Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Breast Cancer Research 5/2003

01-10-2003 | Review

Oestrogen exposure and breast cancer risk

Authors: Ruth C Travis, Timothy J Key

Published in: Breast Cancer Research | Issue 5/2003

Login to get access

Abstract

Epidemiological and experimental evidence implicates oestrogens in the aetiology of breast cancer. Most established risk factors for breast cancer in humans probably act through hormone-related pathways, and increased concentrations of circulating oestrogens have been found to be strongly associated with increased risk for breast cancer in postmenopausal women. This article explores the evidence for the hypothesis that oestrogen exposure is a major determinant of risk for breast cancer. We review recent data on oestrogens and breast cancer risk, consider oestrogen-related risk factors and examine possible mechanisms that might account for the effects of oestrogen. Finally, we discuss how these advances might influence strategies for reducing the incidence of breast cancer.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Pike MC, Spicer DV, Dahmoush L, Press MF: Estrogens, progestogens, normal breast cell proliferation, and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev. 1993, 15: 17-35.PubMed Pike MC, Spicer DV, Dahmoush L, Press MF: Estrogens, progestogens, normal breast cell proliferation, and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev. 1993, 15: 17-35.PubMed
2.
go back to reference Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group: Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of nine prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002, 94: 606-616.CrossRef Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group: Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of nine prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002, 94: 606-616.CrossRef
3.
go back to reference Cuzick J, Powles T, Veronesi U, Forbes J, Edwards R, Ashley S, Boyle P: Overview of the main outcomes in breast-cancer prevention trials. Lancet. 2003, 361: 296-300. 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12342-2.PubMedCrossRef Cuzick J, Powles T, Veronesi U, Forbes J, Edwards R, Ashley S, Boyle P: Overview of the main outcomes in breast-cancer prevention trials. Lancet. 2003, 361: 296-300. 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12342-2.PubMedCrossRef
4.
go back to reference Dao TL: The role of ovarian steroid hormones in mammary carcinogenesis. In: Hormones and Breast Cancer. Edited by: Pike MC, Siiteri PK, Welsch CW. 1981, Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 281-295. Dao TL: The role of ovarian steroid hormones in mammary carcinogenesis. In: Hormones and Breast Cancer. Edited by: Pike MC, Siiteri PK, Welsch CW. 1981, Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 281-295.
5.
6.
go back to reference Lillie EO, Bernstein L, Ursin G: The role of androgens and polymorphisms in the androgen receptor in the epidemiology of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 2003, 5: 164-173. 10.1186/bcr593.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Lillie EO, Bernstein L, Ursin G: The role of androgens and polymorphisms in the androgen receptor in the epidemiology of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 2003, 5: 164-173. 10.1186/bcr593.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
7.
go back to reference Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Lancet. 1997, 350: 1047-1059. 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)08233-0.CrossRef Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Lancet. 1997, 350: 1047-1059. 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)08233-0.CrossRef
8.
go back to reference Eerola H, Aittomaki K, Asko-Seljavaara S, Nevanlinna H, von Smitten K: Hereditary breast cancer and handling of patients at risk. Scand J Surg. 2002, 91: 280-287.PubMed Eerola H, Aittomaki K, Asko-Seljavaara S, Nevanlinna H, von Smitten K: Hereditary breast cancer and handling of patients at risk. Scand J Surg. 2002, 91: 280-287.PubMed
9.
