Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Breast Cancer Research 1/2003

01-02-2003 | Commentary

Models of breast cancer: quo vadis, animal modeling?

Author: Kay-Uwe Wagner

Published in: Breast Cancer Research | Issue 1/2003

Login to get access

Abstract

Rodent models for breast cancer have for many decades provided unparalleled insights into cellular and molecular aspects of neoplastic transformation and tumorigenesis. Despite recent improvements in the fidelity of genetically engineered mice, rodent models are still being criticized by many colleagues for not being 'authentic' enough to the human disease. Motives for this criticism are manifold and range from a very general antipathy against the rodent model system to well-founded arguments that highlight physiological variations between species. Newly proposed differences in genetic pathways that cause cancer in humans and mice invigorated the ongoing discussion about the legitimacy of the murine system to model the human disease. The present commentary intends to stimulate a debate on this subject by providing the background about new developments in animal modeling, by disputing suggested limitations of genetically engineered mice, and by discussing improvements but also ambiguous expectations on the authenticity of xenograft models to faithfully mimic the human disease.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Kim JB, O'Hare MJ, Stein R: Models of breast cancer: is merging human and animal models the future?. Breast Cancer Res. 2004, 6: 22-30. 10.1186/bcr645.CrossRefPubMed Kim JB, O'Hare MJ, Stein R: Models of breast cancer: is merging human and animal models the future?. Breast Cancer Res. 2004, 6: 22-30. 10.1186/bcr645.CrossRefPubMed
2.
go back to reference Van Dyke T, Jacks T: Cancer modeling in the modern era: progress and challenges. Cell. 2002, 108: 135-144.CrossRefPubMed Van Dyke T, Jacks T: Cancer modeling in the modern era: progress and challenges. Cell. 2002, 108: 135-144.CrossRefPubMed
3.
go back to reference Perou CM, Sorlie T, Eisen MB, van de RM, Jeffrey SS, Rees CA, Pollack JR, Ross DT, Johnsen H, Akslen LA, Fluge O, Pergamen-schikov A, Williams C, Zhu SX, Lonning PE, Borresen-Dale AL, Brown PO, Botstein D: Molecular portraits of human breast tumours. Nature. 2000, 406: 747-752. 10.1038/35021093.CrossRefPubMed Perou CM, Sorlie T, Eisen MB, van de RM, Jeffrey SS, Rees CA, Pollack JR, Ross DT, Johnsen H, Akslen LA, Fluge O, Pergamen-schikov A, Williams C, Zhu SX, Lonning PE, Borresen-Dale AL, Brown PO, Botstein D: Molecular portraits of human breast tumours. Nature. 2000, 406: 747-752. 10.1038/35021093.CrossRefPubMed
4.
go back to reference Sorlie T, Tibshirani R, Parker J, Hastie T, Marron JS, Nobel A, Deng S, Johnsen H, Pesich R, Geisler S, Demeter J, Perou CM, Lonning PE, Brown PO, Borresen-Dale AL, Botstein D: Repeated observation of breast tumor subtypes in independent gene expression data sets. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003, 100: 8418-8423. 10.1073/pnas.0932692100.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Sorlie T, Tibshirani R, Parker J, Hastie T, Marron JS, Nobel A, Deng S, Johnsen H, Pesich R, Geisler S, Demeter J, Perou CM, Lonning PE, Brown PO, Borresen-Dale AL, Botstein D: Repeated observation of breast tumor subtypes in independent gene expression data sets. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003, 100: 8418-8423. 10.1073/pnas.0932692100.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
5.
go back to reference Durso TW: FDA considers altering preclinical testing guidelines. Scientist. 1996, 10: 1-7. Durso TW: FDA considers altering preclinical testing guidelines. Scientist. 1996, 10: 1-7.
