compartments in athletes with shin splints. Am J Sports Med 1977 May-Jun; 5 (3): 127–31PubMedCrossRef
85.
Greaney RB, Gerber FH, Laughlin RL, et al. Distribution and natural history of stress fractures in U.S. Marine recruits. Radiology 1983 Feb; 146 (2): 339–46PubMed
86.
Kiuru MJ, Pihlajamaki HK, Hietanen HJ, et al. MR imaging, bone scintigraphy and radiography in bone stress injuries of the pelvis and lower extremity. Acta Radiol 2002; 43: 207–12PubMedCrossRef
87.
Boden BP, Osbahr DC, Jimenez C. Low-risk stress fractures. Am J Sports Med 2001 Jan-Feb; 29 (1): 100–11PubMed
88.
Brukner P. Exercise related lower leg pain: bone. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000 Mar; 32 Suppl. 3: S15–26
89.
Zwas ST, Elkanovitch R, Frank G. Interpretation and classification of bone scintigraphic findings in stress fractures. J Nucl Med 1987 Apr; 28 (4): 452–7PubMed
90.
Matin P. Basic principles of nuclear medicine techniques for detection and evaluation of trauma and sports medicine injuries. Semin Nucl Med 1988 Apr; 18 (2): 90–112PubMedCrossRef
91.
Roub LW, Gumerman LW, Hanley EN, et al. Bone stress: a radionuclide imaging perspective. Radiology 1979 Aug; 132 (2): 431–8PubMed
92.
Drubach LA, Connoly LP, D’Hemecourt PA, et al. Assessment of the clinical significance of asymptomatic lower extremity uptake abnormality in young athletes. J Nucl Med 2001 Feb; 42 (2): 209–12PubMed
93.
Bergman AG, Fredericsson M, Ho C, et al. Asymptomatic tibial stress reactions: MRI detection and clinical follow-up in distance runners. AJR 2004 Sep; 183 (3): 635–8PubMed
94.
Redmond AC, Crosbie J, Ouvrier RA. Development and validation of a novel rating system for scoring standing foot posture: the Foot Posture Index. Clin Biomech 2006 Jan; 21 (1): 89–98CrossRef
95.
Keenan AM, Redmond AC, Horton M, et al. The Foot Posture Index: Rasch analysis of a novel, foot-specific outcome measure. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007 Jan; 88(1): 88–93PubMedCrossRef
96.
Bamman MM, Newcomer BR, Larson-Meyer DE, et al. Evaluation of the strength-size relationship in vivo using various muscle size indices. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000 Jul; 32 (7): 1307–13PubMedCrossRef
97.
Morris RH. Medial tibial syndrome: a treatment protocol using electric current. Chiropractic Sports Med 1991; 5 (1): 5–8
98.
Schulman RA. Tibial shin splints treated with a single acupuncture session: case report and review of the literature. J Am Med Acupuncture 2002; 13 (1): 7–9
99.
Järvinnen M, Niittymaki S. Results of the surgical treatment of the medial tibial stress syndrome in athletes. Int J Sports Med 1989 Feb; 10 (1): 55–7PubMedCrossRef
100.
Holen KJ, Engebretsen L, Grondvedt T, et al. Surgical treatment of medial tibial stress syndrome (shin splints) by fasciotomy of the superficial posterior compartment ofthe leg. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995 Feb; 5 (1): 40–3PubMedCrossRef
101.
Wallenstein R. Results of fasciotomy in patients with medial tibial stress syndrome or chronic anterior compartment syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1983 Dec; 65 (9): 1252–5
102.
Abramowitz AJ, Schepsis A, McArthur C. The medial tibial stress syndrome: the role of surgery. Orthop Rev 1994 Nov; 23 (11): 875–81PubMed
103.
Yates B, Allen MJ, Barnes MR. Outcome of surgical treatment of medial tibial stress syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2003 Oct; 85 (10): 1974–80PubMed
104.
O’Brien FJ, Hardiman DA, Hazenberg JG, et al. The behaviour of microcracks in compact bone. Eur J Morphol 2005 Feb-Apr; 42 (1-2): 71–9PubMedCrossRef
105.
Raesi Najafi A, Arshi AR, Eslami MR, et al. Micro-mechanics fracture in osteonal cortical bone: a study of the interactions between microcrack propagation, microstructure and the material properties. J Biomech 2007; 40 (12): 2788–95CrossRef
106.
Wang X, Masse DB, Leng H, et al. Detection of trabecular bone microdamage by micro-computed tomography. J Biomech 2007; 40 (15): 3397–403PubMedCrossRef
107.
Cole GK, Nigg BM, van den Bogert AJ. Transfer of eversion to internal leg rotation in running [abstract]. J Biomech 1994; 27 (6): 659. Presented at International Society of Biomechanics XIV Congress 1993CrossRef
108.
Hintermann B, Nigg BM. Pronation in runners: implications for injuries. Sports Med 1998 Sep; 26 (3): 169–76PubMedCrossRef
109.
DeSouza MJ, Williams NI. Physiological aspects and clinical sequelae of energy deficiency and hypoestrogenism in exercising women. Hum Reprod Update 2004 Sep-Oct; 10(5): 433–48PubMedCrossRef
110.
DeSouza MJ, Williams NI. Beyond hypoestrogenism in amenorrheic athletes: energy deficiency as a contributing factor for bone loss. Curr Sports Med Rep 2005 Feb; 4 (1): 38–44PubMed
Metadata
Title
Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome
A Critical Review
Authors
Dr Maarten H. Moen
Johannes L. Tol
Adam Weir
Miriam Steunebrink
Theodorus C. De Winter
Publication date
01-07-2009
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
Sports Medicine / Issue 7/2009
Print ISSN: 0112-1642
Electronic ISSN: 1179-2035
DOI
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200939070-00002

Other articles of this Issue 7/2009

Sports Medicine 7/2009 Go to the issue

Leading Article

Youth Sports in the Heat

Review Article

Physical Attributes, Physiological Characteristics, On-Court Performances and Nutritional Strategies of Female and Male Basketball Players

Review Article

Effect of Sensorimotor Training on Morphological, Neurophysiological and Functional Characteristics of the Ankle

Review Article

Shoulder Muscle Recruitment Patterns and Related Biomechanics during Upper Extremity Sports