go back to reference Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Adami HO, van den Brandt PA, Folsom AR, Goldbohm RA, Graham S, Howe GR, Kushi LH, Marshall JR, Miller AB, Speizer FE, Willett W, Wolk A, Yaun SS: Non-dietary factors as risk factors for breast cancer, and as effect modifiers of the association of fat intake and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 1997, 8: 49-56. 10.1023/A:1018431104786.PubMedCrossRef Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Adami HO, van den Brandt PA, Folsom AR, Goldbohm RA, Graham S, Howe GR, Kushi LH, Marshall JR, Miller AB, Speizer FE, Willett W, Wolk A, Yaun SS: Non-dietary factors as risk factors for breast cancer, and as effect modifiers of the association of fat intake and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 1997, 8: 49-56. 10.1023/A:1018431104786.PubMedCrossRef
10.
go back to reference Key TJ, Verkasalo PK, Banks E: Epidemiology of breast cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2001, 2: 133-140. 10.1016/S1470-2045(00)00254-0.PubMedCrossRef Key TJ, Verkasalo PK, Banks E: Epidemiology of breast cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2001, 2: 133-140. 10.1016/S1470-2045(00)00254-0.PubMedCrossRef
11.
go back to reference Liu Q, Wuu J, Lambe M, Hsieh SF, Ekbom A, Hsieh CC: Transient increase in breast cancer risk after giving birth: postpartum period with the highest risk (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control. 2002, 13: 299-305. 10.1023/A:1015287208222.PubMedCrossRef Liu Q, Wuu J, Lambe M, Hsieh SF, Ekbom A, Hsieh CC: Transient increase in breast cancer risk after giving birth: postpartum period with the highest risk (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control. 2002, 13: 299-305. 10.1023/A:1015287208222.PubMedCrossRef
12.
go back to reference Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Breast cancer and breastfeeding: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50302 women with breast cancer and 96973 women without the disease. Lancet. 2002, 360: 187-195. 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09454-0.CrossRef Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Breast cancer and breastfeeding: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50302 women with breast cancer and 96973 women without the disease. Lancet. 2002, 360: 187-195. 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09454-0.CrossRef
13.
go back to reference Ewertz M, Duffy SW, Adami HO, Kvale G, Lund E, Meirik O, Mellemgaard A, Soini I, Tulinius H: Age at first birth, parity and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of 8 studies from the Nordic countries. Int J Cancer. 1990, 46: 597-603.PubMedCrossRef Ewertz M, Duffy SW, Adami HO, Kvale G, Lund E, Meirik O, Mellemgaard A, Soini I, Tulinius H: Age at first birth, parity and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of 8 studies from the Nordic countries. Int J Cancer. 1990, 46: 597-603.PubMedCrossRef
14.
go back to reference Russo J, Wilgus G, Russo IH: Susceptibility of the mammary gland to carcinogenesis: I. Differentiation of the mammary gland as determinant of tumor incidence and type of lesion. Am J Pathol. 1979, 96: 721-736.PubMedPubMedCentral Russo J, Wilgus G, Russo IH: Susceptibility of the mammary gland to carcinogenesis: I. Differentiation of the mammary gland as determinant of tumor incidence and type of lesion. Am J Pathol. 1979, 96: 721-736.PubMedPubMedCentral
15.
go back to reference Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58,515 women with breast cancer and 95,067 women without the disease. Br J Cancer. 2002, 87: 1234-1245. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600596.PubMedCentralCrossRef Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58,515 women with breast cancer and 95,067 women without the disease. Br J Cancer. 2002, 87: 1234-1245. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600596.PubMedCentralCrossRef
16.
go back to reference International Agency for Research on Cancer: Weight Control and Physical Activity. Lyon, France: IARC Press. 2002 International Agency for Research on Cancer: Weight Control and Physical Activity. Lyon, France: IARC Press. 2002
17.
go back to reference Dorgan JF, Baer DJ, Albert PS, Judd JT, Brown ED, Corle DK, Campbell WS, Hartman TJ, Tejpar AA, Clevidence BA, Giffen CA, Chandler DW, Stanczyk FZ, Taylor PR: Serum hormones and the alcohol-breast cancer association in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001, 93: 710-715. 10.1093/jnci/93.9.710.PubMedCrossRef Dorgan JF, Baer DJ, Albert PS, Judd JT, Brown ED, Corle DK, Campbell WS, Hartman TJ, Tejpar AA, Clevidence BA, Giffen CA, Chandler DW, Stanczyk FZ, Taylor PR: Serum hormones and the alcohol-breast cancer association in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001, 93: 710-715. 10.1093/jnci/93.9.710.PubMedCrossRef
