Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on medication adherence

LIVE: Thursday 27th June 2024, 18:00-19:30 (CEST)
Join our expert panel to discover why you need to understand the drivers of non-adherence in your patients, and how you can optimize medication adherence in your clinics to drastically improve patient outcomes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Sports Medicine
Published in: Sports Medicine 15/2001

01-12-2001 | Review Article

Long-Term Metabolic and Skeletal Muscle Adaptations to Short-Sprint Training

Authors: Angus Ross, Michael Leveritt

Published in: Sports Medicine | Issue 15/2001

Login to get access

Abstract

The adaptations of muscle to sprint training can be separated into metabolic and morphological changes. Enzyme adaptations represent a major metabolic adaptation to sprint training, with the enzymes of all three energy systems showing signs of adaptation to training and some evidence of a return to baseline levels with detraining. Myokinase and creatine phosphokinase have shown small increases as a result of short-sprint training in some studies and elite sprinters appear better able to rapidly breakdown phosphocreatine (PCr) than the sub-elite. No changes in these enzyme levels have been reported as a result of detraining. Similarly, glycolytic enzyme activity (notably lactate dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase and glycogen phosphorylase) has been shown to increase after training consisting of either long (>10-second) or short (<10-second) sprints. Evidence suggests that these enzymes return to pre-training levels after somewhere between 7 weeks and 6 months of detraining. Mitochondrial enzyme activity also increases after sprint training, particularly when long sprints or short recovery between short sprints are used as the training stimulus.
Morphological adaptations to sprint training include changes in muscle fibre type, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and fibre cross-sectional area. An appropriate sprint training programme could be expected to induce a shift toward type IIa muscle, increase muscle cross-sectional area and increase the sarcoplasmic reticulum volume to aid release of Ca2+. Training volume and/or frequency of sprint training in excess of what is optimal for an individual, however, will induce a shift toward slower muscle contractile characteristics. In contrast, detraining appears to shift the contractile characteristics towards type IIb, although muscle atrophy is also likely to occur. Muscle conduction velocity appears to be a potential non-invasive method of monitoring contractile changes in response to sprint training and detraining.
In summary, adaptation to sprint training is clearly dependent on the duration of sprinting, recovery between repetitions, total volume and frequency of training bouts. These variables have profound effects on the metabolic, structural and performance adaptations from a sprint-training programme and these changes take a considerable period of time to return to baseline after a period of detraining. However, the complexity of the interaction between the aforementioned variables and training adaptation combined with individual differences is clearly disruptive to the transfer of knowledge and advice from laboratory to coach to athlete.
Literature
1.
Hopkins WG, Schabort EJ, Hawley JA. Reliability of power in physical performance tests. Sports Med 2001; 31 (3): 211–34PubMedCrossRef
2.
Jenkins DG, Brooks S, Williams C. Improvements in multiple sprint ability with three weeks of training. NZ J Sports Med 1994; 22 (1): 2–5
3.
Linossier MT, Denis C, Dormois D, et al. Ergometric and metabolic adaptations to a 5 s sprint training programme. Eur J Appl Physiol 1993; 68: 408–14CrossRef
4.
Anderson JL, Klitgaard H, Saltin B. Myosin heavy chain isoforms in single fibres from m. vastus lateralis of sprinters: influence of training. Acta Physiol Scand 1994; 151: 135–42CrossRef
5.
Nevill ME, Boobis LH, Brooks S, et al. Effect of training on muscle metabolism during treadmill sprinting. JAppl Physiol 1989; 67 (6): 2376–82
6.
Cadefau J, Casademont J, Grau JM, et al. Biochemical and histochemical adaptation to sprint training in young athletes. Acta Physiol Scand 1990; 140: 341–51PubMedCrossRef
7.
McKenna MJ, Schmidt TA, Hargreaves M, et al. Sprint training increases human skeletal muscle Na+-K+-ATPase concentration and improves K+ regulation. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 173–80PubMed
8.
Sleivert GG, Backus RD, Wenger HA. Neuromuscular differences between volleyball players, middle distance runners and untrained controls. Int J Sports Med 1995; 16 (5): 390–8PubMedCrossRef
9.
Delecluse C, Van-Coppenolle H, Willems E, et al. Influence of high resistance and high velocity training on sprint performance. Med Sci Sport Exerc 1995; 27 (8): 1203–9CrossRef
10.