6.
go back to reference Medina D, Thompson HJ: A comparison of the salient features of mouse, rat, and human mammary tumorignesis. In Methods in mammary gland biology and breast cancer. Edited by: Ip MM, Ash BB. 2000, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 31-38.CrossRef Medina D, Thompson HJ: A comparison of the salient features of mouse, rat, and human mammary tumorignesis. In Methods in mammary gland biology and breast cancer. Edited by: Ip MM, Ash BB. 2000, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 31-38.CrossRef
7.
go back to reference Zan Y, Haag JD, Chen KS, Shepel LA, Wigington D, Wang YR, Hu R, Lopez-Guajardo CC, Brose HL, Porter KI, Leonard RA, Hitt AA, Schommer SL, Elegbede AF, Gould MN: Production of knockout rats using ENU mutagenesis and a yeast-based screening assay. Nat Biotechnol. 2003, 21: 645-651. 10.1038/nbt830.CrossRefPubMed Zan Y, Haag JD, Chen KS, Shepel LA, Wigington D, Wang YR, Hu R, Lopez-Guajardo CC, Brose HL, Porter KI, Leonard RA, Hitt AA, Schommer SL, Elegbede AF, Gould MN: Production of knockout rats using ENU mutagenesis and a yeast-based screening assay. Nat Biotechnol. 2003, 21: 645-651. 10.1038/nbt830.CrossRefPubMed
8.
go back to reference Hahn WC, Weinberg RA: Modelling the molecular circuitry of cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2002, 2: 331-341. 10.1038/nrc795.CrossRefPubMed Hahn WC, Weinberg RA: Modelling the molecular circuitry of cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2002, 2: 331-341. 10.1038/nrc795.CrossRefPubMed
10.
go back to reference Ewald D, Li M, Efrat S, Auer G, Wall RJ, Furth PA, Hennighausen L: Time-sensitive reversal of hyperplasia in transgenic mice expressing SV40 T antigen. Science. 1996, 273: 1384-1386.CrossRefPubMed Ewald D, Li M, Efrat S, Auer G, Wall RJ, Furth PA, Hennighausen L: Time-sensitive reversal of hyperplasia in transgenic mice expressing SV40 T antigen. Science. 1996, 273: 1384-1386.CrossRefPubMed
11.
go back to reference Moody SE, Sarkisian CJ, Hahn KT, Gunther EJ, Pickup S, Dugan KD, Innocent N, Cardiff RD, Schnall MD, Chodosh LA: Conditional activation of Neu in the mammary epithelium of transgenic mice results in reversible pulmonary metastasis. Cancer Cell. 2002, 2: 451-461.CrossRefPubMed Moody SE, Sarkisian CJ, Hahn KT, Gunther EJ, Pickup S, Dugan KD, Innocent N, Cardiff RD, Schnall MD, Chodosh LA: Conditional activation of Neu in the mammary epithelium of transgenic mice results in reversible pulmonary metastasis. Cancer Cell. 2002, 2: 451-461.CrossRefPubMed
12.
go back to reference Gunther EJ, Moody SE, Belka GK, Hahn KT, Innocent N, Dugan KD, Cardiff RD, Chodosh LA: Impact of p53 loss on reversal and recurrence of conditional Wnt-induced tumorigenesis. Genes Dev. 2003, 17: 488-501. 10.1101/gad.1051603.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Gunther EJ, Moody SE, Belka GK, Hahn KT, Innocent N, Dugan KD, Cardiff RD, Chodosh LA: Impact of p53 loss on reversal and recurrence of conditional Wnt-induced tumorigenesis. Genes Dev. 2003, 17: 488-501. 10.1101/gad.1051603.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
13.
go back to reference Hahn WC, Counter CM, Lundberg AS, Beijersbergen RL, Brooks MW, Weinberg RA: Creation of human tumour cells with defined genetic elements. Nature. 1999, 400: 464-468. 10.1038/22780.CrossRefPubMed Hahn WC, Counter CM, Lundberg AS, Beijersbergen RL, Brooks MW, Weinberg RA: Creation of human tumour cells with defined genetic elements. Nature. 1999, 400: 464-468. 10.1038/22780.CrossRefPubMed
14.
