Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress 2023 EHA Congress 2023 ASCO Annual Meeting
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

ACC 2024 Congress

Catch up on all the top stories and latest evidence in cardiology research with our ACC 2024 Congress hub page.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
BMC Public Health
Published in: BMC Public Health 1/2016

Open Access 01-12-2015 | Research article

Are pit latrines in urban areas of Sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances

Authors: Anne Nakagiri, Charles B. Niwagaba, Philip M. Nyenje, Robinah N. Kulabako, John B. Tumuhairwe, Frank Kansiime

Published in: BMC Public Health | Issue 1/2016

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

A pit latrine is the most basic form of improved sanitation which is currently used by a number of people around the globe. In spite of the wide spread use, known successes and advantages associated with pit latrines, they have received little attention in form of research and development. This review focuses on the usage and performance (filling, smell and insect nuisance) of pit latrines in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and proposes approaches for their improvements and sustainability.

Methods

Current pit latrine usage within urban SSA was calculated from Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) water and sanitation country-files. We conducted a literature search and review of documents on pit latrine usage, filling, smell and insect nuisances in urban areas of SSA. Findings of the review are presented and discussed in this paper.

Results and Discussion

Pit latrines are in use by more than half the urban population in SSA and especially among low income earners. An additional 36 million people in urban areas of SSA have adopted the pit latrine since 2007. However, their performance is unsatisfactory. Available literature shows that contributions have been made to address shortfalls related to pit latrine use in terms of science and technological innovations. However, further research is still needed.

