Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress 2023 EHA Congress 2023 ASCO Annual Meeting
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

A round-up of the ONWARDS phase 3 clinical trials evaluating the novel weekly insulin icodec in people with diabetes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Sports Medicine
Published in: Sports Medicine 4/2005

01-04-2005 | Review Article

Hormonal Responses and Adaptations to Resistance Exercise and Training

Authors: Prof. William J. Kraemer, Nicholas A. Ratamess

Published in: Sports Medicine | Issue 4/2005

Login to get access

Abstract

Resistance exercise has been shown to elicit a significant acute hormonal response. It appears that this acute response is more critical to tissue growth and remodelling than chronic changes in resting hormonal concentrations, as many studies have not shown a significant change during resistance training despite increases in muscle strength and hypertrophy. Anabolic hormones such as testosterone and the superfamily of growth hormones (GH) have been shown to be elevated during 15–30 minutes of post-resistance exercise providing an adequate stimulus is present. Protocols high in volume, moderate to high in intensity, using short rest intervals and stressing a large muscle mass, tend to produce the greatest acute hormonal elevations (e.g. testosterone, GH and the catabolic hormone cortisol) compared with low-volume, high-intensity protocols using long rest intervals. Other anabolic hormones such as insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) are critical to skeletal muscle growth. Insulin is regulated by blood glucose and amino acid levels. However, circulating IGF-1 elevations have been reported following resistance exercise presumably in response to GH-stimulated hepatic secretion. Recent evidence indicates that muscle isoforms of IGF-1 may play a substantial role in tissue remodelling via up-regulation by mechanical signalling (i.e. increased gene expression resulting from stretch and tension to the muscle cytoskeleton leading to greater protein synthesis rates). Acute elevations in catecholamines are critical to optimal force production and energy liberation during resistance exercise. More recent research has shown the importance of acute hormonal elevations and mechanical stimuli for subsequent up- and down-regulation of cytoplasmic steroid receptors needed to mediate the hormonal effects. Other factors such as nutrition, overtraining, detraining and circadian patterns of hormone secretion are critical to examining the hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance training.
Literature
1.
Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Physiology of resistance training: current issues. Orthop Phys Ther Clin North Am Exerc Technol 2000; 9: 467–513
2.
Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Endocrine responses and adaptations to strength and power training. In: Komi PV, editor. Strength and power in sport. 2nd ed. Malden (MA): Blackwell Scientific Publications, 2003: 361–86CrossRef
3.
Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA, Rubin MR. Basic principles of resistance exercise. In: Jackson CR, editor. Nutrition and the strength athlete. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, 2000
4.
Sale DG. Neural adaptations to resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20 Suppl.: S135–45CrossRef
5.
Hickson RC, Hidaka K, Foster C, et al. Successive time courses of strength development and steroid hormone responses to heavy-resistance training. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 663–70PubMed
6.
Chandler RM, Byrne HK, Patterson JG, et al. Dietary supplements affect the anabolic hormones after weight-training exercise. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 839–45PubMed
7.
Weiss LW, Cureton KJ, Thompson FN. Comparison of serum testosterone and androstenedione responses to weight lifting in men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 1983; 50: 413–9CrossRef
8.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A. Acute hormonal responses to heavy resistance exercise in men and women at different ages. Int J Sports Med 1995; 16: 507–13PubMedCrossRef
9.
Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Bush JA, et al. Hormonal responses to consecutive days of heavy-resistance exercise with or without nutritional supplementation. J Appl Physiol 1998; 85: 1544–55PubMed
10.
Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Maresh CM, et al. Acute hormonal responses to a single bout of heavy resistance exercise in trained power lifters and untrained men. Can J Appl Physiol 1999; 24: 524–37PubMedCrossRef
11.
Tremblay MS, Copeland JL, Van Helder W. Effect of training status and exercise mode on endogenous steroid hormones in men. J Appl Physiol 2003; 96: 531–9PubMedCrossRef
12.
Ahtiainen JP, Pakarinen A, Kraemer WJ, et al. Acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses and recovery to forced vs maximum repetitions multiple resistance exercises. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24: 410–8PubMedCrossRef
13.
Cumming DC, Wall SR, Galbraith MA, et al. Reproductive hormone responses to resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 234–8PubMed
14.
Nindl BC, Kraemer WJ, Gotshalk LA, et al. Testosterone responses after resistance exercise in women: influence of regional fat distribution. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2001; 11: 451–65PubMed
15.