go back to reference Elenbaas B, Spirio L, Koerner F, Fleming MD, Zimonjic DB, Donaher JL, Popescu NC, Hahn WC, Weinberg RA: Human breast cancer cells generated by oncogenic transformation of primary mammary epithelial cells. Genes Dev. 2001, 15: 50-65. 10.1101/gad.828901.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Elenbaas B, Spirio L, Koerner F, Fleming MD, Zimonjic DB, Donaher JL, Popescu NC, Hahn WC, Weinberg RA: Human breast cancer cells generated by oncogenic transformation of primary mammary epithelial cells. Genes Dev. 2001, 15: 50-65. 10.1101/gad.828901.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
15.
go back to reference Morales CP, Holt SE, Ouellette M, Kaur KJ, Yan Y, Wilson KS, White MA, Wright WE, Shay JW: Absence of cancer-associated changes in human fibroblasts immortalized with telomerase. Nat Genet. 1999, 21: 115-118. 10.1038/5063.CrossRefPubMed Morales CP, Holt SE, Ouellette M, Kaur KJ, Yan Y, Wilson KS, White MA, Wright WE, Shay JW: Absence of cancer-associated changes in human fibroblasts immortalized with telomerase. Nat Genet. 1999, 21: 115-118. 10.1038/5063.CrossRefPubMed
16.
go back to reference Hahn WC, Dessain SK, Brooks MW, King JE, Elenbaas B, Sabatini DM, DeCaprio JA, Weinberg RA: Enumeration of the simian virus 40 early region elements necessary for human cell transformation. Mol Cell Biol. 2002, 22: 2111-2123. 10.1128/MCB.22.7.2111-2123.2002.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Hahn WC, Dessain SK, Brooks MW, King JE, Elenbaas B, Sabatini DM, DeCaprio JA, Weinberg RA: Enumeration of the simian virus 40 early region elements necessary for human cell transformation. Mol Cell Biol. 2002, 22: 2111-2123. 10.1128/MCB.22.7.2111-2123.2002.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
17.
go back to reference Wright WE, Shay JW: Telomere dynamics in cancer progression and prevention: fundamental differences in human and mouse telomere biology. Nat Med. 2000, 6: 849-851. 10.1038/78592.CrossRefPubMed Wright WE, Shay JW: Telomere dynamics in cancer progression and prevention: fundamental differences in human and mouse telomere biology. Nat Med. 2000, 6: 849-851. 10.1038/78592.CrossRefPubMed
18.
go back to reference Coviello-Mclaughlin GM, Prowse KR: Telomere length regulation during postnatal development and ageing in Mus spretus. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997, 25: 3051-3058. 10.1093/nar/25.15.3051.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Coviello-Mclaughlin GM, Prowse KR: Telomere length regulation during postnatal development and ageing in Mus spretus. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997, 25: 3051-3058. 10.1093/nar/25.15.3051.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
19.
go back to reference Chadeneau C, Siegel P, Harley CB, Muller WJ, Bacchetti S: Telomerase activity in normal and malignant murine tissues. Oncogene. 1995, 11: 893-898.PubMed Chadeneau C, Siegel P, Harley CB, Muller WJ, Bacchetti S: Telomerase activity in normal and malignant murine tissues. Oncogene. 1995, 11: 893-898.PubMed
20.
go back to reference Artandi SE, Alson S, Tietze MK, Sharpless NE, Ye S, Greenberg RA, Castrillon DH, Horner JW, Weiler SR, Carrasco RD, DePinho RA: Constitutive telomerase expression promotes mammary carcinomas in aging mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002, 99: 8191-8196. 10.1073/pnas.112515399.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Artandi SE, Alson S, Tietze MK, Sharpless NE, Ye S, Greenberg RA, Castrillon DH, Horner JW, Weiler SR, Carrasco RD, DePinho RA: Constitutive telomerase expression promotes mammary carcinomas in aging mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002, 99: 8191-8196. 10.1073/pnas.112515399.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
21.
