Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Sports Medicine
Published in: Sports Medicine 13/2001

01-11-2001 | Leading Article

Antioxidants in Exercise Nutrition

Author: Dr Chandan K. Sen

Published in: Sports Medicine | Issue 13/2001

Login to get access

Abstract

Physical exercise may be associated with a 10- to 20-fold increase in whole body oxygen uptake. Oxygen flux in the active peripheral skeletal muscle fibres may increase by as much as 100- to 200-fold during exercise. Studies during the past 2 decades suggest that during strenuous exercise, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is elevated to a level that overwhelms tissue antioxidant defence systems. The result is oxidative stress. The magnitude of the stress depends on the ability of the tissues to detoxify ROS, that is, antioxidant defences. Antioxidants produced by the body act in concert with their exogenous, mainly dietary, counterparts to provide protection against the ravages of reactive oxygen as well as nitrogen species. Antioxidant supplementation is likely to provide beneficial effects against exercise-induced oxidative tissue damage. While universal recommendations specifying types and dosages of antioxidants are difficult to make, it would be prudent for competitive athletes routinely engaged in strenuous exercise to seek an estimate of individual requirement.
A new dimension in oxidant biology has recently unfolded. Although excessive oxidants may cause damage to tissues, lower levels of oxidants in biological cells may act as messenger molecules enabling the function of numerous physiological processes. It is plausible that some exercise-induced beneficial effects are actually oxidant-mediated. Such developments call for an even more careful analysis of the overall significance of types and amounts of antioxidants in diet. While these complexities pose significant challenges, experts agree that if used prudently, oxidants and antioxidants may serve as potent therapeutic tools. Efforts to determine individual needs of athletes and a balanced diet rich in antioxidant supplements are highly recommended.
Literature
1.
Astrand P-O, Rodahl K. Textbook of work physiology. New York (NY): McGraw Hill, 1986
2.
Keul J, Doll E, Koppler D. Energy metabolism and human muscle. Basel: S. Karger, 1972
3.
Dillard CJ, Litov RE, Savin WM, et al. Effects of exercise, vitamin E, and ozone on pulmonary function and lipid peroxidation. J Appl Physiol 1978; 45: 927–32PubMed
4.
Davies KJ, Quintanilha AT, Brooks GA, et al. Free radicals and tissue damage produced by exercise. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1982; 107: 1198–205PubMedCrossRef
5.
Sen CK, Packer L, Hanninen O, editors. Exercise and oxygen toxicity. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1994
6.
Sen CK, Packer L, Hanninen O, editors. Handbook of oxidants and antioxidants in exercise. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2000
7.
Bergholm R, Makimattila S, Valkonen M, et al. Intense physical training decreases circulating antioxidants and endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in vivo. Atherosclerosis 1999; 145: 341–9PubMedCrossRef
8.
Atsumi T, Iwakura I, Kashiwagi Y, et al. Free radical scavenging activity in the nonenzymatic fraction of human saliva: a simple DPPH assay showing the effect of physical exercise. Antioxid Redox Signal 1999; 1: 537–46PubMedCrossRef
9.
Liu J, Yeo HC, Overvik-Douki E, et al. Chronically and acutely exercised rats: biomarkers of oxidative stress and endogenous antioxidants. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 21–8PubMed
10.
Wilson DO, Johnson P. Exercise modulates antioxidant enzyme gene expression in rat myocardium and liver. J Appl Physiol 2000; 88: 1791–6PubMed
11.
Atalay M, Sen CK. Physical exercise and antioxidant defenses in the heart. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 874: 169–77PubMedCrossRef
12.
Groussard C, Morel I, Chevanne M, et al. Free radical scavenging and antioxidant effects of lactate ion: an in vitro study. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 169–75PubMed
13.
Mikami T, Yoshino Y, Ito A. Does a relationship exist between the urate pool in the body and lipid peroxidation during exercise? Free Radic Res 2000; 32: 31–9PubMedCrossRef
14.