Dawson B, Fitzsimmons M, Green S, et al. Changes in performance, muscle metabolites, enzymes and fibre types after short sprint training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 78: 163–9CrossRef
11.
Harridge SDR, Bottinelli R, Canepari M, et al. Sprint training, in vitro and in vivo muscle function, and myosin heavy chain expression. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84 (2): 442–9PubMed
12.
Ørtenblad N, Lunde PK, Levin K, et al. Enhanced sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release following intermittent sprint training. Am J Physiol 2000; 279: R152–60
13.
Esbjornsson M, Hellsten-Westing Y, Balsom PD, et al. Muscle fibre type changes with sprint training: effect of training pattern. Acta Physiol Scand 1993; 149: 245–6PubMedCrossRef
14.
Allemeier CA, Fry AC, Johnson P, et al. Effects of sprint cycle training on human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77 (5): 2385–90PubMed
15.
Jacobs I, Esbjornsson M, Sylven C, et al. Sprint training effects on muscle myoglobin, enzymes, fiber types, and blood lactate. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 368–74PubMed
16.
Parra J, Cadefau JA, Rodas G, et al. The distribution of rest periods affects performance and adaptations of energy metabolism induced by high-intensity training in human muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 2000; 169: 157–65PubMedCrossRef
17.
Francis C, Coplon J. Speed trap — inside the biggest scandal in olympic history. New York (NY): St. Martin’s Press, 1991
18.
Penfold L, Jenkins D. Training for speed. In: Reaburn P, Jenkins D, editors. Training speed and endurance. St Leonards (NSW): Allen and Unwin, 1996: 24–41
19.
Linossier MT, Dormois D, Geyssant A, et al. Performance and fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle during short sprint training and detraining on a cycle ergometer. Eur JAppl Physiol 1997; 75: 491–8CrossRef
20.
Anderson JL, Aagaard P. Myosin heavy chain IIX overshoot in human skeletal muscle. Muscle Nerve 2000; 23 (7): 1095–104CrossRef
21.
Hortobágyi T, Houmard JA, Stevenson JR, et al. The effects of detraining on power athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25 (8): 929–35PubMed
22.
Anderson-Johns R, Houmard JA, Kobe RW, et al. Effects of taper on swim power, stroke distance, and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24 (10): 1141–6
23.
MacDougall JD, Hicks AL, MacDonald JR, et al. Muscle performance and enzymatic adaptations to sprint interval training. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84 (6): 2138–42PubMed
24.
Jansson E, Esbjornsson M, Holm I, et al. Increase in the proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibres by sprint training in males. Acta Physiol Scand 1990; 140: 359–63PubMedCrossRef
25.
Hirvonen J, Rehunen S, Rusko H, et al. Breakdown of high-energy phosphate compounds and lactate accumulation dur- ing short supramaximal exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1987; 56: 253–9CrossRef
26.
Gaitanos GC, Williams C, Boobis LH, et al. Human muscle metabolism during intermittent maximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75 (2): 712–9PubMed
27.
Bogdanis GC, Nevill ME, Lakomy HKA, et al. Power output and muscle metabolism during and following recovery from 10 and 20 s of maximal sprint exercise in humans. Acta Physiol Scand 1998; 163: 261–72PubMedCrossRef
28.
Jacobs I, Tesch PA, Bar-Or O, et al. Lactate in human skeletal muscle after 10 and 30s of supramaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55: 365–7PubMed
29.
Bogdanis GC, Nevill ME, Boobis LH, et al. Contribution of phosphocreatine and aerobic metabolism to energy supply during repeated sprint exercise. J Appl Physiol 1996; 80 (3): 876–84PubMed
30.
McCartney N, Spriet LL, Heigenhauser GJF, et al. Muscle power and metabolism in maximal intermittent exercise. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60: 1164–9PubMed
31.
32.
Fournier M, Ricci J, Taylor AW, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptation in adolescent boys: sprint and endurance training and detraining. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14 (6): 453–6PubMedCrossRef
33.
Hellsten-Westing Y, Balsom PD, et al. The effect of high intensity training on purine metabolismin man. Acta Physiol Scand 1993; 149: 405–12PubMedCrossRef
34.
Linnosier MT, Dormois D, Perier C, et al. Enzyme adaptations of human skeletal muscle during bicycle short-sprint training and detraining. Acta Physiol Scand 1997; 161: 439–45CrossRef
35.
Roberts AD, Billeter R, Howald H. Anaerobic muscle enzyme changes after interval training. Int J Sports Med 1982; 3: 18–21PubMedCrossRef
36.