Jezova D, Vigas M. Testosterone response to exercise during blockade and stimulation of adrenergic receptors in man. Horm Res 1981; 15: 141–7PubMedCrossRef
16.
Lu SS, Lau CP, Tung YF, et al. Lactate and the effect of exercise on testosterone secretion: evidence for the involvement of a cAMP-mediated mechanism. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 1048–54PubMedCrossRef
17.
Lin H, Wang SW, Wang RY, et al. Stimulatory effect of lactate on testosterone production by rat Leydig cells. J Cell Biochem 2001; 83: 147–54PubMedCrossRef
18.
Fry AC, Kraemer WJ. Resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching: neuroendocrine responses. Sports Med 1997; 23: 106–29PubMedCrossRef
19.
Giustina A, Veldhuis JD. Pathophysiology of the neuroregulation of growth hormone secretion in experimental animals and the human. Endocrine Rev 1998; 19: 717–97CrossRef
20.
Nagaya N, Herrera AA. Effects of testosterone on synaptic efficacy at neuromuscular junctions in asexually dimorphic muscle of male frogs. J Physiol 1995; 483: 141–53PubMed
21.
Brooks BP, Merry DE, Paulson HL, et al. A cell culture model for androgen effects in motor neurons. J Neurochem 1998; 70: 1054–60PubMedCrossRef
22.
Durand RJ, Castracane VD, Hollander DB, et al. Hormonal responses from concentric and eccentric muscle contractions. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 937–43PubMedCrossRef
23.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Relationships between training volume, physical performance capacity, and serum hormone concentrations during prolonged training in elite weight lifters. Int J Sports Med 1987; 8 Suppl.: 61–5PubMedCrossRef
24.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Neuromuscular and hormonal responses in elite athletes to two successive strength training sessions in one day. Eur J Appl Physiol 1988; 57: 133–9CrossRef
25.
Kraemer WJ, Häkkinen K, Newton RU, et al. Effects of heavy-resistance training on hormonal response patterns in younger vs older men. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 982–92PubMed
26.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kraemer WJ, et al. Basal concentrations and acute responses of serum hormones and strength development during heavy resistance training in middle-aged and elderly men and women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55: B95–105CrossRef
27.
Volek JS, Kraemer WJ, Bush JA, et al. Testosterone and cortisol in relationship to dietary nutrients and resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1997; 8: 49–54
28.
Hansen S, Kvorning T, Kjaer M, et al. The effect of short-term strength training on human skeletal muscle: the importance of physiologically elevated hormone levels. Scand J Med Sci Sport 2001; 11: 347–54CrossRef
29.
Kraemer WJ, Marchitelli L, Gordon SE, et al. Hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise protocols. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 1442–50PubMed
30.
Kraemer WJ, Gordon SE, Fleck SJ, et al. Endogenous anabolic hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise in males and females. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12: 228–35PubMedCrossRef
31.
Raastad T, Bjoro T, Hallen J. Hormonal responses to high- and moderate-intensity strength exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 121–8PubMedCrossRef
32.
Schwab R, Johnson GO, Housh TJ, et al. Acute effects of different intensities of weight lifting on serum testosterone. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 1381–5PubMed
33.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A. Acute hormonal responses to two different fatiguing heavy-resistance protocols in male athletes. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 882–7PubMed
34.
Bosco C, Colli R, Bonomi R, et al. Monitoring strength training: neuromuscular and hormonal profile. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 202–8PubMed
35.
Ratamess NA, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, et al. Effects of heavy resistance exercise volume on post-exercise androgen receptor content in resistance-trained men. J Steroid Biochem Molec Biol 2005 93: 35–42PubMedCrossRef
36.
Gotshalk LA, Loebel CC, Nindl BC, et al. Hormonal responses to multiset versus single-set heavy-resistance exercise protocols. Can J Appl Physiol 1997; 22: 244–55PubMedCrossRef
37.
Kraemer WJ, Staron RS, Hagerman FC, et al. The effects of short-term resistance training on endocrine function in men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 78: 69–76CrossRef
38.
Kraemer WJ, Fry AC, Warren BJ, et al. Acute hormonal responses in elite junior weightlifters. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 103–9PubMedCrossRef
39.
Fahey TD, Rolph R, Moungmee P, et al. Serum testosterone, body composition, and strength of young adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1976; 8: 31–4
40.
Ballor DL, Becque MD, Katch VL. Metabolic responses during hydraulic resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 363–7PubMed
41.
Guezennec Y, Leger L, Lhoste F, et al. Hormone and metabolite response to weight-lifting training sessions. Int J Sports Med 1986; 7: 100–5PubMedCrossRef
42.
Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, French DN, et al. The effects of L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on hormonal responses to resistance exercise and recovery. J Strength Cond Res 2003; 17: 455–62PubMed
43.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Daily hormonal and neuromuscular responses to intensive strength training in 1 week. Int J Sports Med 1988; 9: 422–8PubMedCrossRef
44.
Craig BW, Brown R, Everhart J. Effects of progressive resistance training on growth hormone and testosterone levels in young and elderly subjects. Mech Ageing Dev 1989; 49: 159–69PubMedCrossRef
45.
Ahtiainen JP, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Muscle hypertrophy, hormonal adaptations and strength development during strength training in strength-trained and untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 555–63PubMedCrossRef
46.
Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Dziados JE, et al. Changes in hormonal concentrations after different heavy-resistance exercise protocols in women. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 594–604PubMed
47.
Stoessel L, Stone MH, Keith R, et al. Selected physiological, psychological and performance characteristics of national-caliber United States women weightlifters. J Appl Sport Sci Res 1991; 5: 87–95
48.
Alen M, Pakarinen A, Häkkinen K, et al. Responses of serum androgenic-anabolic and catabolic hormones to prolonged strength training. Int J Sports Med 1988; 9: 229–33PubMedCrossRef
49.
Potteiger JA, Judge LW, Cerny JA, et al. Effects of altering training volume and intensity on body mass, performance, and hormonal concentrations in weight-event athletes. J Strength Cond Res 1995; 9: 55–8
50.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kyrolainen H, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations and serum hormones in females during prolonged power training. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 91–8PubMedCrossRef
51.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kallinen M. Neuromuscular adaptations and serum hormones in women during short-term intensive strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 106–11CrossRef
52.
Tsolakis C, Messinis D, Stergioulas A, et al. Hormonal responses after strength training and detraining in prepubertal and pubertal boys. J Strength Cond Res 2000; 14: 399–404
53.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations in athletes to strength training in two years. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65: 2406–12PubMed
54.
Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 1247–55PubMed
55.
Marx JO, Ratamess NA, Nindl BC, et al. Low-volume circuit versus high-volume periodized resistance training in women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 635–43PubMedCrossRef
56.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Serum hormones during prolonged training of neuromuscular performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 53: 287–93CrossRef
57.
Reaburn P, Logan P, Mackinnon L. Serum testosterone response to high-intensity resistance training in male veteran sprint runners. J Strength Cond Res 1997; 11: 256–60
58.
McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Fleck SJ, et al. Acute and chronic hormonal responses to resistance training designed to promote muscle hypertrophy. Can J Appl Physiol 1999; 24: 96–107PubMedCrossRef
59.
Raastad T, Glomsheller T, Bjoro T, et al. Changes in human skeletal muscle contractility and hormone status during 2 weeks of heavy strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 84: 54–63PubMedCrossRef
60.
Dorlochter M, Astrow SH, Herrera AA. Effects of testosterone on a sexually dimorphic frog muscle: repeated in vivo observations and androgen receptor distribution. J Neurobiol 1994; 25: 897–916PubMedCrossRef
61.
Bricout VA, Serrurier BD, Bigard AX, et al. Effects of hindlimb suspension and androgen treatment on testosterone receptors in rat skeletal muscles. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 79: 443–8CrossRef
62.
Bricout VA, Germain PS, Serrurier BD, et al. Changes in testosterone muscle receptors: effects of an androgen treatment on physically trained rats. Cell Mol Biol 1994; 40: 291–4PubMed
63.
Lu Y, Tong Q, He L. The effects of exercise on the androgen receptor binding capacity and the level of testosterone in the skeletal muscle. Zhongguo Ying Yong Sheng Li Xue Za Zhi 1997; 13: 198–201PubMed
64.
Deschenes MR, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, et al. Endurance and resistance exercise induce muscle fiber type specific responses in androgen binding capacity. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1994; 50: 175–9PubMedCrossRef
65.
Inoue K, Yamasaki S, Fushiki T, et al. Rapid increase in the number of androgen receptors following electrical stimulation of the rat muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol 1993; 66: 134–40CrossRef
66.
Inoue K, Yamasaki S, Fushiki T, et al. Androgen receptor antagonist suppresses exercise-induced hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 69: 88–91CrossRef
67.
Bamman MM, Shipp JR, Jiang J, et al. Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-1 and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans. Am J Physiol 2001; 280: E383–90
68.