go back to reference Stewart SA, Hahn WC, O'Connor BF, Banner EN, Lundberg AS, Modha P, Mizuno H, Brooks MW, Fleming M, Zimonjic DB, Popescu NC, Weinberg RA: Telomerase contributes to tumorigenesis by a telomere length-independent mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002, 99: 12606-12611. 10.1073/pnas.182407599.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Stewart SA, Hahn WC, O'Connor BF, Banner EN, Lundberg AS, Modha P, Mizuno H, Brooks MW, Fleming M, Zimonjic DB, Popescu NC, Weinberg RA: Telomerase contributes to tumorigenesis by a telomere length-independent mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002, 99: 12606-12611. 10.1073/pnas.182407599.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
22.
go back to reference Greenberg RA, Chin L, Femino A, Lee KH, Gottlieb GJ, Singer RH, Greider CW, DePinho RA: Short dysfunctional telomeres impair tumorigenesis in the INK4a(delta2/3) cancer-prone mouse. Cell. 1999, 97: 515-525.CrossRefPubMed Greenberg RA, Chin L, Femino A, Lee KH, Gottlieb GJ, Singer RH, Greider CW, DePinho RA: Short dysfunctional telomeres impair tumorigenesis in the INK4a(delta2/3) cancer-prone mouse. Cell. 1999, 97: 515-525.CrossRefPubMed
23.
go back to reference Artandi SE, Chang S, Lee SL, Alson S, Gottlieb GJ, Chin L, DePinho RA: Telomere dysfunction promotes non-reciprocal translocations and epithelial cancers in mice. Nature. 2000, 406: 641-645. 10.1038/35020592.CrossRefPubMed Artandi SE, Chang S, Lee SL, Alson S, Gottlieb GJ, Chin L, DePinho RA: Telomere dysfunction promotes non-reciprocal translocations and epithelial cancers in mice. Nature. 2000, 406: 641-645. 10.1038/35020592.CrossRefPubMed
24.
go back to reference Dontu G, Abdallah WM, Foley JM, Jackson KW, Clarke MF, Kawamura MJ, Wicha MS: In vitro propagation and transcriptional profiling of human mammary stem/progenitor cells. Genes Dev. 2003, 17: 1253-1270. 10.1101/gad.1061803.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Dontu G, Abdallah WM, Foley JM, Jackson KW, Clarke MF, Kawamura MJ, Wicha MS: In vitro propagation and transcriptional profiling of human mammary stem/progenitor cells. Genes Dev. 2003, 17: 1253-1270. 10.1101/gad.1061803.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
25.
go back to reference Boulanger CA, Smith GH: Reducing mammary cancer risk through premature stem cell senescence. Oncogene. 2001, 20: 2264-2272. 10.1038/sj.onc.1204312.CrossRefPubMed Boulanger CA, Smith GH: Reducing mammary cancer risk through premature stem cell senescence. Oncogene. 2001, 20: 2264-2272. 10.1038/sj.onc.1204312.CrossRefPubMed
26.
go back to reference Bocker W, Moll R, Poremba C, Holland R, Van Diest PJ, Dervan P, Burger H, Wai D, Ina DR, Brandt B, Herbst H, Schmidt A, Lerch MM, Buchwallow IB: Common adult stem cells in the human breast give rise to glandular and myoepithelial cell lineages: a new cell biological concept. Lab Invest. 2002, 82: 737-746.CrossRefPubMed Bocker W, Moll R, Poremba C, Holland R, Van Diest PJ, Dervan P, Burger H, Wai D, Ina DR, Brandt B, Herbst H, Schmidt A, Lerch MM, Buchwallow IB: Common adult stem cells in the human breast give rise to glandular and myoepithelial cell lineages: a new cell biological concept. Lab Invest. 2002, 82: 737-746.CrossRefPubMed
27.
go back to reference Al Hajj M, Wicha MS, Benito-Hernandez A, Morrison SJ, Clarke MF: Prospective identification of tumorigenic breast cancer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003, 100: 3983-3988. 10.1073/pnas.0530291100.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Al Hajj M, Wicha MS, Benito-Hernandez A, Morrison SJ, Clarke MF: Prospective identification of tumorigenic breast cancer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003, 100: 3983-3988. 10.1073/pnas.0530291100.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
28.