18.
go back to reference Hankinson S, Hunter D: Breast cancer. In: Textbook of Cancer Epidemiology. Edited by: Adami HO, Hunter D, Trichopoulos D. 2002, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 301-339. Hankinson S, Hunter D: Breast cancer. In: Textbook of Cancer Epidemiology. Edited by: Adami HO, Hunter D, Trichopoulos D. 2002, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 301-339.
19.
go back to reference Huang Z, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Hennekens CH, Rosner B, Speizer FE, Willett WC: Dual effects of weight and weight gain on breast cancer risk. JAMA. 1997, 278: 1407-1411. 10.1001/jama.278.17.1407.PubMedCrossRef Huang Z, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Hennekens CH, Rosner B, Speizer FE, Willett WC: Dual effects of weight and weight gain on breast cancer risk. JAMA. 1997, 278: 1407-1411. 10.1001/jama.278.17.1407.PubMedCrossRef
20.
go back to reference Hoffman-Goetz L, Apter D, Demark-Wahnefried W, Goran MI, McTiernan A, Reichman ME: Possible mechanisms mediating an association between physical activity and breast cancer. Cancer. 1998, 83 (Suppl 3): 621-628. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19980801)83:3+<621::AID-CNCR4>3.0.CO;2-A.PubMedCrossRef Hoffman-Goetz L, Apter D, Demark-Wahnefried W, Goran MI, McTiernan A, Reichman ME: Possible mechanisms mediating an association between physical activity and breast cancer. Cancer. 1998, 83 (Suppl 3): 621-628. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19980801)83:3+<621::AID-CNCR4>3.0.CO;2-A.PubMedCrossRef
21.
go back to reference Thune I, Brenn T, Lund E, Gaard M: Physical activity and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1997, 336: 1269-1275. 10.1056/NEJM199705013361801.PubMedCrossRef Thune I, Brenn T, Lund E, Gaard M: Physical activity and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1997, 336: 1269-1275. 10.1056/NEJM199705013361801.PubMedCrossRef
22.
go back to reference Feicht CB, Johnson TS, Martin BJ, Sparkes KE, Wagner WW: Secondary amenorrhoea in athletes. Lancet. 1978, 2: 1145-1146. 10.1016/S0140-6736(78)92294-8.PubMedCrossRef Feicht CB, Johnson TS, Martin BJ, Sparkes KE, Wagner WW: Secondary amenorrhoea in athletes. Lancet. 1978, 2: 1145-1146. 10.1016/S0140-6736(78)92294-8.PubMedCrossRef
23.
go back to reference Shangold MM, Levine HS: The effect of marathon training upon menstrual function. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982, 143: 862-869.PubMedCrossRef Shangold MM, Levine HS: The effect of marathon training upon menstrual function. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982, 143: 862-869.PubMedCrossRef
24.
go back to reference Moisan J, Meyer F, Gingras S: Leisure physical activity and age at menarche. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991, 23: 1170-1175.PubMedCrossRef Moisan J, Meyer F, Gingras S: Leisure physical activity and age at menarche. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991, 23: 1170-1175.PubMedCrossRef
25.
go back to reference Bernstein L, Ross RK, Lobo RA, Hanisch R, Krailo MD, Henderson BE: The effects of moderate physical activity on menstrual cycle patterns in adolescence: implications for breast cancer prevention. Br J Cancer. 1987, 55: 681-685.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Bernstein L, Ross RK, Lobo RA, Hanisch R, Krailo MD, Henderson BE: The effects of moderate physical activity on menstrual cycle patterns in adolescence: implications for breast cancer prevention. Br J Cancer. 1987, 55: 681-685.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
26.
go back to reference Harlow SD, Matanoski GM: The association between weight, physical activity, and stress and variation in the length of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol. 1991, 133: 38-49.PubMed Harlow SD, Matanoski GM: The association between weight, physical activity, and stress and variation in the length of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol. 1991, 133: 38-49.PubMed
27.
go back to reference Cooper GS, Sandler DP, Whelan EA, Smith KR: Association of physical and behavioral characteristics with menstrual cycle patterns in women age 29–31 years. Epidemiology. 1996, 7: 624-628.PubMedCrossRef Cooper GS, Sandler DP, Whelan EA, Smith KR: Association of physical and behavioral characteristics with menstrual cycle patterns in women age 29–31 years. Epidemiology. 1996, 7: 624-628.PubMedCrossRef
28.
29.