Simoneau J-A, Lortie G, Boulay MR, et al. Effects of two high-intensity intermittent training programs interspaced by detraining on human skeletal muscle and performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1987; 56: 516–21CrossRef
37.
Thorstensson A, Sjodin B, Karlsson J. Enzyme activities and muscle strength after ‘sprint training’ in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1975; 94: 313–8PubMedCrossRef
38.
Hultman E, Sjoholm H. Energy metabolism and contraction force of human skeletal muscle in situ during electrical stimulation. J Physiol 1983; 345: 525–32PubMed
39.
Hautier CA, Wouassi D, Arsac LM, et al. Relationships between postcompetition blood lactate concentration and average running velocity over 100m and 200m races. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 68: 508–13CrossRef
40.
Locatelli E, Arsac L. The mechanics and energetics of the 100m sprint. New Stud Athletics 1995; 10 (1): 81–7
41.
Sharp RL, Costill DL, Fink WJ, et al. Effects of eight weeks of bicycle ergometer sprint training on human muscle buffer capacity. Int J Sports Med 1986; 7: 13–7PubMedCrossRef
42.
Costill DL, Daniels J, Evans W, et al. Skeletal muscle enzymes and fiber composition in male and female track athletes. J Appl Physiol 1976; 40: 149–54PubMed
43.
Boobis LH, Williams C, Wooton SA. Influence of sprint training on muscle metabolism during brief maximal exercise in man. J Physiol 1983; 342: 36P-7P
44.
Tesch PA, Wright JE, Vogel JA, et al. The influence of muscle metabolic characteristics on physical performance. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1985; 54 (3): 237–43PubMedCrossRef
45.
Houston ME, Wilson DM, Green HJ, et al. Physiological and muscle enzyme adaptations to two different intensities of swim training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1981; 46: 283–91CrossRef
46.
McKenna MJ, Heigenhauser GJF, McKelvie RS, et al. Enhanced pulmonary and active skeletal muscle gas exchange during intense exercise after sprint training in men. J Physiol 1997; 501 (3): 703–16PubMedCrossRef
47.
Cunningham DA, Faulkner JA. The effect of training on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during a short exhaustive run. Med Sci Sports 1969; 1 (2): 65–9
48.
Volek JS, Kraemer WJ. Creatine supplementation: its effect on muscle performance and body composition. J Strength Cond Res 1996; 10 (3): 200–10
49.
Hellsten-Westing Y, Norman B, Balsom PD, et al. Decreased resting levels of adenine nucleotides in human skeletal muscle after high intensity training. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74 (5): 2523–8PubMed
50.
Lowenstein JM. The purine nucleotide cycle revised. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 37–45CrossRef
51.
Sabina RL, Holmes EW. Disorders of purine nucleotide metabolism in muscle. In: Taylor AW, Gollnick PD, Green HJ, et al., editors. Biochemistry of exercise. VII. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1990: 227–41
52.
Stathis CG, Febbraio MA, Carey MF, et al. Influence of sprint training on human skeletal muscle purine nucleotide metabolism. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76 (4): 1802–9PubMed
53.
Spriet LL. Anaerobic metabolism in human skeletal muscle during short-term intense activity. Can J Physiol Pharm 1990; 70: 157–65CrossRef
54.
Ferenczi MA, Goldman YE, Simmons RM. The dependence on force and shortening velocity on substrate concentration in skinned muscle fibres from rana temporaria. J Physiol 1984; 350: 519–43PubMed
55.
Asmussen E, Klausen K, Nielsen LE, et al. Lactate production and anaerobic work capacity after prolonged exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 1974; 90 (4): 731–42PubMedCrossRef
56.
Hargreaves M, McKenna MJ, Jenkins DG, et al. Muscle metabolites and performance during high-intensity, intermittent exercise. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84 (5): 1687–91PubMed
57.
58.
59.
Allen DG, Westerblad H, Lännergren J. The role of intracellular acidosis in muscle fatigue. In: Gandevia S, Enoka R, McComas A, et al., editors. Fatigue-neural and muscular mechanisms. New York (NY): Plenum Press, 1995: 57–68
60.
Parkhouse WS, McKenzie DC. Possible contribution of skeletal muscle buffers to enhanced anaerobic performance: a brief review. Med Sci Sports 1984; 16 (4): 328–38
61.