go back to reference Marx J: Mutant stem cells may seed cancer. Science. 2003, 301: 1308-1310. 10.1126/science.301.5638.1308.CrossRefPubMed Marx J: Mutant stem cells may seed cancer. Science. 2003, 301: 1308-1310. 10.1126/science.301.5638.1308.CrossRefPubMed
29.
go back to reference Stewart TA, Pattengale PK, Leder P: Spontaneous mammary adenocarcinomas in transgenic mice that carry and express MTV/myc fusion genes. Cell. 1984, 38: 627-637.CrossRefPubMed Stewart TA, Pattengale PK, Leder P: Spontaneous mammary adenocarcinomas in transgenic mice that carry and express MTV/myc fusion genes. Cell. 1984, 38: 627-637.CrossRefPubMed
30.
go back to reference Sinn E, Muller W, Pattengale P, Tepler I, Wallace R, Leder P: Coexpression of MMTV/v-Ha-ras and MMTV/c-myc genes in transgenic mice: synergistic action of oncogenes in vivo. Cell. 1987, 49: 465-475.CrossRefPubMed Sinn E, Muller W, Pattengale P, Tepler I, Wallace R, Leder P: Coexpression of MMTV/v-Ha-ras and MMTV/c-myc genes in transgenic mice: synergistic action of oncogenes in vivo. Cell. 1987, 49: 465-475.CrossRefPubMed
31.
go back to reference Andrechek ER, Hardy WR, Siegel PM, Rudnicki MA, Cardiff RD, Muller WJ: Amplification of the neu/erbB-2 oncogene in a mouse model of mammary tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000, 97: 3444-3449. 10.1073/pnas.050408497.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Andrechek ER, Hardy WR, Siegel PM, Rudnicki MA, Cardiff RD, Muller WJ: Amplification of the neu/erbB-2 oncogene in a mouse model of mammary tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000, 97: 3444-3449. 10.1073/pnas.050408497.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
32.
go back to reference Rose-Hellekant TA, Arendt LM, Schroeder MD, Gilchrist K, Sandgren EP, Schuler LA: Prolactin induces ERalpha-positive and ERalpha-negative mammary cancer in transgenic mice. Oncogene. 2003, 22: 4664-4674. 10.1038/sj.onc.1206619.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Rose-Hellekant TA, Arendt LM, Schroeder MD, Gilchrist K, Sandgren EP, Schuler LA: Prolactin induces ERalpha-positive and ERalpha-negative mammary cancer in transgenic mice. Oncogene. 2003, 22: 4664-4674. 10.1038/sj.onc.1206619.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
33.
go back to reference Jerry DJ, Kittrell FS, Kuperwasser C, Laucirica R, Dickinson ES, Bonilla PJ, Butel JS, Medina D: A mammary-specific model demonstrates the role of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in tumor development. Oncogene. 2000, 19: 1052-1058. 10.1038/sj.onc.1203270.CrossRefPubMed Jerry DJ, Kittrell FS, Kuperwasser C, Laucirica R, Dickinson ES, Bonilla PJ, Butel JS, Medina D: A mammary-specific model demonstrates the role of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in tumor development. Oncogene. 2000, 19: 1052-1058. 10.1038/sj.onc.1203270.CrossRefPubMed
34.
go back to reference Wagner KU, Wall RJ, St-Onge L, Gruss P, Wynshaw-Boris A, Garrett L, Li M, Furth PA, Hennighausen L: Cre-mediated gene deletion in the mammary gland. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997, 25: 4323-4330. 10.1093/nar/25.21.4323.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Wagner KU, Wall RJ, St-Onge L, Gruss P, Wynshaw-Boris A, Garrett L, Li M, Furth PA, Hennighausen L: Cre-mediated gene deletion in the mammary gland. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997, 25: 4323-4330. 10.1093/nar/25.21.4323.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
35.
