Skip to main content
Top
Published in: American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs 1/2012

01-02-2012 | Current Opinion

Drug Treatment of Hyperuricemia to Prevent Cardiovascular Outcomes

Are We There Yet?

Authors: Angelo L. Gaffo, Dr Kenneth G. Saag

Published in: American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs | Issue 1/2012

Login to get access

Abstract

Data supporting an association between high levels of serum urate and cardiovascular disease have continued to emerge. Basic science data, small clinical trials, and epidemiologic studies have provided support for the idea of a true causal effect. In this paper, we present evidence about the association between hyperuricemia and selected cardiovascular diseases. Although data generated so far compellingly support pharmacologic urate-lowering therapy in selected cases with high cardiovascular risk, further evidence is necessary before widely advocating this approach to prevent cardiovascular outcomes putatively associated with hyperuricemia.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Loeb JN. The influence of temperature on the solubility of monosodium urate. Arthritis Rheum 1972; 15 (2): 189–92.PubMedCrossRef Loeb JN. The influence of temperature on the solubility of monosodium urate. Arthritis Rheum 1972; 15 (2): 189–92.PubMedCrossRef
2.
go back to reference Campion EW, Glynn RJ, DeLabry LO. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia: risks and consequences in the Normative Aging Study. Am J Med 1987; 82 (3): 421–6.PubMedCrossRef Campion EW, Glynn RJ, DeLabry LO. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia: risks and consequences in the Normative Aging Study. Am J Med 1987; 82 (3): 421–6.PubMedCrossRef
3.
go back to reference Puig JG, de Miguel E, Castillo MC, et al. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia: impact of ultrasonography. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids 2008; 27 (6): 592–5.PubMedCrossRef Puig JG, de Miguel E, Castillo MC, et al. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia: impact of ultrasonography. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids 2008; 27 (6): 592–5.PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference Gaffo AL, Edwards NL, Saag KG. Gout. Hyperuricemia and cardiovascular disease: how strong is the evidence for a causal link? Arthritis Res Ther 2009; 11(4): 240. Epub 2009 Aug 19.PubMedCrossRef Gaffo AL, Edwards NL, Saag KG. Gout. Hyperuricemia and cardiovascular disease: how strong is the evidence for a causal link? Arthritis Res Ther 2009; 11(4): 240. Epub 2009 Aug 19.PubMedCrossRef
5.
go back to reference Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part II. Arthritis Rheum 2007; 58 (1): 26–35.CrossRef Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part II. Arthritis Rheum 2007; 58 (1): 26–35.CrossRef
6.
go back to reference Klemp P, Stansfield SA, Castle B, et al. Gout is on the increase in New Zealand. Ann Rheum Dis 1997; 56 (1): 22–6.PubMedCrossRef Klemp P, Stansfield SA, Castle B, et al. Gout is on the increase in New Zealand. Ann Rheum Dis 1997; 56 (1): 22–6.PubMedCrossRef
7.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, et al. Mild hyperuricemia induces glomerular hypertension in normal rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2002; 283(5): F1 105–10. Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, et al. Mild hyperuricemia induces glomerular hypertension in normal rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2002; 283(5): F1 105–10.
8.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Santamaria J, et al. Mild hyperuricemia induces vasoconstriction and maintains glomerular hypertension in normal and remnant kidney rats. Kidney Int 2005; 67 (1): 237–47.PubMedCrossRef Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Santamaria J, et al. Mild hyperuricemia induces vasoconstriction and maintains glomerular hypertension in normal and remnant kidney rats. Kidney Int 2005; 67 (1): 237–47.PubMedCrossRef