Kadi F, Bonnerud P, Eriksson A, et al. The expression of androgen receptors in human neck and limb muscles: effects of training and self-administration of androgenic-anabolic steroids. Histochem Cell Biol 2000; 113: 25–9PubMedCrossRef
69.
Biolo G, Maggi SP, Williams BD, et al. Increased rates of muscle protein turnover and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol 1995; 268: E514–20
70.
Busso T, Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, et al. Hormonal adaptations and modeled responses in elite weightlifters during 6 weeks of training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 381–6CrossRef
71.
Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A. Serum hormones in male strength athletes during intensive short term strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1991; 63: 191–9CrossRef
72.
Broeder CE. Oral andro-related prohormone supplementation: do the potential risks outweigh the benefits? Can J Appl Physiol 2003; 28: 102–16PubMedCrossRef
73.
Delbeke FT, Van Eenoo P, Van Thuyne W, et al. Prohormones and sport. J Steroid Biochem 2003; 83: 245–51
74.
King DS, Sharp RL, Vukovich MD, et al. Effect of oral androstenedione on serum testosterone and adaptations to resistance training in young men: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 281: 2020–8PubMedCrossRef
75.
Ballantyne CS, Phillips SM, MacDonald JR, et al. The acute effects of androstenedione supplementation in healthy young males. Can J Appl Physiol 2000; 25: 68–78PubMedCrossRef
76.
Wallace MB, Lim J, Cutler A, et al. Effects of dehydroepiandrosterone vs androstenedione supplementation in men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 1788–92PubMedCrossRef
77.
Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Sharp RL, et al. Effect of oral DHEA on serum testosterone and adaptations to resistance training. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 2274–83PubMed
78.
Leder BZ, Longscope C, Catlin DH, et al. Oral androstenedione administration and serum testosterone concentrations in young men. JAMA 2000; 283: 779–82PubMedCrossRef
79.
Leder BZ, Leblanc KM, Longscope C, et al. Effects of oral androstenedione administration on serum testosterone and estradiol levels in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 5449–54PubMedCrossRef
80.
Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Martini ER, et al. Endocrine and lipid responses to chronic androstenediol-herbal supplementation in 30 to 58 year old men. J Am Coll Nutr 2001; 20: 520–8PubMed
81.
Earnest CP, Olson MA, Broeder CE, et al. In vivo 4-androstene-3,17-dione and 4-androstene-3β,17β-diol supplementation in young men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81: 229–32PubMedCrossRef
82.
Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Reifenrath TA, et al. Effects of anabolic precursors on serum testosterone concentrations and adaptations to resistance training in young men. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2000; 10: 340–59PubMed
83.
Leder BZ, Catlin DH, Longscope C, et al. Metabolism of orally administered androstenedione in young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 3654–8PubMedCrossRef
84.
Brown GA, Martini ER, Roberts BS, et al. Acute hormonal response to sublingual androstenediol intake in young men. J Appl Physiol 2002; 92: 142–6PubMed
85.
Broeder CE, Quindry J, Brittingham K, et al. The Andro project: physiological and hormonal influences of androstenedione supplementation in men 35 to 65 years old participating in a high-intensity resistance training program. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 3093–104PubMedCrossRef
86.
Van Gammeren D, Falk D, Antonio J. The effects of supplementation with 19-nor-4-androstene-3,17-dione and 19-nor-4-androstene-3,17-diol on body composition and athletic performance in previously weight-trained male athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 84: 426–31PubMedCrossRef
87.
Van Gammeren D, Falk D, Antonio J. Effects of norandrostenedione and norandrostenediol in resistance-trained men. Nutrition 2002; 18: 734–7PubMedCrossRef
88.
Rasmussen BB, Volpi E, Gore DC, et al. Androstenedione does not stimulate muscle protein anabolism in young healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 55–9PubMedCrossRef
89.
Longscope C. Dehydroepiandrosterone metabolism. J Endocrinol 1996; 150: S125–7
90.
Aizawa K, Akimoto T, Inoue H, et al. Resting serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate level increases after 8-week resistance training among young females. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90: 575–80PubMedCrossRef
91.
Kahn SM, Hryb DJ, Nakhla AM, et al. Sex hormone-binding globulin is synthesized in target cells. J Endocrinol 2002; 175: 113–20PubMedCrossRef
92.
Kraemer WJ, Mazzetti SA. Hormonal mechanisms related to the expression of muscular strength and power. In: Komi PV, editor. Strength and power in sport. 2nd ed. Malden (MA): Blackwell Science, 2003: 73–95CrossRef
93.