Engelhardt JF. Redox-mediated gene therapies for environmental injury: approaches and concepts. Antioxid Redox Signal 1999; 1: 5–27PubMedCrossRef
15.
Sen CK, Sies H, Baeuerle PA, editors. Antioxidant and redox regulation of genes. San Diego (CA): Academic Press, 2000
16.
Sen CK. Oxidants and antioxidants in exercise. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79: 675–86PubMed
17.
Floyd RA. Measurement of oxidative stress in vivo. In: Davies KJA, Ursini F, editors. The oxygen paradox. Padova: CLEUP University Press, 1995: 89–103
18.
Levine RL, Stadtman ER. Protein modifications with aging. In: Schneider EL, Rowe JW, editors. Handbook of the biology of aging. San Diego (CA): Academic Press, 1996: 184–97
19.
Reznick AZ, Witt E, Matsumoto M, et al. Vitamin E inhibits protein oxidation in skeletal muscle of resting and exercised rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992; 189: 801–6PubMedCrossRef
20.
Sen CK, Atalay M, Agren J, et al. Fish oil and vitamin E supplementation in oxidative stress at rest and after physical exercise. J Appl Physiol 1997; 83: 189–95PubMed
21.
Rajguru SU, Yeargans GS, Seidler NW. Exercise causes oxidative damage to rat skeletal muscle microsomes while increasing cellular sulfhydryls. Life Sci 1994; 54: 149–57PubMedCrossRef
22.
Sen CK, Kolosova I, Hanninen O, et al. Inward potassium transport systems in skeletal muscle derived cells are highly sensitive to oxidant exposure. Free Radic Biol Med 1995; 18: 795–800PubMedCrossRef
23.
Ames BN, Shigenaga MK, Hagen TM. Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1993; 90: 7915–22PubMedCrossRef
24.
Alessio HM, Cutler RG. Evidence that DNA damage and repair cycle activity increases following a marathon race. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 25: 218–24
25.
Smith JA, Telford RD, Mason IB, et al. Exercise training and neutrophil microbicidal activity. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 179–87PubMedCrossRef
26.
Sen CK, Rankinen T, Vaisanen S, et al. Oxidative stress after human exercise: effect of N-acetylcysteine supplementation [published erratum appears in J Appl Physiol 1994 Nov; 77 (5): following table of contents and 1994 Dec; 77 (6): following volume table of contents]. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 2570–7PubMed
27.
Viguie CA, Frei B, Shigenaga MK, et al. Antioxidant status and indexes of oxidative stress during consecutive days of exercise. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 566–72PubMed
28.
Hartmann A, Niess AM, Grunert-Fuchs M, et al. Vitamin E prevents exercise-induced DNA damage. Mutat Res 1995; 346: 195–202PubMedCrossRef
29.
Poulsen HE, Loft S, Vistisen K. Extreme exercise and oxidative DNA modification. J Sports Sci 1996; 14: 343–6PubMedCrossRef
30.
Pincemail J, Deby C, Camus G, et al. Tocopherol mobilization during intensive exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1988; 57: 189–91CrossRef
31.
Khaira HS, Maxwell SR, Shearman CP. Antioxidant consumption during exercise in intermittent claudication. Br J Surg 1995; 82: 1660–2PubMedCrossRef
32.
Gohil K, Viguie C, Stanley WC, et al. Blood glutathione oxidation during human exercise. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64: 115–9PubMed
33.
Laaksonen DE, Atalay M, Niskanen L, et al. Increased resting and exercise-induced oxidative stress in young IDDM men. Diabetes Care 1996; 19: 569–74PubMedCrossRef
34.
Vina J, Sastre J, Asensi M, et al. Assay of blood glutathione oxidation during physical exercise. Methods Enzymol 1995; 251: 237–43PubMedCrossRef
35.
Tessier F, Margaritis I, Richard MJ, et al. Selenium and training effects on the glutathione system and aerobic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 390–6PubMed
36.