go back to reference Xu X, Wagner KU, Larson D, Weaver Z, Li C, Ried T, Hennighausen L, Wynshaw-Boris A, Deng CX: Conditional mutation of Brca1 in mammary epithelial cells results in blunted ductal morphogenesis and tumour formation. Nat Genet. 1999, 22: 37-43. 10.1038/8743.CrossRefPubMed Xu X, Wagner KU, Larson D, Weaver Z, Li C, Ried T, Hennighausen L, Wynshaw-Boris A, Deng CX: Conditional mutation of Brca1 in mammary epithelial cells results in blunted ductal morphogenesis and tumour formation. Nat Genet. 1999, 22: 37-43. 10.1038/8743.CrossRefPubMed
36.
go back to reference Cardiff RD, Anver MR, Gusterson BA, Hennighausen L, Jensen RA, Merino MJ, Rehm S, Russo J, Tavassoli FA, Wakefield LM, Ward JM, Green JE: The mammary pathology of genetically engineered mice: the consensus report and recommendations from the Annapolis meeting. Oncogene. 2000, 19: 968-988. 10.1038/sj.onc.1203277.CrossRefPubMed Cardiff RD, Anver MR, Gusterson BA, Hennighausen L, Jensen RA, Merino MJ, Rehm S, Russo J, Tavassoli FA, Wakefield LM, Ward JM, Green JE: The mammary pathology of genetically engineered mice: the consensus report and recommendations from the Annapolis meeting. Oncogene. 2000, 19: 968-988. 10.1038/sj.onc.1203277.CrossRefPubMed
37.
go back to reference Hennighausen L, Robinson GW: Think globally, act locally: the making of a mouse mammary gland. Genes Dev. 1998, 12: 449-455.CrossRefPubMed Hennighausen L, Robinson GW: Think globally, act locally: the making of a mouse mammary gland. Genes Dev. 1998, 12: 449-455.CrossRefPubMed
38.
39.
go back to reference Parmar H, Young P, Emerman JT, Neve RM, Dairkee S, Cunha GR: A novel method for growing human breast epithelium in vivo using mouse and human mammary fibroblasts. Endocrinology. 2002, 143: 4886-4896. 10.1210/en.2002-220570.CrossRefPubMed Parmar H, Young P, Emerman JT, Neve RM, Dairkee S, Cunha GR: A novel method for growing human breast epithelium in vivo using mouse and human mammary fibroblasts. Endocrinology. 2002, 143: 4886-4896. 10.1210/en.2002-220570.CrossRefPubMed
40.
go back to reference Ginger MR, Gonzalez-Rimbau MF, Gay JP, Rosen JM: Persistent changes in gene expression induced by estrogen and progesterone in the rat mammary gland. Mol Endocrinol. 2001, 15: 1993-2009. 10.1210/me.15.11.1993.CrossRefPubMed Ginger MR, Gonzalez-Rimbau MF, Gay JP, Rosen JM: Persistent changes in gene expression induced by estrogen and progesterone in the rat mammary gland. Mol Endocrinol. 2001, 15: 1993-2009. 10.1210/me.15.11.1993.CrossRefPubMed
41.
go back to reference D'Cruz CM, Moody SE, Master SR, Hartman JL, Keiper EA, Imielinski MB, Cox JD, Wang JY, Ha SI, Keister BA, Chodosh LA: Persistent parity-induced changes in growth factors, TGF-beta3, and differentiation in the rodent mammary gland. Mol Endocrinol. 2002, 16: 2034-2051. 10.1210/me.2002-0073.CrossRefPubMed D'Cruz CM, Moody SE, Master SR, Hartman JL, Keiper EA, Imielinski MB, Cox JD, Wang JY, Ha SI, Keister BA, Chodosh LA: Persistent parity-induced changes in growth factors, TGF-beta3, and differentiation in the rodent mammary gland. Mol Endocrinol. 2002, 16: 2034-2051. 10.1210/me.2002-0073.CrossRefPubMed
42.
go back to reference Wagner KU, Boulanger CA, Henry MD, Sgagias M, Hennighausen L, Smith GH: An adjunct mammary epithelial cell population in parous females: its role in functional adaptation and tissue renewal. Development. 2002, 129: 1377-1386.PubMed Wagner KU, Boulanger CA, Henry MD, Sgagias M, Hennighausen L, Smith GH: An adjunct mammary epithelial cell population in parous females: its role in functional adaptation and tissue renewal. Development. 2002, 129: 1377-1386.PubMed
43.