Conclusion

Any technology and process management innovations to pit latrines should involve scientifically guided approaches. In addition, development, dissemination and enforcement of minimum pit latrine design standards are important while the importance of hygienic latrines should also be emphasized.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Feachem R, Bradley DJ, Garelick H, Mara DD. Sanitation and disease: health aspects of excreta and wastewater management. Chichester: Wiley; 1983.
2.
3.
4.
WHO, UNICEF: Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update. In: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP). Geneva, Switzerland; 2014.
5.
Banerjee SG, Morella E. Africa’s water and sanitation infrastructure: access, affordability, and alternatives. Washington DC: World Bank Publications; 2011.CrossRef
6.
Strande L. The Global Situation. In: Strande L, Ronteltap M, Brdjanovic D, editors. Faecal Sludge Management: Systems Approach for Implementation and Operation. London: IWA Publishing; 2014.
7.
Trawick P, Parker A. Synthesis report of the country technology reviews. Deliverable 2.2. In. Cranifield, UK: The Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Technologies (WASHTech); 2012.
8.
Iwugo K. Sanitation technology options for developing countries (with special reference to Africa). Public Health. 1981;95(4):189–206.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Schouten MAC, Mathenge RW. Communal sanitation alternatives for slums: a case study of kibera, Kenya. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. 2010;35(13–14):815–22.CrossRef
10.
Jha P. Recycling and reuse of human excreta from public toilets through biogas generation to improve sanitation, community health and environment. India: Sulabh International; 2005.
11.
WSP. A review of EcoSan experience in eastern and southern Africa. Field Note. In. Nairobi, Kenya: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank; 2005.
12.
13.
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Ann Intern Med. 2009;151(4):264–9.CrossRefPubMed
14.
15.
Franceys R, Pickford J, Reed R. A guide to the development of on-site sanitation. London: World Health Organisation; 1992.
16.
Juuti PS, Katko TS, Vuorinen HS. Environmental history of water: global views on community water supply and sanitation.London, UK Publishing; 2007.
17.
Pickford J. Low-Cost Sanitation. A survey of practical experience. London: ITDG Publishing; 2006.
18.
Wagner EG, Lanoix JN. Excreta disposal for rural areas and small communities. 1958.
19.
Cotton A, Franceys R, Pickford J, Saywell D. On-Plot Sanitation in low-income urban communities. A review of literature. Loughborough: WEDC Loughborough Univ. of Technology; 1995.
20.
Kalbermatten JM, Julius DS, Gunnerson CG, Mara DD, Mundial B. Appropriate sanitation alternatives; a planning and design manual, vol. 2: Baltimore, USA, John Hopkins University Press; 1982.
21.
Rybczynski W, Polprasert C, McGarry M. Low-cost technology options for sanitation. A state-of-the-art review and annotated bibliography. Ottawa: IDRC; 1978.
22.
Black M. Children first: the story of UNICEF past and present. New York: USA Oxford University Press; 1996.
23.
24.
Saywell D, Hunt C. Sanitation programmes revisited. Loughborough, UK: WEDC, Loughborough University; 1999.
25.
Thrift C. Sanitation policy in Ghana: Key factors and the potential for ecological sanitation solutions. Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute; 2007.
26.
Winblad U, Kilama W. Sanitation without water. Revised and enlarged edition. London: Macmillan Education; 1985.
27.
Van Nostrand J, Wilson JG. Rural ventilated improved pit latrines : a field manual for Botswana. Technical Advisory Group technical note; no. 8. In. Washington, DC: World Bank; 1983.
28.
Solsona F. The South African Sanplat. An alternative low-cost pit latrine system for rural and peri-urban areas. Technical guide. South Africa: CSIR Pretoria; 1995.
29.
Black M. 1978–1998 Learning What Works: A 20 Year Retrospective View on International Water and Sanitation Cooperation. In. Washington, DC: World Bank; 1998.
30.
Kalbermatten JM, Julius DS, Gunnerson CG. Appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation: A sanitation field manual., vol. 11. In. Washington, DC: World Bank; 1980.
31.
Kalbermatten JM, Julius D. Appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation. A planner’s guide. Appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation A planner’s guide. In Washington, DC: World Bank; 1980.
32.
Kalbermatten JM, Julius DS, Gunnerson CG, Mundial B. Appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation; a summary of technical and economic options. In Washington, DC: World Bank; 1980.
33.
Morgan P. An ecological approach to low cost sanitation provision in Malawi. In Nairobi, Kenya: Ecological Sanitation Research (EcoSanRes), Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI); 2006.
34.
Morgan P. An ecological approach to low cost sanitation provision in Malawi and Mozambique. WSP Field Note Series. In. Nairobi, Kenya: Ecological Sanitation Research (EcoSanRes), Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI); 2005 2005.
35.