Wallace JD, Cuneo RC, Bidlingmaier M, et al. The response of molecular isoforms of growth hormone to acute exercise in trained adult males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 200–6PubMedCrossRef
94.
McCall GE, Goulet EC, Grindeland RE, et al. Bed rest suppresses bioassayable growth hormone release in response to muscle activity. J Appl Physiol 1997; 83: 2086–90PubMed
95.
McCall GE, Grindeland RE, Roy RR, et al. Muscle afferent activity modulates bioassayable growth hormone in human plasma. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1137–41PubMed
96.
Nindl BC, Kraemer WJ, Hymer WC. Immunofunctional vs immunoreactive growth hormone responses after resistance exercise in men and women. Growth Horm IGF Res 2000; 10: 99–103PubMedCrossRef
97.
Hymer WC, Kraemer WJ, Nindl BC, et al. Characteristics of circulating growth hormone in women after acute heavy resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001; 281: E878–87
98.
Kraemer WJ, Rubin MR, Häkkinen K, et al. Influence of muscle strength and total work on exercise-induced plasma growth hormone isoforms in women. J Sci Med Sport 2003; 6: 295–306PubMedCrossRef
99.
Vanhelder WP, Radomski MW, Goode RC. Growth hormone responses during intermittent weight lifting exercise in men. Eur J Appl Physiol 1984; 53: 31–4CrossRef
100.
Pyka G, Wiswell RA, Marcus R. Age-dependent effect of resistance exercise on growth hormone secretion in people. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 75: 404–7PubMedCrossRef
101.
Hoffman JR, Im J, Rundell KW, et al. Effect of muscle oxygenation during resistance exercise on anabolic hormone response. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 1929–34PubMedCrossRef
102.
Taylor JM, Thompson HS, Clarkson PM, et al. Growth hormone response to an acute bout of resistance exercise in weight-trained and non-weight-trained women. J Strength Cond Res 2000; 14: 220–7
103.
Rubin MR, Kraemer WJ, Maresh CM, et al. High-affinity growth hormone binding protein and acute heavy resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 395–403PubMedCrossRef
104.
Craig BW, Kang H. Growth hormone release following single versus multiple sets of back squats: total work versus power. J Strength Cond Res 1994; 8: 270–5
105.
Mulligan SE, Fleck SJ, Gordon SE, et al. Influence of resistance exercise volume on serum growth hormone and cortisol concentrations in women. J Strength Cond Res 1996; 10: 256–62
106.
Gordon SE, Kraemer WJ, Vos NH, et al. Effect of acid-base balance on the growth hormone response to acute high-intensity cycle exercise. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 821–9PubMed
107.
Zafeiridis A, Smilios I, Considine RV, et al. Serum leptin responses after acute resistance exercise protocols. J Appl Physiol 2003; 94: 591–7PubMed
108.
Smilios I, Pilianidis T, Karamouzis M, et al. Hormonal responses after various resistance exercise protocols. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 644–54PubMedCrossRef
109.
Williams AG, Ismail AN, Sharma A, et al. Effects of resistance exercise volume and nutritional supplementation on anabolic and catabolic hormones. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 86: 315–21PubMedCrossRef
110.
Goto K, Sato K, Takamatsu K. A single set of low intensity resistance exercise immediately following high intensity resistance exercise stimulates growth hormone secretion in men. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2003; 43: 243–9PubMed
111.
Kraemer WJ, Dudley GA, Tesch PA, et al. The influence of muscle action on the acute growth hormone response to resistance exercise and short-term detraining. Growth Horm IGF Res 2001; 11: 75–83PubMedCrossRef
112.
Ju G. Evidence for direct neural regulation of the mammalian anterior pituitary. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1999; 26: 757–9PubMedCrossRef
113.
Zhang Y, Jiang J, Black RA, et al. Tumor necrosis factor-α converting enzyme (TACE) is a growth hormone-binding protein (GHBP) sheddase: the metalloprotease TACE/ADAM-17 is critical for (PMA-induced) GH receptor proteolysis and GHBP generation. Endocrinology 2000; 141: 4342–8PubMedCrossRef
114.
Boone JB, Lambert CP, Flynn MG, et al. Resistance exercise effects on plasma cortisol, testosterone and creatine kinase activity in anabolic-androgenic steroid users. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 293–7PubMedCrossRef
115.
Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Callister R, et al. Training responses of plasma beta-endorphin, adrenocorticotropin, and cortisol. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 146–53PubMed
116.