9.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, et al. Treatment with the xanthine oxidase inhibitor febuxostat lowers uric acid and alleviates systemic and glomerular hypertension in experimental hyperuricaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23 (4): 1179–85.PubMedCrossRef Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, et al. Treatment with the xanthine oxidase inhibitor febuxostat lowers uric acid and alleviates systemic and glomerular hypertension in experimental hyperuricaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23 (4): 1179–85.PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, et al. Effect of febuxostat on the progression of renal disease in 5/6 nephrectomy rats with and without hyperuricemia. Nephron Physiol 2008; 108 (4): 69–78.CrossRef Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, et al. Effect of febuxostat on the progression of renal disease in 5/6 nephrectomy rats with and without hyperuricemia. Nephron Physiol 2008; 108 (4): 69–78.CrossRef
11.
go back to reference Corry DB, Eslami P, Yamamoto K, et al. Uric acid stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and oxidative stress via the vascular reninangiotensin system. J Hypertens 2008; 26 (2): 269–75.PubMedCrossRef Corry DB, Eslami P, Yamamoto K, et al. Uric acid stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and oxidative stress via the vascular reninangiotensin system. J Hypertens 2008; 26 (2): 269–75.PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Sanchez-Lozada LG, Soto V, Tapia E, et al. Role of oxidative stress in the renal abnormalities induced by experimental hyperuricemia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2008; 295(4): F1134–41.PubMedCrossRef Sanchez-Lozada LG, Soto V, Tapia E, et al. Role of oxidative stress in the renal abnormalities induced by experimental hyperuricemia. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2008; 295(4): F1134–41.PubMedCrossRef
13.
go back to reference Yu MA, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Johnson RJ, et al. Oxidative stress with an activation of the renin-angiotensin system in human vascular endothelial cells as a novel mechanism of uric acid-induced endothelial dysfunction. J Hypertens 2010; 28 (6): 1234–42.PubMed Yu MA, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Johnson RJ, et al. Oxidative stress with an activation of the renin-angiotensin system in human vascular endothelial cells as a novel mechanism of uric acid-induced endothelial dysfunction. J Hypertens 2010; 28 (6): 1234–42.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Enomoto A, Kimura H, Chairoungdua A, et al. Molecular identification of a renal urate anion exchanger that regulates blood urate levels. Nature 2002; 417 (6887): 447–52.PubMed Enomoto A, Kimura H, Chairoungdua A, et al. Molecular identification of a renal urate anion exchanger that regulates blood urate levels. Nature 2002; 417 (6887): 447–52.PubMed
15.
go back to reference Hunt SC, Stephenson SH, Hopkins PN, et al. Predictors of an increased risk of future hypertension in Utah: a screening analysis. Hypertension 1991; 17 (6 Pt 2): 969–76.PubMedCrossRef Hunt SC, Stephenson SH, Hopkins PN, et al. Predictors of an increased risk of future hypertension in Utah: a screening analysis. Hypertension 1991; 17 (6 Pt 2): 969–76.PubMedCrossRef
16.
go back to reference Imazu M, Yamamoto H, Toyofuku M, et al. Hyperinsulinemia for the development of hypertension: data from the Hawaii-Los Angeles-Hiroshima Study. Hypertens Res 2001; 24 (5): 531–6.PubMedCrossRef Imazu M, Yamamoto H, Toyofuku M, et al. Hyperinsulinemia for the development of hypertension: data from the Hawaii-Los Angeles-Hiroshima Study. Hypertens Res 2001; 24 (5): 531–6.PubMedCrossRef
17.
go back to reference Krishnan E, Kwoh CK, Schumacher HR, et al. Hyperuricemia and incidence of hypertension among men without metabolic syndrome. Hypertension 2007; 49 (2): 298–303.PubMedCrossRef Krishnan E, Kwoh CK, Schumacher HR, et al. Hyperuricemia and incidence of hypertension among men without metabolic syndrome. Hypertension 2007; 49 (2): 298–303.PubMedCrossRef
18.
go back to reference Masuo K, Kawaguchi H, Mikami H, et al. Serum uric acid and plasma norepinephrine concentrations predict subsequent weight gain and blood pressure elevation. Hypertension 2003; 42 (4): 474–80.PubMedCrossRef Masuo K, Kawaguchi H, Mikami H, et al. Serum uric acid and plasma norepinephrine concentrations predict subsequent weight gain and blood pressure elevation. Hypertension 2003; 42 (4): 474–80.PubMedCrossRef
