Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The ONWARDS insulin icodec trials

A round-up of the ONWARDS phase 3 clinical trials evaluating the novel weekly insulin icodec in people with diabetes.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
International Journal for Equity in Health
Published in: International Journal for Equity in Health 1/2017

Open Access 01-12-2017 | Research

Factors associated with gender equality among church-going young men in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: a cross-sectional study

Authors: Hendrew Lusey, Miguel San Sebastian, Monica Christianson, Kerstin E. Edin

Published in: International Journal for Equity in Health | Issue 1/2017

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

While women and girls are made vulnerable by inequitable and violent versions of masculinities, there is increasing evidence that gender equality will not be achieved without partnering with men. The aim of this study was to assess gender-equitable norms and their determinants among church-going young men in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Method

A cross-sectional study was carried out among 289 church-going young men, aged 18–24 years, residing in three disadvantaged communes of Kinshasa. Variables included sociodemographic characteristics, attitudes towards gender equality and responses to issues related to the Gender-Equitable Men (GEM) scale. Logistic regression was applied to identify the associations between sociodemographic characteristics, attitudes and the GEM scale.

Results

The findings provide evidence of attitudes and beliefs that act as barriers to gender equality. For instance, the majority of church-going young men (83.74%) agreed that a man is the only decision maker in the home and about half (50.87%) of the respondents supported the statement “There are times a woman deserves to be beaten”. Similarly, around half of the participants agreed with the idea of men’s uncontrollable sex drive (50.87%) and men’s toughness (50.17%). Close to half of the participants (44.29%) agreed that it is women’s responsibility to prevent pregnancy. These attitudes co-existed with a few gender-equitable norms as 82.70% agreed on the importance of joint decisions concerning family planning. An association between education, certain places of residence, being single or separated, and supportive attitudes towards gender equality was found with higher scores for the GEM.