Kraemer WJ, Dziados JE, Marchitelli LJ, et al. Effects of different heavy-resistance exercise protocols on plasma β-endorphin concentrations. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 450–9PubMed
117.
Kraemer WJ, Noble BJ, Clark MJ, et al. Physiologic responses to heavy-resistance exercise with very short rest periods. Int J Sports Med 1987; 8: 247–52PubMedCrossRef
118.
Kraemer WJ, Clemson A, Triplett NT, et al. The effects of plasma cortisol elevation on total and differential leukocyte counts in response to heavy-resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 93–7CrossRef
119.
Tarpenning KM, Wiswell RA, Hawkins SA, et al. Influence of weight training exercise and modification of hormonal response on skeletal muscle growth. J Sci Med Sport 2001; 4: 431–46PubMedCrossRef
120.
Haff GG, Lehmkuhl MJ, McCoy LB, et al. Carbohydrate supplementation and resistance training. J Strength Cond Res 2003; 17: 187–96PubMed
121.
Fry AC, Kraemer WJ, Stone MH, et al. Endocrine responses to overreaching before and after 1 year of weightlifting. Can J Appl Physiol 1994; 19: 400–10PubMedCrossRef
122.
Crowley MA, Matt KS. Hormonal regulation of skeletal muscle hypertrophy in rats: the testosterone to cortisol ratio. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 66–72CrossRef
123.
Häkkinen K. Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations during strength and power training: a review. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1989; 29: 9–26PubMed
124.
Hickson RC, Czerwinski SM, Falduto MT, et al. Glucocorticoid antagonism by exercise and androgenic-anabolic steroids. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 331–40PubMed
125.
Mayer M, Rosen F. Interaction of anabolic steroids with glucocorticoid receptor site in rat muscle cytosol. Am J Physiol 1975; 229: 1381–6PubMed
126.
Willoughby DS, Taylor M, Taylor L. Glucocorticoid receptor and ubiquitin expression after repeated eccentric exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 2023–31PubMedCrossRef
127.
Fedele MJ, Lang CH, Farrell PA. Immunization against IGF-1 prevents increases in protein synthesis in diabetic rats after resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001; 280: E877–85
128.
Kraemer WJ, Aguilera BA, Terada M, et al. Responses of IGF-1 to endogenous increases in growth hormone after heavy-resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79: 1310–5PubMed
129.
Koziris LP, Hickson RC, Chatterton RT, et al. Serum levels of total and free IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 are increased and maintained in long-term training. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1436–42PubMed
130.
Borst SE, De Hoyos DV, Garzarella L, et al. Effects of resistance training on insulin-like growth factor-I and IGF binding proteins. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 648–53PubMed
131.
Raastad T, Glomsheller T, Bjoro T, et al. Recovery of skeletal muscle contractility and hormonal responses to strength exercise after two weeks of high-volume strength training. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2003; 13: 159–68PubMedCrossRef
132.
Adams GR. Role of insulin-like growth factor-I in the regulation of skeletal muscle adaptation to increased loading. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1998; 26: 31–60CrossRef
133.
Goldspink G. Changes in muscle mass and phenotype and the expression of autocrine and systemic growth factors by muscle in response to stretch and overload. J Anat 1999; 194: 323–34PubMedCrossRef
134.
Hameed M, Orrel RW, Cobbold G, et al. Expression of IGF-1 splice variants in young and old human skeletal muscle after high resistance exercise. J Physiol 2003; 547: 247–54PubMedCrossRef
135.
Brahm H, Piehl-Aulin K, Saltin B, et al. Net fluxes over working thigh of hormones, growth factors and biomarkers of bone metabolism during short lasting dynamic exercise. Calcif Tissue Int 1997; 60: 175–80PubMedCrossRef
136.
Nindl BC, Kraemer WJ, Marx JO, et al. Overnight responses of the circulating IGF-1 system after acute heavy-resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 2001; 90: 1319–26PubMed
137.
Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, et al. An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 1997; 273: E122–9
138.
139.
Borsheim E, Cree MG, Tipton KD, et al. Effect of carbohydrate intake on net muscle protein synthesis during recovery from resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96: 674–8PubMedCrossRef
140.
Thyfault JP, Carper MJ, Richmond SR, et al. Effects of liquid carbohydrate ingestion on markers of anabolism following high-intensity resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res 2004; 18: 174–9PubMed
141.
Volek JS, Ratamess NA, Rubin MR, et al. The effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance and body composition responses to short-term resistance training overreaching. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 91: 628–37PubMedCrossRef
142.