Sen CK. Nutritional biochemistry of cellular glutathione. J Nutr Biochem 1997; 8: 660–72CrossRef
37.
Sen CK, Packer L. Thiol homeostasis and supplements in physical exercise. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 653S-69S
38.
Sen CK. Antioxidant and redox regulation of cellular signaling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 368–96PubMedCrossRef
39.
Sen CK. Cellular thiols and redox-regulated signal transduction. Curr Top Cell Regul 2000; 36: 1–30PubMedCrossRef
40.
Parola M, Bellomo G, Robino G, et al. 4-hydroxynonenal as a biological signal: molecular basis and pathophysiological implications. Antioxid Redox Signal 1999; 1: 255–84PubMedCrossRef
41.
Sen CK, Packer L. Antioxidant and redox regulation of gene transcription. Faseb J 1996; 10: 709–20PubMed
42.
Sies H, editor. Antioxidants in disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. San Diego (CA): Academic Press, 1997
43.
Taylor A, Jahngen-Hodge J, Smith DE, et al. Dietary restriction delays cataract and reduces ascorbate levels in Emory mice. Exp Eye Res 1995; 61: 55–62PubMedCrossRef
44.
Sohal RS, Ku HH, Agarwal S, et al. Oxidative damage, mitochondrial oxidant generation and antioxidant defenses during aging and in response to food restriction in the mouse. Mech Ageing Dev 1994; 74: 121–33PubMedCrossRef
45.
Luhtala TA, Roecker EB, Pugh T, et al. Dietary restriction attenuates age-related increases in rat skeletal muscle antioxidant enzyme activities. J Gerontol 1994; 49: B231-B238CrossRef
46.
Lin SJ, Defossez PA, Guarente L. Requirement of NAD and SIR2 for life-span extension by calorie restriction in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Science 2000; 289: 2126–8PubMedCrossRef
47.
Kim JD, McCarter RJ, Yu BP. Influence of age, exercise, and dietary restriction on oxidative stress in rats. Aging (Milano) 1996; 8: 123–9
48.
Kim JD, Yu BP, McCarter RJ, et al. Exercise and diet modulate cardiac lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defenses. Free Radic Biol Med 1996; 20: 83–8PubMedCrossRef
49.
Cho ES, Sahyoun N, Stegink LD. Tissue glutathione as a cyst(e)ine reservoir during fasting and refeeding of rats. J Nutr 1981; 111: 914–22PubMed
50.
Lauterburg BH, Adams JD, Mitchell JR. Hepatic glutathione homeostasis in the rat: efflux accounts for glutathione turnover. Hepatology 1984; 4: 586–90PubMedCrossRef
51.
Leeuwenburgh C, Ji LL. Alteration of glutathione and antioxidant status with exercise in unfed and refed rats. J Nutr 1996; 126: 1833–43PubMed
52.
Amelink GJ, van der Wal WA, Wokke JH, et al. Exercise-induced muscle damage in the rat: the effect of vitamin E deficiency. Pflugers Arch 1991; 419: 304–9CrossRef
53.
Gohil K, Packer L, de Lumen B, et al. Vitamin E deficiency and vitamin C supplements: exercise and mitochondrial oxidation. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60: 1986–91PubMed
54.
Jackson MJ. Muscle damage during exercise: possible role of free radicals and protective effect of vitamin E. Proc Nutr Soc 1987; 46: 77–80CrossRef
55.
Quintanilha AT, Packer L, Davies JM, et al. Membrane effects of vitamin E deficiency: bioenergetic and surface charge density studies of skeletal muscle and liver mitochondria. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1982; 393: 32–47PubMedCrossRef
56.
Quintanilha AT, Packer L. Vitamin E, physical exercise and tissue oxidative damage. Ciba Found Symp 1983; 101: 56–69PubMed
57.
Salminen A, Kainulainen H, Arstila AU, et al. Vitamin E deficiency and the susceptibility to lipid peroxidation of mouse cardiac and skeletal muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 1984; 122: 565–70PubMedCrossRef
58.