19.
go back to reference Mellen PB, Bleyer AJ, Erlinger TP, et al. Serum uric acid predicts incident hypertension in a biethnic cohort: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Hypertension 2006; 48 (6): 1037–42.PubMedCrossRef Mellen PB, Bleyer AJ, Erlinger TP, et al. Serum uric acid predicts incident hypertension in a biethnic cohort: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Hypertension 2006; 48 (6): 1037–42.PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference Nagahama K, Inoue T, Iseki K, et al. Hyperuricemia as a predictor of hypertension in a screened cohort in Okinawa, Japan. Hypertens Res 2004; 27 (11): 835–41.PubMedCrossRef Nagahama K, Inoue T, Iseki K, et al. Hyperuricemia as a predictor of hypertension in a screened cohort in Okinawa, Japan. Hypertens Res 2004; 27 (11): 835–41.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Nakanishi N, Okamoto M, Yoshida H, et al. Serum uric acid and risk for development of hypertension and impaired fasting glucose or type II diabetes in Japanese male office workers. Eur J Epidemiol 2003; 18 (6): 523–30.PubMedCrossRef Nakanishi N, Okamoto M, Yoshida H, et al. Serum uric acid and risk for development of hypertension and impaired fasting glucose or type II diabetes in Japanese male office workers. Eur J Epidemiol 2003; 18 (6): 523–30.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Perlstein TS, Gumieniak O, Williams GH, et al. Uric acid and the development of hypertension: the normative aging study. Hypertension 2006; 48 (6): 1031–6.PubMedCrossRef Perlstein TS, Gumieniak O, Williams GH, et al. Uric acid and the development of hypertension: the normative aging study. Hypertension 2006; 48 (6): 1031–6.PubMedCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Selby JV, Friedman GD, Quesenberry Jr CP. Precursors of essential hypertension: pulmonary function, heart rate, uric acid, serum cholesterol, and other serum chemistries. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 131 (6): 1017–27.PubMed Selby JV, Friedman GD, Quesenberry Jr CP. Precursors of essential hypertension: pulmonary function, heart rate, uric acid, serum cholesterol, and other serum chemistries. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 131 (6): 1017–27.PubMed
24.
go back to reference Shankar A, Klein R, Klein BE, et al. The association between serum uric acid level and long-term incidence of hypertension: population-based cohort study. J Hum Hypertens 2006; 20 (12): 937–45.PubMedCrossRef Shankar A, Klein R, Klein BE, et al. The association between serum uric acid level and long-term incidence of hypertension: population-based cohort study. J Hum Hypertens 2006; 20 (12): 937–45.PubMedCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Sundstrom J, Sullivan L, D’Agostino RB, et al. Relations of serum uric acid to longitudinal blood pressure tracking and hypertension incidence. Hypertension 2005; 45 (1): 28–33.PubMed Sundstrom J, Sullivan L, D’Agostino RB, et al. Relations of serum uric acid to longitudinal blood pressure tracking and hypertension incidence. Hypertension 2005; 45 (1): 28–33.PubMed
26.
go back to reference Taniguchi Y, Hayashi T, Tsumura K, et al. Serum uric acid and the risk for hypertension and type 2 diabetes in Japanese men: The Osaka Health Survey. J Hypertens 2001; 19 (7): 1209–15.PubMedCrossRef Taniguchi Y, Hayashi T, Tsumura K, et al. Serum uric acid and the risk for hypertension and type 2 diabetes in Japanese men: The Osaka Health Survey. J Hypertens 2001; 19 (7): 1209–15.PubMedCrossRef
27.
go back to reference Gaffo AL, Jacobs Jr DR, Sijtsma F, et al. Serum urate levels in young adults are associated with the risk of incident hypertension: findings from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) cohort. In: Meeting of the American College of Rheumatology. Atlanta (GA): 2010. Gaffo AL, Jacobs Jr DR, Sijtsma F, et al. Serum urate levels in young adults are associated with the risk of incident hypertension: findings from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) cohort. In: Meeting of the American College of Rheumatology. Atlanta (GA): 2010.
28.