Conclusion

Our study findings indicate that a high proportion of church-going young men do not endorse gender-equitable norms. Therefore, churches urgently need comprehensive gender equality and masculinity policies and programmes to influence young men’s attitudes and behaviours. The promotion of gender equality in schools and the wider community also need to be encouraged.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Hawkes S, Buse K. Gender and global health: evidence, policy and inconvenient truth. Lancet. 2013;381:1783–9.CrossRefPubMed
2.
Connell RW. Change among the gatekeepers: men, masculinities and gender equality in the global arena. Signs. 2005;30(3):1801–25.CrossRef
3.
Pulverwitz J, Michaelis A, Verma R, Weiss E. “Looking back, moving forward: promoting gender equity to fight HIV, horizons studies 1999 to 2007”, horizon synthesis background papers. Washington, DC: Population Council; 2010.
4.
Barker G, Nascimento M, Segundo M, & Pulerwitz J. How do we know if men have changed? Promoting and measuring attitude change with young men. In gender Equality and Men. Ruxton, S (ed.) Oxford, Oxfam. 2004.
5.
Pulverwitz J, Barker G, & Segundo M. Promoting healthy relationships and HIV/STI prevention for young men: positive findings from an intervention study in Brazil. Horizon Research Update. Population Council; Washington, DC. 2004.
6.
Verma RK, Pulerwitz J, Mahendra V, Khandekar S, Barker G, Fulpagare P, Singh SK. Challenging and changing gender attitudes among young men in Mumbai, India. Reproductive Health Matters. 2006;14(28):135–42.CrossRefPubMed
7.
Pulerwitz J, Martin S, Mehta M, Castillo T, Kidanu A, Verani F, Tewolde S. Promoting gender equity for HIV and violence prevention: results from the male norms initiative evaluation in Ethiopia. Washington, DC: PATH; 2010.
8.
Barker G, Ricardo C, Nascimento M, Olukoya A, Santos C. Questioning gender norms with men to improve health outcomes: evidence of impact. Global Public Health. 2010;5(5):539–53.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Izugbara CO. Masculinity scripts and abstinence-related beliefs of rural Nigerian male youth. J Sex Resp. 2008;45(3):262–76.CrossRef
10.
Khangelani Z, Geofrey S, Thabile K, Thembile M, Thomas R. Age at sexual debut: a determinant of multiple partnerships among south African youth. Afr J Reprod Health. 2010;14(2):47–54.
11.
Marston C, King E. Factors that shape young People’s sexual behaviour: a systematic review. Lancet. 2006;368(9547):1581–6.CrossRefPubMed
12.
Mantell JE, Needham JA, Hoffman S, Cebekhulu Q, Adams-Skinner J, Exner TM, Mabude Z, Beksinska M, Stein ZA, Millford C. Gender norms in South Africa: implications for HIV and pregnancy prevention among African and Indian women students at a South Africa tertiary institution. Culture Health Sexuality. 2009;11(2):139–57.CrossRef
13.
Erulkar AS. The experience of sexual coercion among young people in Kenya. Int Fam Plan Perspect. 2004;30(4):182–9.PubMed
14.
Pulverwitz J, Michaelis A, Verma R, Weiss E. Addressing gender dynamics and engaging men in HIV programmes: lessons learned from horizons research. Public Health Rep. 2010;125:282–92.CrossRef
15.
Kato-Wallace J, Barker G, Sharafi L, Mora L, Laura G. Adolescent boys and young men: engaging them as supporters of gender equality and health and understanding their vulnerabilities. Washington, D.C: Promundo US, New York, UNFPA; 2016.
16.
Stern E, Buikema R. The relational dynamics of hegemonic masculinity among south African men and women in the context of HIV. Cult Health Sex. 2015;15(9):1040–54.CrossRef
17.
Chitando E, Chirongoma S, editors. Redemptive masculinities: men, HIV and religion, EHAIA series. Geneva: World Council of Churches; 2012.
18.
World Health Organisation. Building from common foundations. The World Health Organisation and Faith-based Organisations in Primary Health Care, Geneva. 2008.
19.
Van Klinken AS. Theology, gender ideology and masculinity politics: a discussion on the transformation of masculinities as envisioned by African theologians and a local pentecostal church. J Theol South Afr. 2010;138:2–18.
20.
Maskens M. The Pentecostal reworking of male identities in Brussels: producing moral masculinities. Etnografica. 2015;19(2):323–45.CrossRef
21.
Lusey H, Christianson M, San Sebastian M, Edin KE. Church representatives’ perspectives on masculinities in the context of HIV. The case of the ecumenical HIV and AIDS initiative in Africa. Afr J AIDS Res. 2016;15(3):273–81.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Marshall M, Taylor N. Tackling HIV and AIDS with faith-based communities: learning from attitudes on gender relations and sexual rights within local evangelical churches in Burkina Faso, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. Gend Dev. 2006;14(3):363–74.CrossRef
23.
Daniel K. The role of women in the church in Africa. Int J Sociol Anthropol. 2010;2(6):126–39.
24.
Togarasei L. Christianity and hegemonic masculinities: transforming Botswana hegemonic masculinity using the Jesus of Luke. Scriptura. 2013;112(1):1–12.CrossRef
25.
Agadjanian C, Menjivar C. Talking about the “epidemic of the millennium”: religion, informal communication, and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. Soc Probl. 2008;55(3):301–21.CrossRef
26.
Lusey H, San Sebstian M, Christianson M, Dahlgren L, Edin KE. Conflicting discourses of church youths on masculinity and sexuality in the context of HIV in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Sahara J. 2014;11(1):284–93.CrossRef
27.
Ricardo C, Nascimento M, Fonseca V, Segundo M. Programme H and Programme M: Engaging young men and empowering young women to promote gender equality and health. Pan American Health Organisation and Promundo. Washington, D.C. 2010.
28.