Bush JA, Kraemer WJ, Mastro AM, et al. Exercise and recovery responses of adrenal medullary neurohormones to heavy resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 554–9PubMedCrossRef
143.
Eliot DL, Goldberg L, Watts WJ, et al. Resistance exercise and plasma beta-endorphin/beta-lipotrophin immunoreactivity. Life Sci 1984; 34: 515–8CrossRef
144.
Walberg-Rankin J, Franke WD, Gwazdauskas FC. Response of beta-endorphin and estradiol to resistance exercise females during energy balance and energy restriction. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 542–7PubMedCrossRef
145.
Kraemer RR, Acevedo EO, Dzewaltowski D, et al. Effects of low-volume resistive exercise on beta-endorphin and cortisol concentrations. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17: 12–6PubMedCrossRef
146.
Pierce EF, Eastman NW, Tripathi HT, et al. Plasma beta-endorphin immunoreactivity: response to resistance exercise. J Sport Sci 1993; 11: 499–502CrossRef
147.
Pierce EF, Eastman NW, McGowan RW, et al. Resistance exercise decreases beta-endorphin immunoreactivity. Br J Sports Med 1994; 28: 164–6PubMedCrossRef
148.
Goldfarb AH, Hatfield BD, Armstrong D, et al. Plasma beta-endorphin concentration: response to intensity and duration of exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 241–4PubMed
149.
Cardone A, Angelini F, Esposito T, et al. The expression of androgen receptor messenger RNA is regulated by tri-iodothyronine in lizard testis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2000; 72: 133–41PubMedCrossRef
150.
Pakarinen A, Alen M, Häkkinen K, et al. Serum thyroid hormones, thyrotropin and thyroxine binding globulin during prolonged strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1988; 57: 394–8CrossRef
151.
Simsch C, Lormes W, Petersen KG, et al. Training intensity influences leptin and thyroid hormones in highly trained rowers. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 422–7PubMedCrossRef
152.
Pakarinen A, Häkkinen K, Alen M. Serum thyroid hormones, thyrotropin, and thyroxine binding globulin in elite athletes during very intense strength training of one week. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1991; 31: 142–6PubMed
153.
Alen M, Pakarinen A, Häkkinen K. Effects of prolonged training on serum thyrotropin and thyroid hormones in elite strength athletes. J Sport Sci 1993; 11: 493–7CrossRef
154.
Mannix ET, Palange P, Aronoff GR, et al. Atrial natriuretic peptide and the renin-aldosterone axis during exercise in man. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 785–9PubMed
155.
Convertino VA, Keil LC, Bernauer EM, et al. Plasma volume, osmolality, vasopressin, and renin activity during graded exercise in man. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50: 123–8PubMed
156.
Gordon NF, Russell HMS, Krüger PE, et al. Thermoregulatory responses to weight training. Int J Sports Med 1985; 6: 145–50PubMedCrossRef
157.
Collins MA, Hill DW, Cureton KJ, et al. Plasma volume change during heavy-resistance weight lifting. Eur J Appl Physiol 1986; 55: 44–8CrossRef
158.
Kalra SP, Dube MG, Pu S, et al. Interacting appetite-regulating pathways in the hypothalamic regulation of body weight. Endocrine Rev 1999; 20: 68–100CrossRef
159.
Considine RV, Sinha MK, Heiman ML, et al. Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 292–5PubMedCrossRef
160.
161.
Rolf C, von Eckardstein S, Koken U, et al. Testosterone substitution of hypogonadal men prevents the age-dependent increases in body mass index, body fat and leptin seen in healthy ageing men: results of a cross-sectional study. Eur J Endocrinol 2002; 146: 505–11PubMedCrossRef
162.
Lovejoy JC, Bray GA, Greeson CS, et al. Oral anabolic steroid treatment, but not parenteral androgen treatment, decreases abdominal fat in obese, older men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1995; 19: 614–24PubMed
163.
Jockenhovel F, Blum WF, Vogel E, et al. Testosterone substitution normalizes elevated serum leptin levels in hypogonadal males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 2510–3PubMedCrossRef
164.
Gippini A, Mato A, Peino R, et al. Effect of resistance exercise (body building) training on serum leptin levels in young men. Implications for relationship between body mass index and serum leptin. J Endocrinol Invest 1999; 22: 824–8PubMed
165.
Nindl BC, Kraemer WJ, Arciero PJ, et al. Leptin concentrations experience a delayed reduction after resistance exercise in men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 608–13PubMedCrossRef
166.