go back to reference Grayson PC, Kim SY, Lavalley M, et al. Hyperuricemia and incident hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63 (1): 102–10.CrossRef Grayson PC, Kim SY, Lavalley M, et al. Hyperuricemia and incident hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63 (1): 102–10.CrossRef
29.
go back to reference Zhang W, Sun K, Yang Y, et al. Plasma uric acid and hypertension in a Chinese community: prospective study and metaanalysis. Clin Chem 2009; 55 (11): 2026–34.PubMedCrossRef Zhang W, Sun K, Yang Y, et al. Plasma uric acid and hypertension in a Chinese community: prospective study and metaanalysis. Clin Chem 2009; 55 (11): 2026–34.PubMedCrossRef
30.
go back to reference Feig DI, Soletsky B, Johnson RJ. Effect of allopurinol on blood pressure of adolescents with newly diagnosed essential hypertension: a randomized trial. JAMA 2008; 300 (8): 924–32.PubMedCrossRef Feig DI, Soletsky B, Johnson RJ. Effect of allopurinol on blood pressure of adolescents with newly diagnosed essential hypertension: a randomized trial. JAMA 2008; 300 (8): 924–32.PubMedCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Kanbay M, Ozkara A, Selcoki Y, et al. Effect of treatment of hyperuricemia with allopurinol on blood pressure, creatinine clearance, and proteinuria in patients with normal renal functions. Int Urol Nephrol 2007; 39 (4): 1227–33.PubMedCrossRef Kanbay M, Ozkara A, Selcoki Y, et al. Effect of treatment of hyperuricemia with allopurinol on blood pressure, creatinine clearance, and proteinuria in patients with normal renal functions. Int Urol Nephrol 2007; 39 (4): 1227–33.PubMedCrossRef
33.
go back to reference Kim SY, Guevara JP, Kim KM, et al. Hyperuricemia and coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2010; 62(2): 170–80. Kim SY, Guevara JP, Kim KM, et al. Hyperuricemia and coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2010; 62(2): 170–80.
34.
go back to reference Chen JH, Chuang SY, Chen HJ, et al. Serum uric acid level as an independent risk factor for all-cause, cardiovascular, and ischemic stroke mortality: a Chinese cohort study. Arthritis Rheum 2009; 61 (2): 225–32.PubMedCrossRef Chen JH, Chuang SY, Chen HJ, et al. Serum uric acid level as an independent risk factor for all-cause, cardiovascular, and ischemic stroke mortality: a Chinese cohort study. Arthritis Rheum 2009; 61 (2): 225–32.PubMedCrossRef
35.
go back to reference Tatli E, Aktoz M, Buyuklu M, et al. The relationship between coronary artery disease and uric acid levels in young patients with acute myocardial infarction. Cardiol J 2008; 15 (1): 21–5.PubMed Tatli E, Aktoz M, Buyuklu M, et al. The relationship between coronary artery disease and uric acid levels in young patients with acute myocardial infarction. Cardiol J 2008; 15 (1): 21–5.PubMed
36.
go back to reference Kim SY, Guevara JP, Kim KM, et al. Hyperuricemia and risk of stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2009; 61 (7): 885–92.PubMedCrossRef Kim SY, Guevara JP, Kim KM, et al. Hyperuricemia and risk of stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2009; 61 (7): 885–92.PubMedCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Schretlen DJ, Inscore AB, Vannorsdall TD, et al. Serum uric acid and brain ischemia in normal elderly adults. Neurology 2007; 69 (14): 1418–23.PubMedCrossRef Schretlen DJ, Inscore AB, Vannorsdall TD, et al. Serum uric acid and brain ischemia in normal elderly adults. Neurology 2007; 69 (14): 1418–23.PubMedCrossRef
38.
39.
go back to reference Strasak A, Ruttmann E, Brant L, et al. Serum uric acid and risk of cardiovascular mortality: a prospective long-term study of 83,683 Austrian men. Clin Chem 2008; 54 (2): 273–84.PubMedCrossRef Strasak A, Ruttmann E, Brant L, et al. Serum uric acid and risk of cardiovascular mortality: a prospective long-term study of 83,683 Austrian men. Clin Chem 2008; 54 (2): 273–84.PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Strasak AM, Kelleher CC, Brant LJ, et al. Serum uric acid is an independent predictor for all major forms of cardiovascular death in 28,613 elderly women: a prospective 21-year follow-up study. Int J Cardiol 2008; 125 (2): 232–9.PubMedCrossRef Strasak AM, Kelleher CC, Brant LJ, et al. Serum uric acid is an independent predictor for all major forms of cardiovascular death in 28,613 elderly women: a prospective 21-year follow-up study. Int J Cardiol 2008; 125 (2): 232–9.PubMedCrossRef
41.