Jenkins M, Cumming O, Scott B, Cairncross S. Beyond ‘improved’towards ‘safe and sustainable’urban sanitation: assessing the design, management and functionality of sanitation in poor communities of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev. 2014;4(1):131–41.CrossRef
36.
Günther I, Niwagaba CB, Lüthi C, Horst A, Mosler H-J, Tumwebaze IK. When is shared sanitation improved sanitation?-The correlation between number of users and toilet hygiene. 2012.
37.
Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I. Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums. BMC Public Health. 2014;14(1):624.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
38.
Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I. Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2014;14(1):1180.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
39.
Tumwebaze IK, Niwagaba CB, Günther I, Mosler H-J. Determinants of households’ cleaning intention for shared toilets: Case of 50 slums in Kampala, Uganda. Habitat Int. 2014;41:108–13.CrossRef
40.
Tumwebaze KI, Orach GC, Niwagaba C, Luthi C, Mosler H. Sanitation facilities in Kampala slums, Uganda: users’ satifaction and determinant factors. Int J Environ Health Res. 2012;1(1):1–14.
41.
Banerjee S, Wodon Q, Diallo A, Pushak T, Uddin E, Tsimpo C, Foster V: Access, affordability, and alternatives: Modern infrastructure services in Africa. In World Bank: Washington, DC; 2008.
42.
Morella E, Foster V, Banerjee SG. Climbing the Ladder: The State of Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The World Bank; 2008.
43.
44.
WEDC. Comparing National Sanitation Policy Content. An inital review of nine country profiles. In. Edited by WEDC. United Kingdom; 2005.
45.
Ekane N, Nykvist B, Kjellén M, Noel S, Weitz N. Multi-level sanitation governance: understanding and overcoming challenges in the sanitation sector in sub-Saharan Africa. Waterlines. 2014;33(3):242–56.CrossRef
46.
Kariuki M, Collignon B, Taisne R, Valfrey B, Plummer J. Better Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor: Good Practice from Sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya: Water utility partnership for capacity building (WUP) Africa; 2003.
47.
WHO. Technology for water supply and sanitation in developing countries: report of a WHO study group [meeting held in Geneva from 14 to 19 April 1986]. Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1987.
48.
Cotton A, Saywell D. On-plot sanitation in low-income urban communities: guidelines for selection. Loughborough: WEDC Loughborough Univ. of Technology; 1998.
49.
Saywell D, Shaw R. On-plot sanitation in urban areas: technical brief No. 61. Waterlines. 1999;18(1):17–20.CrossRef
50.
Rheinländer T, Keraita B, Konradsen F, Samuelsen H, Dalsgaard A. Smell: an overlooked factor in sanitation promotion. Waterlines. 2013;32(2):106–12.CrossRef
51.
Tumwebaze IK, Mosler H-J. Shared toilet users’ collective cleaning and determinant factors in Kampala slums, Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2014;14(1):1260.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
52.
WIN-SA, WRC. What Happens When the pit is full? Developments in on-site faecal sludge management (FSM). In: 1st faecal sludge management conference. Durban, South Africa: Water Information Network South Africa/Water Research Commission; 2011.
53.
Morgan P. Ecological Toilets: Start Simple and Upgrade from Arborloo to VIP. In: EcoSanRes Programme. Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute; 2009.
54.
Bakare BF. Scientific and management support for ventilated improved pit latrines (VIP) sludge content. Durban: University of KwaZulu Natal (UKZN); 2014.
55.
Macleod N. Opening address and introduction. In: WIN-SA, WRC, editor. What happens when the pit is full? Developments in on-site Faecal Sludge Management (FSM). South Africa: WIN-SA. WRC; 2011.
56.
Günther I, Horst A, Lüthi C, Mosler H-J, Niwagaba CB, Tumwebaze IK. Where do Kampala’s poor “go”?-Urban sanitation conditions in Kampala’s low-income areas. 2011.
57.
Appiah-Effah E, Nyarko KB, Gyasi SF, Awuah E. Faecal sludge management in low income areas: a case study of three districts in the Ashanti region of Ghana. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev. 2014;4(2):189–99.CrossRef
58.
Tilley E, Supply W, Council SC. Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) Dübendorf. 2008. Switzerland.
59.
Norris J. Sludge Build-Up in Septic Tanks, Biological Digesters and Pit Latrines in South Africa. WRC; In. South Africa: 2000.
60.
Still DA. After the pit latrine is fill … What then? Effective options for pit latrine management. In: WISA Biennial Conference 19–23 May: 2002. Durban: Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA); 2002.
61.
Still DA, Foxon K. Tackling the challenges of full pit latrines. Volume 2: How fast do pit toilets fill up? A scientific understanding of sludge build up and accumulation in pit latrines. In., vol. 2. South Africa: WRC; 2012.
62.
Buckley CA, Foxon KM, Brouckaert CJ, Rodda N, Nwaneri CF, Balboni E, et al. Scientific support for the design and operation of ventilated improved pit latrines (VIPS) and the efficacy of pit latrine addtives. In. South Africa: Water Research Commission; 2008.