Tena-Sempere M, Manna PR, Zhang FP, et al. Molecular mechanisms of leptin action in adult rat testis: potential targets for leptin-induced inhibition of steroidogenesis and pattern of leptin receptor messenger ribonucleic acid expression. J Endocrinol 2001; 170: 413–23PubMedCrossRef
167.
Isidori AM, Caprio M, Strollo F, et al. Leptin and androgens in male obesity: evidence for leptin contribution to reduced androgen levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 3673–80PubMedCrossRef
168.
Lima N, Cavaliere H, Knobel M, et al. Decreased androgen levels in massively obese men may be associated with impaired function of the gonadostat. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 1433–7PubMedCrossRef
169.
Triplett-McBride NT, Mastro AM, McBride JM, et al. Plasma proenkephalin peptide F and human B cell responses to exercise stress in fit and unfit women. Peptides 1998; 19: 731–8PubMedCrossRef
170.
Kraemer WJ, Noble B, Culver B, et al. Changes in plasma proenkephalin peptide F and catecholamine levels during graded exercise in men. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1985; 82: 6349–51PubMedCrossRef
171.
Fry AC, Kraemer WJ, Ramsey LT. Pituitary-adrenal-gonadal responses to high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining. J Appl Physiol 1998; 85: 2352–9PubMed
172.
Notelowitz M. Estrogen therapy and osteoporosis: principles and practice. Am J Med Sci 1997; 313: 2–12CrossRef
173.
Kendall B, Eston R. Exercise-induced muscle damage and the potential protective role of estrogen. Sports Med 2002; 32: 103–23PubMedCrossRef
174.
Davies BN, Elford JC, Jamieson KF. Variations in performance in simple muscle tests at different phases of the menstrual cycle. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1991; 31: 532–7PubMed
175.
Sarwar R, Niclos BB, Rutherford OM. Changes in muscle strength, relaxation rate and fatigability during the human menstrual cycle. J Physiol 1996; 493: 267–72PubMed
176.
Friden C, Hirschberg AL, Saartok T. Muscle strength and endurance do not significantly vary across phases of the menstrual cycle in moderately active premenopausal women. Clin J Sport Med 2003; 13: 238–41PubMedCrossRef
177.
Elliott KJ, Cable NT, Reilly T, et al. Effect of menstrual cycle phase on the concentration of bioavailable 17-beta oestradiol and testosterone and muscle strength. Clin Sci 2003; 105: 663–9PubMedCrossRef
178.
Janes de Jonge XA, Boot CR, Thom JM, et al. The influence of menstrual cycle phase on skeletal muscle contractile characteristics in humans. J Physiol 2001; 530: 161–6CrossRef
179.
Kraemer RR, Heleniak RJ, Tryniecki JL, et al. Follicular and luteal phase hormonal responses to low-volume resistive exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 809–17PubMed
180.
Fry AC, Kraemer WJ, Van Borselen F, et al. Catecholamine responses to short-term high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77: 941–6PubMed
181.
Hortobagyi T, Houmard JA, Stevenson JR, et al. The effects of detraining on power athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 929–35PubMed
182.
Kraemer WJ, Koziris LP, Ratamess NA, et al. Detraining produces minimal changes in physical performance and hormonal variables in recreationally strength-trained men. J Strength Cond Res 2002; 16: 373–82PubMed
183.
Kraemer WJ, Loebel CC, Volek JS, et al. The effect of heavy resistance exercise on the circadian rhythm of salivary testosterone in men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 84: 13–8PubMedCrossRef
184.
McMurray RG, Eubank TK, Hackney AC. Nocturnal hormonal responses to resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 72: 121–6CrossRef
185.
Nindl BC, Hymer WC, Deaver DR, et al. Growth hormone pulsatility profile characteristics following acute heavy resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 2001; 91: 163–72PubMed
186.
Kraemer WJ, Patton JF, Gordon SE, et al. Compatibility of high-intensity strength and endurance training on hormonal and skeletal muscle adaptations. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78: 976–89PubMed
187.
Bell GJ, Syrotuik D, Martin TP, et al. Effect of concurrent strength and endurance training on skeletal muscle properties and hormone concentrations in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81: 418–27PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Hormonal Responses and Adaptations to Resistance Exercise and Training
Authors
Prof. William J. Kraemer
Nicholas A. Ratamess
Publication date
01-04-2005
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
Sports Medicine / Issue 4/2005
Print ISSN: 0112-1642
Electronic ISSN: 1179-2035
DOI
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200535040-00004