go back to reference Wu AH, Ghali JK, Neuberg GW, et al. Uric acid level and allopurinol use as risk markers of mortality and morbidity in systolic heart failure. Am Heart J 2010; 160 (5): 928–33.PubMedCrossRef Wu AH, Ghali JK, Neuberg GW, et al. Uric acid level and allopurinol use as risk markers of mortality and morbidity in systolic heart failure. Am Heart J 2010; 160 (5): 928–33.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Cingolani HE, Plastino JA, Escudero EM, et al. The effect of xanthine oxidase inhibition upon ejection fraction in heart failure patients: La Plata Study. J Card Fail 2006; 12 (7): 491–8.PubMedCrossRef Cingolani HE, Plastino JA, Escudero EM, et al. The effect of xanthine oxidase inhibition upon ejection fraction in heart failure patients: La Plata Study. J Card Fail 2006; 12 (7): 491–8.PubMedCrossRef
43.
go back to reference Hare JM, Mangal B, Brown J, et al. Impact of oxypurinol in patients with symptomatic heart failure: results of the OPT-CHF study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51 (24): 2301–9.PubMedCrossRef Hare JM, Mangal B, Brown J, et al. Impact of oxypurinol in patients with symptomatic heart failure: results of the OPT-CHF study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51 (24): 2301–9.PubMedCrossRef
44.
go back to reference Culleton BF, Larson MG, Kannel WB, et al. Serum uric acid and risk for cardiovascular disease and death: the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131 (1): 7–13.PubMed Culleton BF, Larson MG, Kannel WB, et al. Serum uric acid and risk for cardiovascular disease and death: the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131 (1): 7–13.PubMed
45.
go back to reference Fang J, Alderman MH. Serum uric acid and cardiovascular mortality the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971–1992. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 2000; 283 (18): 2404–10.PubMedCrossRef Fang J, Alderman MH. Serum uric acid and cardiovascular mortality the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971–1992. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 2000; 283 (18): 2404–10.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Facchini F, Chen YD, Hollenbeck CB, et al. Relationship between resistance to insulin-mediated glucose uptake, urinary uric acid clearance, and plasma uric acid concentration. JAMA 1991; 266 (21): 3008–11.PubMedCrossRef Facchini F, Chen YD, Hollenbeck CB, et al. Relationship between resistance to insulin-mediated glucose uptake, urinary uric acid clearance, and plasma uric acid concentration. JAMA 1991; 266 (21): 3008–11.PubMedCrossRef
47.
go back to reference Matsuura F, Yamashita S, Nakamura T, et al. Effect of visceral fat accumulation on uric acid metabolism in male obese subjects: visceral fat obesity is linked more closely to overproduction of uric acid than subcutaneous fat obesity. Metabolism 1998 Aug. 47 (8): 929–33.PubMedCrossRef Matsuura F, Yamashita S, Nakamura T, et al. Effect of visceral fat accumulation on uric acid metabolism in male obese subjects: visceral fat obesity is linked more closely to overproduction of uric acid than subcutaneous fat obesity. Metabolism 1998 Aug. 47 (8): 929–33.PubMedCrossRef
48.
go back to reference Nakagawa T, Hu H, Zharikov S, et al. A causal role for uric acid in fructoseinduced metabolic syndrome. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2006; 290(3): F625–31.PubMedCrossRef Nakagawa T, Hu H, Zharikov S, et al. A causal role for uric acid in fructoseinduced metabolic syndrome. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2006; 290(3): F625–31.PubMedCrossRef
49.
go back to reference Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288 (3): 321–33.PubMedCrossRef Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288 (3): 321–33.PubMedCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Hande KR, Noone RM, Stone WJ. Severe allopurinol toxicity: description and guidelines for prevention in patients with renal insufficiency. Am J Med 1984; 76 (1): 47–56.PubMedCrossRef Hande KR, Noone RM, Stone WJ. Severe allopurinol toxicity: description and guidelines for prevention in patients with renal insufficiency. Am J Med 1984; 76 (1): 47–56.PubMedCrossRef
51.