Sahlin K, Hendriksson J. Buffer capacity and lactate accumulation in skeletal muscle of trained and untrained men. Acta Physiol Scand 1984; 122 (3): 331–9PubMedCrossRef
62.
Bell GJ, Wenger HA. The effect of one-legged sprint training on intramuscular pH and non-bicarbonate buffering capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol 1988; 58: 158–64CrossRef
63.
Pette D, Staron RS. Cellular and molecular diversities of mammalian skeletal muscle fibres. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 1990; 116: 1–76PubMed
64.
Brooke MH, Kaiser KK. Muscle fibre types: how many and what kind? Arch Neurol 1970; 23 (4): 369–79PubMedCrossRef
65.
Green HJ. Myofibrillar composition and mechanical function in mammalian skeletal muscle. Sport Sci Rev 1992; 1: 43–64
66.
Staron RS, Pette D. The multiplicity of myosin light and heavy chain combinations in histochemically typed single fibres: rabbit soleus muscle. Biochem J 1987; 243: 687–93PubMed
67.
Bottinelli R, Pellegrino MA, Canepari M, et al. Specific contributions of various muscle fibre types to human muscle performance: an in vitro study. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 1999; 9: 97–5CrossRef
68.
Steinen GJM, Kiers JL, Bottinelli R, et al. Myofibrillar ATPase in skinned human skeletal muscle fibres: fibre type and temperature dependence. J Physiol 1996; 76: 493: 299–307
69.
Klitgaard H, Bergman O, Betto R, et al. Co-existence of myosin heavy chain I and IIa isoforms in human skeletal muscle fibres with endurance training. Pflugers Arch 1990 Jun; 416 (4): 470–2PubMedCrossRef
70.
Bottinelli R, Schiaffino S, Reggiaini C. Force velocity relations and myosin heavy chain isoform compositions of skinned fibres from rat skeletal muscle. J Physiol 1991; 437: 655–72PubMed
71.
Anderson JL, Schjerling P, Saltin B. Muscle genes and athletic performance. Sci Am 2000 Sep: 48–55
72.
Widrick JJ, Trappe SW, Costill DL, et al. Force velocity and force-power properties from elite master runners and sedentary men. Am J Physiol, 1996; 271 (2 Pt 1): C676–83
73.
Anderson JL, Schiaffino S. Mismatch between myosin heavy chain mRNA and protein distribution in human skeletal muscle fibers. Am J Physiol 1997; 272 (41): C1881–9
74.
Anderson JL, Terzis G, Kryger A. Increase in the degree of co-expression of myosin heavy chain isoforms in skeletal muscle fibres of the very old. Muscle Nerve 1999; 22: 449–54CrossRef
75.
Burnham R, Martin T, Stein R, et al. Skeletal muscle fibre type transformation following spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1997; 35: 86–91PubMedCrossRef
76.
77.
Esbjornsson-Liljdahl M, Holm I, Sylvén C, et al. Different responses of skeletal muscle following sprint training in men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 74: 375–83CrossRef
78.
Simoneau J-A, Lortie G, Boulay MR, et al. Human skeletal muscle fibre type alteration with high intensity intermittent training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 54: 250–3CrossRef
79.
Denis C, Linossier MT, Dormoois D, et al. Power and metabolic responses during supramaximal exercise in 100m and 800m runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1992; 2: 62–9CrossRef
80.
Esbjornsson M, Sylven C, Holm I, et al. Fast twitch fibres may predict anaerobic performance in both females and males. Int J Sports Med 1993; 14: 257–63PubMedCrossRef
81.
Mero A, Luhtanen P, Viitaslo JT, et al. Relationship between the maximal running velocity, muscle fibre characteristics, force production and force relaxation of sprinters. Scand J Sports Sci 1981; 3: 16–22
82.
Maffiuletti NA, Martin A, Babault N, et al. Electrical and mechanical Hmax to Mmax ratio in power- and endurance-trained athletes. J Appl Physiol 2001; 90: 3–9PubMed
83.
Carrington CA, Fisher W, White MJ. The effects of athletic training and muscle contractile character in the pressor response to isometric exercise of the humans triceps surae. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 80: 337–43CrossRef
84.
Goldspink G, Scutt A, Martindale J, et al. Stretch and force generation induce rapid hypertrophy and myosin isoform gene switching in adult skeletal muscle. Biochem Soc Trans 1994; 19: 368–73CrossRef
85.
Stevens L, Firinga C, Gohlsch B, et al. Effects of unweighting and clenbuterol on myosin light and heavy chains in fast and slow muscles of rat. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2000; 279 (5): C1558–63
86.