63.
Brouckaert C, Foxon K, Wood K. Modelling the filling rate of pit latrines. Water SA. 2013;39(4):555–62.
64.
Todman LC, van Eekert MH, Templeton MR, Hardy M, Gibson WT, Torondel B, Abdelahi F, Ensink JH. Modelling the fill rate of pit latrines in Ifakara, Tanzania. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. 2014; 5(1), 100–106.
65.
Nakagiri A, Kulabako RN, Nyenje PM, Tumuhairwe JB, Niwagaba CB, Kansiime F. Performance of pit latrines in urban poor areas: a case of Kampala, Uganda. Habitat Int. 2015;49:529–37.CrossRef
66.
Chaggu EJ. Sustainable Environmental Protection Using Modified Pit-Latrines. In. Netherlands: Ph.D thesis: Sectie Milieutechnologie; Wageningen University; 2004.
67.
Zavala MAL, Funamizu N, Takakuwa T: Characterization of feces for describing the aerobic biodegradation of feces. J Environ Syst Eng, JSCE 2002;720/VII-25:99–105.
68.
Torondel B. Sanitation Ventures Literature Review: on-site sanitation waste characteristics. In. London, UK: London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine; 2010.
69.
Taljaard L, Venter A, Gorton D, Commission SAWR. An Evaluation of Different Commercial Microbial Or Microbially-derived Products for the Treatment of Organic Waste in Pit Latrines: Water Research Commission. 2003.
70.
Jere M, Chidavaenzi M, Nhandara C, Bradley M: The effect of non-pathogenic bacteria on latrine sludge. In: WEDC conference. vol. 24: Islamabad, Pakistan: Water, Engineering and Development Centre; 1998: 34–36.
71.
Foxon K, Mkhize S, Reddy M, Buckley C. Laboratory protocols for testing the efficacy of commercial pit latrine additives. Water SA 2009, 35(2)228–35.
72.
Kassam FF. Assessment of the performance of a novel, on-site, worm based sanitation system for peri-urban environments. In: Civil and Environmental Engineering Student Conference 25–26 June: 2012. London: Imperial College London; 2012.
73.
74.
75.
Mara D. The design of Ventilated Improved Pit latrines. In: Technology Advisory Group (TAG) Technical Note No13. USA: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank; 1984.
76.
Lin J, Aoll J, Niclass Y, Velazco MI, Wünsche L, Pika J, et al. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Volatile Constituents from Latrines. Environ Sci Technol. 2013;47(14):7876–82.CrossRefPubMed
77.
78.
Jördening H-J, Winter J. Environmental biotechnology: concepts and applications. Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH; 2005.
79.
Troccaz M, Niclass Y, Anziani P, Starkenmann C. The influence of thermal reaction and microbial transformation on the odour of human urine. Flavour Frag J. 2013.
80.
Curtis C, Hawkins PM. Entomological studies of on-site sanitation systems in Botswana and Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1982;76(1):99–108.CrossRefPubMed
81.
Emerson PM, Simms VM, Makalo P, Bailey RL. Household pit latrines as a potential source of the fly Musca sorbens–a one year longitudinal study from The Gambia. Trop Med Int Health. 2005;10(7):706–9.CrossRefPubMed
82.
Lindsay TC, Jawara M, D’Alessandro U, Pinder M, Lindsay SW. Development of odour-baited flytraps for sampling the African latrine fly, Chrysomya putoria, a putative vector of enteric diseases. PLoS One. 2012;7(11):e50505.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
83.
Irish S, Aiemjoy K, Torondel B, Abdelahi F, Ensink JHJ. Characteristics of Latrines in Central Tanzania and Their Relation to Fly Catches. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e67951. 67910.61371/journal.pone.0067951.
84.
Curtis C. Alternatives to conventional insecticides for urban vector and pest control. In: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment 1993; Cambridge; 1993.
85.
86.
87.
Carlberg G, Kihamia CM, Minjas J. Microbial control of flies in latrines in Dares Salaam with aBacillus thuringiensis (serotype 1) preparation, Muscabac. MIRCEN J Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 1985;1(1):33–44.CrossRef
88.
Nwaneri CF. Physico-chemical charactristics and biodegradibility of contents of ventilated improved pit latrines (VIPs) in eThekwini Municipality. In. South Africa; Master's Thesis: University of KwaZulu-Natal; 2009.
89.
Nwaneri CF, Foxon KM, Bakare BF, Buckley CA. Biological degradation processes within a pit latrine. In: WISA Biennial Conference & Exhibition 18–22 May 2008. Sun City: Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA); 2008.
90.
Zhang R, Day D, Christianson L, Jepson W. A computer model for predicting ammonia release rates from swine manure pits. J Agr Eng Res. 1994;58(4):223–9.CrossRef
91.
Sivagnaname N, Amalraj DD, Mariappan T. Utility of expanded polystyrene (EPS) beads in the control of vector-borne diseases. Indian J Med Res. 2005;122(4):291.PubMed
92.
Lindsay T, Jawara M, D'Alessandro U, Pinder M, Lindsay S. Preliminary studies developing methods for the control of Chrysomya putoria, the African latrine fly, in pit latrines in The Gambia. Trop Med Int Health. 2013;18(2):159–65.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
93.
Ryan BA, Mara DD, Mundial B. Pit latrine ventilation; field investigation methodology. TAG Technical Note. vol. 4. In. Washington, DC: World Bank; 1983.
94.