Gohil K, Henderson S, Terblanche SE, et al. Effects of training and exhaustive exercise on the mitochondrial oxidative capacity of brown adipose tissue. Biosci Rep 1984; 4: 987–93PubMedCrossRef
59.
Dillard CJ, Dumelin EE, Tappel AL. Effect of dietary vitamin E on expiration of pentane and ethane by the rat. Lipids 1977; 12: 109–14PubMedCrossRef
60.
Tiidus PM, Behrens WA, Madere R, et al. Effect of vitamin E status and exercise training on tissue lipid peroxidation based on two methods of assessment. Nutr Res 1993; 13: 219–24CrossRef
61.
Bar PR, Amelink GJ. Protection against muscle damage exerted by oestrogen: hormonal or antioxidant action. Biochem Soc Trans 1997; 25: 50–4PubMed
62.
Packer L, Gohil K, deLumen B, et al. A comparative study on the effects of ascorbic acid deficiency and supplementation on endurance and mitochondrial oxidative capacities in various tissues of the guinea pig. Comp Biochem Physiol [B] 1986; 83: 235–40
63.
Lang JK, Gohil K, Packer L, et al. Selenium deficiency, endurance exercise capacity, and antioxidant status in rats. J Appl Physiol 1987; 63: 2532–5PubMed
64.
Ji LL, Stratman FW, Lardy HA. Antioxidant enzyme systems in rat liver and skeletal muscle. Influences of selenium deficiency, chronic training, and acute exercise. Arch Biochem Biophys 1988; 263: 150–60PubMedCrossRef
65.
Sen CK, Atalay M, Hanninen O. Exercise-induced oxidative stress: glutathione supplementation and deficiency. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77: 2177–87PubMed
66.
Sen CK, Rahkila P, Hanninen O. Glutathione metabolism in skeletal muscle derived cells of the L6 line. Acta Physiol Scand 1993; 148: 21–6PubMedCrossRef
67.
Leeuwenburgh C, Ji LL. Glutathione depletion in rested and exercised mice: biochemical consequence and adaptation. Arch Biochem Biophys 1995; 316: 941–9PubMedCrossRef
68.
Venditti P, Di Meo S. Antioxidants, tissue damage, and endurance in trained and untrained young male rats. Arch Biochem Biophys 1996; 331: 63–8PubMedCrossRef
69.
Dekkers JC, van Doornen LJ, Kemper HC. The role of antioxidant vitamins and enzymes in the prevention of exercise-induced muscle damage. Sports Med 1996; 21: 213–38PubMedCrossRef
70.
Brady PS, Brady LJ, Ullrey DE. Selenium, vitamin E and the response to swimming stress in the rat. J Nutr 1979; 109: 1103–9PubMed
71.
Goldfarb AH, McIntosh MK, Boyer BT, et al. Vitamin E effects on indexes of lipid peroxidation in muscle from DHEA treated and exercised rats. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 1630–5PubMed
72.
Jackson MJ, Jones DA, Edwards RHT. Vitamin E and skeletal muscle. Ciba Found Symp 1983; 101: 224–39PubMed
73.
Kumar CT, Reddy VK, Prasad M, et al. Dietary supplementation of vitamin E protects heart tissue from exercise-induced oxidant stress. Mol Cell Biochem 1992; 111: 109–15PubMedCrossRef
74.
Goldfarb AH, McIntosh MK, Boyer BT. Effects of vitamin E DHEA and exercise on heart oxidative stress [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: S129
75.
Goldfarb AH, McIntosh MK, Boyer BT. Vitamin E attenuates myocardial oxidative stress induced by DHEA in rested and exercised rats. J Appl Physiol 1996; 80: 486–90PubMed
76.
McIntosh MK, Goldfarb AH, Cote PS, et al. Vitamin E reduces peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation and indicators of oxidative stress in untrained exercised rats treated with dehydroepiandrosterone DHEA. J Nutr Biochem 1993; 4: 298–303CrossRef
77.