go back to reference Medina D, Smith GH: Chemical carcinogen-induced tumorigenesis in parous, involuted mouse mammary glands. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999, 91: 967-969. 10.1093/jnci/91.11.967.CrossRefPubMed Medina D, Smith GH: Chemical carcinogen-induced tumorigenesis in parous, involuted mouse mammary glands. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999, 91: 967-969. 10.1093/jnci/91.11.967.CrossRefPubMed
44.
go back to reference Gusterson BA, Warburton MJ, Mitchell D, Ellison M, Neville AM, Rudland PS: Distribution of myoepithelial cells and basement membrane proteins in the normal breast and in benign and malignant breast diseases. Cancer Res. 1982, 42: 4763-4770.PubMed Gusterson BA, Warburton MJ, Mitchell D, Ellison M, Neville AM, Rudland PS: Distribution of myoepithelial cells and basement membrane proteins in the normal breast and in benign and malignant breast diseases. Cancer Res. 1982, 42: 4763-4770.PubMed
45.
go back to reference Trask DK, Band V, Zajchowski DA, Yaswen P, Suh T, Sager R: Keratins as markers that distinguish normal and tumor-derived mammary epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1990, 87: 2319-2323.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Trask DK, Band V, Zajchowski DA, Yaswen P, Suh T, Sager R: Keratins as markers that distinguish normal and tumor-derived mammary epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1990, 87: 2319-2323.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
46.
go back to reference Rudland PS, Leinster SJ, Winstanley J, Green B, Atkinson M, Zakhour HD: Immunocytochemical identification of cell types in benign and malignant breast diseases: variations in cell markers accompany the malignant state. J Histochem Cytochem. 1993, 41: 543-553.CrossRefPubMed Rudland PS, Leinster SJ, Winstanley J, Green B, Atkinson M, Zakhour HD: Immunocytochemical identification of cell types in benign and malignant breast diseases: variations in cell markers accompany the malignant state. J Histochem Cytochem. 1993, 41: 543-553.CrossRefPubMed
47.
go back to reference Ludwig T, Fisher P, Murty V, Efstratiadis A: Development of mammary adenocarcinomas by tissue-specific knockout of Brca2 in mice. Oncogene. 2001, 20: 3937-3948. 10.1038/sj.onc.1204512.CrossRefPubMed Ludwig T, Fisher P, Murty V, Efstratiadis A: Development of mammary adenocarcinomas by tissue-specific knockout of Brca2 in mice. Oncogene. 2001, 20: 3937-3948. 10.1038/sj.onc.1204512.CrossRefPubMed
48.
go back to reference Jonkers J, Meuwissen R, van der Gulden H, Peterse H, van der Valk M, Berns A: Synergistic tumor suppressor activity of BRCA2 and p53 in a conditional mouse model for breast cancer. Nat Genet. 2001, 29: 418-425. 10.1038/ng747.CrossRefPubMed Jonkers J, Meuwissen R, van der Gulden H, Peterse H, van der Valk M, Berns A: Synergistic tumor suppressor activity of BRCA2 and p53 in a conditional mouse model for breast cancer. Nat Genet. 2001, 29: 418-425. 10.1038/ng747.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Models of breast cancer: quo vadis, animal modeling?
Author
Kay-Uwe Wagner
Publication date
01-02-2003
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Breast Cancer Research / Issue 1/2003
Electronic ISSN: 1465-542X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/bcr723

Other articles of this Issue 1/2003

Breast Cancer Research 1/2003 Go to the issue
Webinar | 19-02-2024 | 17:30 (CET)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on antibody–drug conjugates in cancer

Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) are novel agents that have shown promise across multiple tumor types. Explore the current landscape of ADCs in breast and lung cancer with our experts, and gain insights into the mechanism of action, key clinical trials data, existing challenges, and future directions.

Dr. Véronique Diéras
Prof. Fabrice Barlesi
Developed by: Springer Medicine