Morgan PR, Mara DD, Mundial B. Ventilated improved pit-latrines: recent development in Zimbabwe (Technical Note No. 2) vol. 3. In. Washington, D.C: World Bank; 1982.
95.
Dumpert JW. Performance Evaluation of VIP Latrines in the Upper West Region of Ghana. In Houghton,Michigan: MSc Thesis Michigan Technological University; 2008.
96.
Juwarkar AA, Singh SK, Mudhoo A. A comprehensive overview of elements in bioremediation. Rev Environ SciBiotechnol. 2010;9(3):215–88.CrossRef
97.
Zhu J. A review of microbiology in swine manure odor control. Agr Ecosyst Environ. 2000;78(2):93–106.CrossRef
98.
Huang J, Walker E, Giroux P, Vulule J, Miller J. Ovipositional site selection by Anopheles gambiae: influences of substrate moisture and texture. Med Vet Entomol. 2005;19(4):442–50.CrossRefPubMed
99.
Mboera L, Mdira K, Salum F, Takken W, Pickett J. Influence of synthetic oviposition pheromone and volatiles from soakage pits and grass infusions upon oviposition site-selection of Culex mosquitoes in Tanzania. J Chem Ecol. 1999;25(8):1855–65.CrossRef
100.
Mboera L, Takken W, Mdira K, Chuwa G, Pickett J. Oviposition and behavioral responses of Culex quinquefasciatus to skatole and synthetic oviposition pheromone in Tanzania. J Chem Ecol. 2000;26(5):1193–203.CrossRef
101.
Olagbemiro TO, Birkett MA, Mordue AJ, Pickett JA. Laboratory and field responses of the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus, to plant-derived Culex spp. oviposition pheromone and the oviposition cue skatole. J Chem Ecol. 2004;30(5):965–76.CrossRefPubMed
102.
Navarro-Silva MA, Marques FA, Duque L, Jonny E. Review of semiochemicals that mediate the oviposition of mosquitoes: a possible sustainable tool for the control and monitoring of Culicidae. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia. 2009;53(1):1–6.CrossRef
103.
Bentley MD, Day JF. Chemical ecology and behavioral aspects of mosquito oviposition. Annu Rev Entomol. 1989;34(1):401–21.CrossRefPubMed
104.
Blackwell A, Hansson B, Wadhams L, Pickett J. A behavioural and electrophysiological study of ovi position cues for Culex quinquefasciatus. Physiol Entomol. 1993;18(4):343–8.CrossRef
105.
Blackwell A, Johnson S. Electrophysiological investigation of larval water and potential oviposition chemo-attractants for Anopheles gambiae ss. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2000;94(4):389–98.PubMed
106.
Bartlett S. Climate change and urban children: impacts and implications for adaptation in low- and middle- income countries. Environ Urban. 2008;20(22):501–19.CrossRef
107.
Still DA, Foxon K. Tackling the challenges of full pit latrines. Volume 1: Understanding sludge accumulation in VIPs and strategies for emptying full pits In., vol. 1. South Africa: WRC; 2012.
108.
Kulabako RN, Nalubega M, Wozei E, Thunvik R. Environmental health practices, constraints and possible interventions in peri-urban settlements in developing countries - a review of Kampala, Uganda. Int J Environ Health Res. 2010;20(4):231–57.CrossRefPubMed
109.
Adubofour K, Obiri-Danso K, Quansah C. Sanitation survey of two urban slum Muslim communities in the Kumasi metropolis, Ghana. Environ Urban. 2013;25(1):189–207.CrossRef
110.
Bhagwan JN, Still D, Buckley C, Foxon K. Challenges with up-scaling dry sanitation technologies. Water SciTechnol. 2008;58(1):21–7.
111.
Garn JV, Caruso BA, Drews-Botsch CD, Kramer MR, Brumback BA, Rheingans RD, et al. Factors Associated With Pupil Toilet Use in Kenyan Primary Schools. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11(9):9694–711.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
112.
Afful K, Oduro-Kwarteng S, Awuah E. Assessing public perception of odours in a community: case of Ayigya Zongo, an urban poor community in Ghana. 2015.
113.
Chappuis CJ-Fo, Niclass Y, Vuilleumier C, Starkenmann C. Quantitative Headspace Analysis of Selected Odorants from Latrines in Africa and India. Environmental Science & Technology 2015; 49(10):6134-40.
Metadata
Title
Are pit latrines in urban areas of Sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances
Authors
Anne Nakagiri
Charles B. Niwagaba
Philip M. Nyenje
Robinah N. Kulabako
John B. Tumuhairwe
Frank Kansiime
Publication date
01-12-2015
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
BMC Public Health / Issue 1/2016
Electronic ISSN: 1471-2458
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2772-z

Other articles of this Issue 1/2016

BMC Public Health 1/2016 Go to the issue

Research article

Generating and predicting high quality action plans to facilitate physical activity and fruit and vegetable consumption: results from an experimental arm of a randomised controlled trial

Research article

Assessing the external validity of model-based estimates of the incidence of heart attack in England: a modelling study

Research article

A detailed spatial analysis on contrasting cancer incidence patterns in thyroid and lung cancer in Toronto women

Research article

Theory-based formative research on oral rehydration salts and zinc use in Lusaka, Zambia

Research article

The epidemiology of chronic pain in Libya: a cross-sectional telephone survey

Research article

Comparison of under-five mortality for 2000, 2005 and 2011 surveys in Ethiopia