McIntosh MK, Goldfarb AH, Curtis LN, et al. Vitamin E alters hepatic antioxidant enzymes in rats treated with dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). J Nutr 1993; 123: 216–24PubMed
78.
Novelli GP, Braccitiotti G, Falsini S. Spintrappers and vitamin E prolong endurance to muscle fatigue in mice. Free Radic Biol Med 1990; 8: 9–13PubMedCrossRef
79.
Warren JA, Jenkins RR, Packer L, et al. Elevated muscle vitamin E does not attenuate eccentric exercise-induced muscle injury. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 2168–75PubMed
80.
Niess AM, Sommer M, Schneider M, et al. Physical exercise-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 in human leukocytes: effects of RRR-alphatocopherol supplementation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2000; 2: 113–26PubMedCrossRef
81.
Kromhout D, Bosschieter EB, de Lezenne Coulander C. The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 1985; 312: 1205–9PubMedCrossRef
82.
Schmidt EB, Dyerberg J: Omega-3 fatty acids: current status in cardiovascular medicine. Drugs 1994; 47: 405–24PubMedCrossRef
83.
Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary intake of marine n-3 fatty acids, fish intake, and the risk of coronary disease among men. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 977–82PubMedCrossRef
84.
Demoz A, Willumsen N, Berge RK. Eicosapentaenoic acid at hypotriglyceridemic dose enhances the hepatic antioxidant defense in mice. Lipids 1992; 27: 968–71PubMedCrossRef
85.
Demoz A, Asiedu DK, Lie O, et al. Modulation of plasma and hepatic oxidative status and changes in plasma lipid profile by n-3 (EPA and DHA), n-6 (corn oil) and a 3-thia fatty acid in rats. Biochim Biophys Acta 1994; 1199: 238–44PubMedCrossRef
86.
Hu ML, Frankel EN, Leibovitz BE, et al. Effect of dietary lipids and vitamin E on in vitro lipid peroxidation in rat liver and kidney homogenates. J Nutr 1989; 119: 1574–82PubMed
87.
Leibovitz BE, Hu ML, Tappel AL. Lipid peroxidation in rat tissue slices: effect of dietary vitamin E, corn oil-lard and menhaden oil. Lipids 1990; 25: 125–9PubMedCrossRef
88.
Nalbone G, Leonardi J, Termine E, et al. Effects of fish oil, corn oil and lard diets on lipid peroxidation status and glutathione peroxidase activities in rat heart. Lipids 1989; 24: 179–86PubMedCrossRef
89.
Aarsland A, Lundquist M, Borretsen B, et al. On the effect of peroxisomal beta-oxidation and carnitine palmitoyltransferase activity by eicosapentaenoic acid in liver and heart from rats. Lipids 1990; 25: 546–8PubMedCrossRef
90.
Chance B, Sies H, Boveris A. Hydroperoxide metabolism in mammalian organs. Physiol Rev 1979; 59: 527–605PubMed
91.
Paffenbarger Jr RS, Hyde RT, Wing AL, et al. A natural history of athleticism and cardiovascular health. JAMA 1984; 252: 491–5PubMedCrossRef
92.
Atalay M, Laaksonen DE, Khanna S, et al. Vitamin E regulates changes in tissue antioxidants induced by fish oil and acute exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 601–7PubMedCrossRef
93.
Lawrence JD, Bower RC, Riehl WP, et al. Effects of alpha-tocopherol acetate on the swimming endurance of trained swimmers. Am J Clin Nutr 1975; 28: 205–8PubMed
94.
Goldfarb AH, Todd MK, Boyer BT, et al. Effect of vitamin E on lipid peroxidation to 80% maximum oxygen consumption [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: S16
95.
Sharman IM, Down MG, Norgan NG. The effects of vitamin E on physiological function and athletic performance of trained swimmers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1976; 16: 215–25PubMed
96.