go back to reference Zhang W, Doherty M, Bardin T, et al. EULAR evidence based recommendations for gout. Part II: Management. Report of a task force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT). Ann Rheum Dis 2006; 65 (10): 1312–24.PubMedCrossRef Zhang W, Doherty M, Bardin T, et al. EULAR evidence based recommendations for gout. Part II: Management. Report of a task force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT). Ann Rheum Dis 2006; 65 (10): 1312–24.PubMedCrossRef
52.
go back to reference Sjostrom L, Narbro K, Sjostrom CD, et al. Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med 2007; 357 (8): 741–52.PubMedCrossRef Sjostrom L, Narbro K, Sjostrom CD, et al. Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med 2007; 357 (8): 741–52.PubMedCrossRef
53.
go back to reference Choi HK, Curhan G. Beer, liquor, and wine consumption and serum uric acid level: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 51 (6): 1023–9.PubMedCrossRef Choi HK, Curhan G. Beer, liquor, and wine consumption and serum uric acid level: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 51 (6): 1023–9.PubMedCrossRef
54.
go back to reference Choi HK, Liu S, Curhan G. Intake of purine-rich foods, protein, and dairy products and relationship to serum levels of uric acid: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arthritis Rheum 2005; 52 (1): 283–9.PubMedCrossRef Choi HK, Liu S, Curhan G. Intake of purine-rich foods, protein, and dairy products and relationship to serum levels of uric acid: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arthritis Rheum 2005; 52 (1): 283–9.PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference Gaffo AL, Roseman JM, Jacobs Jr DR, et al. Serum urate and its relationship with alcoholic beverage intake in men and women: findings from the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) cohort. Ann Rheum Dis 2010; 69(11): 1965–70.PubMedCrossRef Gaffo AL, Roseman JM, Jacobs Jr DR, et al. Serum urate and its relationship with alcoholic beverage intake in men and women: findings from the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) cohort. Ann Rheum Dis 2010; 69(11): 1965–70.PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Noman A, Ang DS, Ogston S, et al. Effect of high-dose allopurinol on exercise in patients with chronic stable angina: a randomised, placebo controlled crossover trial. Lancet 2010; 375 (9732): 2161–7.PubMedCrossRef Noman A, Ang DS, Ogston S, et al. Effect of high-dose allopurinol on exercise in patients with chronic stable angina: a randomised, placebo controlled crossover trial. Lancet 2010; 375 (9732): 2161–7.PubMedCrossRef
57.
go back to reference Burns CM, Wortmann RL. Gout therapeutics: new drugs for an old disease. Lancet 2010; 377 (9760): 165–77.PubMedCrossRef Burns CM, Wortmann RL. Gout therapeutics: new drugs for an old disease. Lancet 2010; 377 (9760): 165–77.PubMedCrossRef
59.
go back to reference Beukelman T, Guevara JP, Albert DA. Optimal treatment of knee monarthritis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a decision analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 59 (11): 1580–8.PubMedCrossRef Beukelman T, Guevara JP, Albert DA. Optimal treatment of knee monarthritis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a decision analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 59 (11): 1580–8.PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Kim SY, Martin N, Hsia EC, et al. Management of aortic disease in Marfan Syndrome: a decision analysis. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165 (7): 749–55.PubMedCrossRef Kim SY, Martin N, Hsia EC, et al. Management of aortic disease in Marfan Syndrome: a decision analysis. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165 (7): 749–55.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Drug Treatment of Hyperuricemia to Prevent Cardiovascular Outcomes
Are We There Yet?
Authors
Angelo L. Gaffo
Dr Kenneth G. Saag
Publication date
01-02-2012
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs / Issue 1/2012
Print ISSN: 1175-3277
Electronic ISSN: 1179-187X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.2165/11594580-000000000-00000

Other articles of this Issue 1/2012

American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs 1/2012 Go to the issue

Adis Drug Evaluation

Rivaroxaban