Ausoni S, Gorza L, Schiaffino S, et al. Expression of myosin heavy chain isoforms in stimulated fast and slow rat muscles. J Neurosci 1990; 10 (1): 153–60PubMed
87.
Baldwin KM, Valdez V, Herrick RE, et al. Biochemical properties of overloaded fast-twitch skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52 (2): 467–72PubMed
88.
Kadi F, Thornell LE. Training affects myosin heavy chain phenotype in the trapezius muscle of women. Histochem Cell Biol 1999; 112: 73–8PubMedCrossRef
89.
Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptation during early phase of heavy resistance training in men and women. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 1247–55PubMed
90.
Staron RS, Leonardi MJ, Karapondo DL, et al. Strength and skeletal muscle adaptations in heavy-resistance-trained women after detraining and retraining. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70 (2): 631–40PubMed
91.
Ishida K, Moritani T, Itoh K. Changes in voluntary and electrically induced contractions during strength training and detraining. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 244–8CrossRef
92.
Wiemann K, Tidow G. Relative activity of hip and knee extensors in sprinting and implications for training. New Stud Athletics 1995; 10 (1): 29–49
93.
Trappe S, Costill D, Thomas R. Effect of swim taper on whole muscle and single muscle fiber contractile properties. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32 (12): 48–56PubMed
94.
Alway SE, MacDougall JD, Sale DG, et al. Functional and structural adaptations in skeletal muscle of trained athletes. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64 (3): 1114–20PubMed
95.
Alway SE. Characteristics of the elbow flexors in women bodybuilders using androgenic-anabolic steroids. J Strength Cond Res 1994; 8 (3): 161–9
96.
Chu A, Saito A, Fleisher S. Preparation and characterization of longitudinal tubules of sarcoplasmic reticulum from fast skeletal muscle. Arch Biochem Biophys 1987; 258 (1): 13–23PubMedCrossRef
97.
Kugelberg E, Thornell L-E. Contraction time, histochemical type and terminal cisternae volume of rat motor units. Muscle Nerve 1983; 6: 149–53PubMedCrossRef
98.
Ruegg JC. Calcium in muscle activation: cellular and molecular physiology. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1992
99.
Carroll SL, Klein MG, Schneider MF. Decay of calcium transients after electrical stimulation in rat fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres. J Physiol 1997; 501 (3): 573–88PubMedCrossRef
100.
Green HJ. Cation pumps in skeletal muscle: potential role in muscle fatigue. Acta Physiol Scand 1998; 162: 201–13PubMedCrossRef
101.
Midrio M, Danieli-Betto D, Megighian A, et al. Early effects of denervation on sarcoplasmic reticulum properties of slow twitch rat muscle fibres. Pflugers Arch 1997; 434: 398–405PubMedCrossRef
102.
Hicks A, Ohlendieck K, Göpel SO, et al. Early functional and biochemical adaptations to low frequency stimulation of rabbit fast twitch muscle. Am J Physiol 1997; 273 (1 Pt 1): C297–305
103.
Sadoyama T, Masuda T, Miyata H, et al. Fibre conduction velocity and fibre composition in human vastus lateralis. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1988; 57: 767–71PubMedCrossRef
104.
Kupa EJ, Roy SH, Kandarian SC, et al. Effects of muscle fibre type and size on EMG median frequency and conduction-velocity. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79: 23–32PubMed
105.
Bianchi S, Rossi B, Siciliano G, et al. Quantitative evaluations of systemic and neuromuscular modifications induced by specific training in sedentary subjects. Med Sport (Roma) 1997; 50 (1): 15–29
106.
Matsunaga S, Sadoyama T, Miyata H, et al. The effects of strength training on muscle fibre conduction velocity of surface action potential. Jpn J Phys Fitness Sports Med 1990; 39 (2): 99–105
107.
Gavira M, Ohanna F. Variability of the fatigue response of paralysed skeletal muscle in relation to the time after spinal cord injury: mechanical and electrophysiological characteristics. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 80 (2): 145–53CrossRef
Metadata
Title
Long-Term Metabolic and Skeletal Muscle Adaptations to Short-Sprint Training
Authors
Angus Ross
Michael Leveritt
Publication date
01-12-2001
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
Sports Medicine / Issue 15/2001
Print ISSN: 0112-1642
Electronic ISSN: 1179-2035
DOI
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131150-00003