Slegh H, Barker G, and Levtov R. Gender relations and gender based-violence and the effect of conflict on women and men in North-Kivu,Eastern DR Congo: Result from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES). Final report. Washington, DC, Cape Town, South Africa: Promundo-US & Sonke Justice. 2014.
29.
Central Intelligence Agency. The world factbook Africa: The Democratic Republic of Congo. Washington, DC. 2016.
30.
International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and Instituto Promundo. Men + Gender Equality: Policy Project: International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES). 2011.
31.
Barker G, Contreras JM, Heilman B, Singh AK, Verma R, K & Nascimento M. Evolving men: Initial Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES). Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and Instituto Promundo. 2011.
32.
Pulerwitz J, Barker J. Measuring attitudes towards gender norms among young men in Brazil. Men Masculinities. 2008;10(8):322–38.CrossRef
33.
Levtov RG, Barker G, Contreras Urbina M, Heilman B, Verma R. Pathways to gender equitable men: findings from the international men and gender equality survey in eight countries. Men Masculinities. 2014:1–35.
34.
Scott J, Averbach S, Modest AM, Hacker MR, Cornish S, Spencer D, Murphy M, Parmar P. A community assessment of gender inequitable norms and gender-based violence in South Sudan: a community-based participatory research approach. Confl Heal. 2013;7:4.CrossRef
35.
Jewkes R, Sikweyiya Y, Morell R, Dunkle K. Gender inequitable masculinity and sexual entitlement in rape perperation South Africa: findings of a cross-sectional study. PLoS One. 2011;6(12):e29590.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
36.
Epprecht M. Heterosexual Africa? The history of an idea from the age of exploration to the age of AIDS. Athens: Ohio University Press; 2008.
37.
International for Research on Women (ICRW). The girl effect: what do boys have to do with it? Briefieng notes for an expert meeting and workshop. Washington, DC.
38.
Nyanzi S, Nyanzi B, et al. Male promiscuity: the negotiation of masculinities by motorbike taxi-riders in Masaka, Uganda. Men Masculinities. 2009;12(1):73–89.CrossRef
39.
Walcott MM, Funkhouser E, Aung M, Kempf MC, Ehiri J, Zhang K, Bakhoya M, Hickam D, Jolly PE. Gender norms and sexual behaviours among men in western Jamaica. Sex Health. 2014;11:42–51.CrossRefPubMed
40.
Greene M, Omar R, Pawlak P. Masculinities, social change, and development. World development report 2012. Gender equality and development. Background Paper. 2011.
41.
Kazaura M, Ezekiel M, Chitama D, Mlang’a E. Gender equitable men’s attitudes and beliefs to reduce HIV risk and gender based violence in Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res. 2015;17(1):1–10.
42.
Nanda G, Schuler SR, Lenzi R. The influence of gender attitudes on contraceptive use in Tanzania: new evidence using husbands’ and wives’ survey data. J Biosoc Sci. 2013;45:331–44.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
43.
Fulata FL. Sex, gender, power and HIV/AIDS in Malawi. Threats and challenges to women being church. J Constr Theol. 2005;10(1):85–102.
44.
Vu L, Pulerwitz J, Burnett-Zieman B, Banura C, Okal J, Yam E. Inequitable gender norms from early adolescence to young adulthood in Uganda: tool validation and differences across age groups. J Adolesc Health. 2017;60(2):S15–21.CrossRefPubMed
45.
Kabiru CW, Izugbara CO, Beguy D. The health and well-being of young people in sub-Saharan Arica: an under-researched area? BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2013;13:11.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
46.
Chitando E. A new man for a new era? Zimbabwean Pentecostalism, masculinities and the HIV prevention. Missionalia. 2007;35(5):112–27.
47.
Simpson A. Boys to men in the shadows of AIDS: masculinity and HIV risk in Zambia. New York: Palgrave Macmilan; 2009.CrossRef
48.
49.
Ratele K. Work through resistance in engaging boys and men towards gender equality and progressive masculinities. Cult Health Sex. 2015;17(sup2):144–58.CrossRefPubMedCentral
50.
Landmark research report. Masculinity and religion in Nigeria: findings from qualitative research. Christian Aid, Voices4Change and Islamic Relief. 2015.
51.
Chitando E, Biri K. Faithful men of faithful god: masculinities in the Zimbabwe assembly of god Africa. Exchange. 2013;42(1):34–50.CrossRef
52.
Van Klinken AS. Men in the remaking: conversion narratives and born-again masculinity in Zambia. J Relig Afr. 2012;42(3):212–5.CrossRef
53.
Worris MW, Leung K, Ames D, Lickel B. Views from inside and outside: integrating Emic and Etic insights about culture and justice judgment. Acad Manage Rev. 1999;24(4):781–96.
Metadata
Title
Factors associated with gender equality among church-going young men in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: a cross-sectional study
Authors
Hendrew Lusey
Miguel San Sebastian
Monica Christianson
Kerstin E. Edin
Publication date
01-12-2017
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
International Journal for Equity in Health / Issue 1/2017
Electronic ISSN: 1475-9276
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0707-7

Other articles of this Issue 1/2017

International Journal for Equity in Health 1/2017 Go to the issue

Research

A qualitative study on the intersectional social determinants for indigenous people who become infected with HIV in their youth

Research

Gender bias and sex-based differences in health care efficiency in Polish regions

Research

Urban-rural disparities in hypertension prevalence, detection, and medication use among Chinese Adults from 1993 to 2011

Research

Urbanization, economic development and health: evidence from China’s labor-force dynamic survey

Research

Access to treatment for Hepatitis C among injection drug users: results from the cross-sectional HOPE IV study

Systematic review

Psychosocial factors associated with the mental health of indigenous children living in high income countries: a systematic review