Sumida S, Tanaka K, Kitao H, et al. Exercise-induced lipid peroxidation and leakage of enzymes before and after vitamin E supplementation. Int J Biochem 1989; 21: 835–8PubMedCrossRef
97.
Watt T, Romet TT, McFarlane I, et al. Vitamin E and oxygen consumption [letter]. Lancet 1974; II: 354–5CrossRef
98.
Cannon JG, Orencole SF, Fielding RA, et al. Acute phase response in exercise: interaction of age and vitamin E on neutrophils and muscle enzyme release. Am J Physiol 1990; 259: R1214-R1219
99.
Meydani M, Evans WJ, Handelman G, et al. Protective effect of vitamin E on exercise-induced oxidative damage in young and older adults. Am J Physiol 1993; 264: R992-R998
100.
Rokitzki L, Logemann E, Huber G, et al. alpha-Tocopherol supplementation in racing cyclists during extreme endurance training. Int J Sport Nutr 1994; 4: 253–64PubMed
101.
Packer L, Reznick AZ. Significance of vitamin E for the athlete. In: Fuchs J, Packer L, editors. Vitamin E in health and disease. New York (NY): Marcel Dekker, 1992: 465–71
102.
Bendich A, Machlin LJ. Safety of oral intake of vitamin E. Am J Clin Nutr 1988; 48: 612–9
103.
Corrigan Jr JJ. Coagulation problems relating to vitamin E. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1979; 1: 169–73
104.
Evans WJ. Vitamin E, vitamin C, and exercise. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 647S-52S
105.
Block G, Mangels AR, Patterson BH, et al. Body weight and prior depletion affect plasma ascorbate levels attained on identical vitamin C intake: a controlled-diet study. J Am Coll Nutr 1999; 18: 628–37PubMed
106.
Alessio HM, Goldfarb AH, Cao G, et al. Short and long term vit C supplementation exercise and oxygen radical absorption capacity [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: S79
107.
Schroder H, Navarro E, Tramullas A, et al. Nutrition antioxidant status and oxidative stress in professional basketball players: effects of a three compound antioxidative supplement. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 146–50PubMedCrossRef
108.
Ashton T, Young IS, Peters JR, et al. Electron spin resonance spectroscopy, exercise, and oxidative stress: an ascorbic acid intervention study. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 2032–6PubMed
109.
Brady PS, Ku PK, Ullrey DE. Lack of effect of selenium supplementation on the response of the equine erythrocyte glutathione system and plasma enzymes to exercise. J Anim Sci 1978; 47: 492–6PubMed
110.
Clark RF, Strukle E, Williams SR, et al. Selenium poisoning from a nutritional supplement [letter]. JAMA 1996; 275: 1087–8PubMedCrossRef
111.
Shimomura Y, Suzuki M, Sugiyama S, et al. Protective effect of coenzyme Q10 on exercise-induced muscular injury. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991; 176: 349–55PubMedCrossRef
112.
Snider IP, Bazzarre TL, Murdoch SD, et al. Effects of coenzyme athletic performance system as an ergogenic aid on endurance performance to exhaustion. Int J Sport Nutr 1992; 2: 272–86PubMed
113.
Zuliani U, Bonetti A, Campana M, et al. The influence of ubiquinone (Co Q10) on the metabolic response to work. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1989; 29: 57–62PubMed
114.
Laaksonen R, Fogelholm M, Himberg JJ, et al. Ubiquinone supplementation and exercise capacity in trained young and older men. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 72: 95–100CrossRef
115.
Bonetti A, Solito F, Carmosino G, et al. Effect of ubidecarenone oral treatment on aerobic power in middle-aged trained subjects. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2000; 40: 51–7PubMed
116.
Liu ML, Bergholm R, Makimattila S, et al. A marathon run increases the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation in vitro and modifies plasma antioxidants. Am J Physiol 1999; 276: E1083–1091
117.
Cazzulani P, Cassin M, Ceserani R. Increased endurance to physical exercise in mice given oral reduced glutathione GSH. Med Sci Res 1991; 19: 543–4
118.
Novelli GP, Falsini S, Bracciotti G. Exogenous glutathione increases endurance to muscle effort in mice. Pharmacol Res 1991; 23: 149–56PubMedCrossRef
119.
Sen CK, Ookawara T, Suzuki K, et al. Immunoreactivity and activity of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase following training and exercise. Pathophysiology 1994; 1: 165–8CrossRef
120.
Atalay M, Marnila P, Lilius EM, et al. Glutathione-dependent modulation of exhausting exercise-induced changes in neutrophil function of rats. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 74: 342–7CrossRef
121.
Clanton TL, Zuo L, Klawitter P. Oxidants and skeletal muscle function: physiologic and pathophysiologic implications. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1999; 222: 253–62PubMedCrossRef
122.
Morad M, Suzuki YJ, Okabe E. Redox regulation of cardiac and skeletal sarcoplasmic reticulum. Antioxid Redox Signal 2000; 2: 1–3PubMedCrossRef
123.
Goldhaber JL, Qayyum MS. Oxygen free radicals and excitation-contraction coupling. Antioxid Redox Signal 2000; 2: 55–64PubMedCrossRef
124.
Khawli FA, Reid MB. N-acetylcysteine depresses contractile function and inhibits fatigue of diaphragm in vitro. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77: 317–24PubMed
125.
Reid MB, Stokic DS, Koch SM, et al. N-acetylcysteine inhibits muscle fatigue in humans. J Clin Invest 1994; 94: 2468–74PubMedCrossRef
126.
Khanna S, Roy S, Packer L, et al. Cytokine-induced glucose uptake in skeletal muscle: redox regulation and the role of alphalipoic acid. Am J Physiol 1999; 276 (5 Pt 2): R1327-R1333
127.
Khanna S, Atalay M, Laaksonen DE, et al. alpha-Lipoic acid supplementation: tissue glutathione homeostasis at rest and following exercise. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1191–6PubMedCrossRef
128.
Sen CK, Roy S, Han D, et al. Regulation of cellular thiols in human lymphocytes by alpha-lipoic acid: a flow cytometric analysis. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; 22: 1241–57PubMedCrossRef
129.
Sen CK, Tirosh O, Roy S, et al. A positively charged alpha-lipoic acid analogue with increased cellular uptake and more potent immunomodulatory activity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998; 247: 223–8PubMedCrossRef
130.
Kanter MM, Eddy DE. Effects of antioxidant supplementation on serum markers of lipid peroxidation and skeletal muscle damage following eccentric exercise [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: S17
131.
Kanter MM, Nolte LA, Holloszy JO. Effects of an antioxidant vitamin mixture on lipid peroxidation at rest and postexercise. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 965–9PubMed
132.
Viguie CA, Packer L, Brooks GA. Antioxidant supplementation affects indices of muscle trauma and oxidant stress in human blood during exercise [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: S16
133.
Rokitzki L, Logemann E, Sagredos AN, et al. Lipid peroxidation and antioxidative vitamins under extreme endurance stress. Acta Physiol Scand 1994; 151: 149–58PubMedCrossRef
134.
Sharpe PC, Duly EB, MacAuley D, et al. Total radical trapping antioxidant potential (TRAP) and exercise. QJ Med 1996; 89: 223–8CrossRef
135.
Food and Nutrition Board, Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, The Institute of Medicine (USA). Dietary reference intakes for dietary antioxidants and related compounds [report]. Washington, DC; National Academy Press, 2000
136.
137.
Clarkson PM, Thompson HS. Antioxidants: what role do they play in physical activity and health? Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 637S-46S
Metadata
Title
Antioxidants in Exercise Nutrition
Author
Dr Chandan K. Sen
Publication date
01-11-2001
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
Sports Medicine / Issue 13/2001
Print ISSN: 0112-1642
Electronic ISSN: 1179-2035
DOI
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131130-00001