go back to reference Stanczyk FZ: Steroid hormones. In: Mishell's Textbook of Infertility, Contraception, and Reproductive Endocrinology. Edited by: Lobo RA, Mishell DR, Paulson RJ, Shoupe D. 1997, Oxford: Blackwell Science, 47-66. 4 Stanczyk FZ: Steroid hormones. In: Mishell's Textbook of Infertility, Contraception, and Reproductive Endocrinology. Edited by: Lobo RA, Mishell DR, Paulson RJ, Shoupe D. 1997, Oxford: Blackwell Science, 47-66. 4
30.
go back to reference Onland-Moret NC, Kaaks R, van Noord PAH, Rinaldi S, Key T, Grobbee DE, Peeters PHM: Urinary endogenous sex hormone levels and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2003, 88: 1394-1399. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600890.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Onland-Moret NC, Kaaks R, van Noord PAH, Rinaldi S, Key T, Grobbee DE, Peeters PHM: Urinary endogenous sex hormone levels and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2003, 88: 1394-1399. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600890.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
31.
go back to reference Wysowski DK, Comstock GW, Helsing KJ, Lau HL: Sex hormone levels in serum in relation to the development of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 1987, 125: 791-799.PubMed Wysowski DK, Comstock GW, Helsing KJ, Lau HL: Sex hormone levels in serum in relation to the development of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 1987, 125: 791-799.PubMed
32.
go back to reference Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, Longcope C, Gordon GB, Comstock GW: A prospective study of endogenous hormones and breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev. 1994, 18: 79-85.PubMed Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, Longcope C, Gordon GB, Comstock GW: A prospective study of endogenous hormones and breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev. 1994, 18: 79-85.PubMed
33.
go back to reference Rosenberg CR, Pasternack BS, Shore RE, Koenig KL, Toniolo PG: Premenopausal estradiol levels and the risk of breast cancer: a new method of controlling for day of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol. 1994, 140: 518-525.PubMed Rosenberg CR, Pasternack BS, Shore RE, Koenig KL, Toniolo PG: Premenopausal estradiol levels and the risk of breast cancer: a new method of controlling for day of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol. 1994, 140: 518-525.PubMed
34.
go back to reference Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY: A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer. 1997, 75: 1075-1079.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY: A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer. 1997, 75: 1075-1079.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
35.
go back to reference Kabuto M, Akiba S, Stevens RG, Neriishi K, Land CE: A prospective study of estradiol and breast cancer in Japanese women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000, 9: 575-579.PubMed Kabuto M, Akiba S, Stevens RG, Neriishi K, Land CE: A prospective study of estradiol and breast cancer in Japanese women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000, 9: 575-579.PubMed
36.
go back to reference Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY: A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer. 1997, 76: 401-405.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY: A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer. 1997, 76: 401-405.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
37.
go back to reference Michaud DS, Manson JE, Spiegelman D, Barbieri RL, Sepkovic DW, Bradlow HL, Hankinson SE: Reproducibility of plasma and urinary sex hormone levels in premenopausal women over a one-year period. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999, 8: 1059-1064.PubMed Michaud DS, Manson JE, Spiegelman D, Barbieri RL, Sepkovic DW, Bradlow HL, Hankinson SE: Reproducibility of plasma and urinary sex hormone levels in premenopausal women over a one-year period. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999, 8: 1059-1064.PubMed
38.
go back to reference Yu H, Shu XO, Shi R, Dai Q, Jin F, Gao YT, Li BD, Zheng W: Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer. 2003, 105: 92-97. 10.1002/ijc.11034.PubMedCrossRef Yu H, Shu XO, Shi R, Dai Q, Jin F, Gao YT, Li BD, Zheng W: Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer. 2003, 105: 92-97. 10.1002/ijc.11034.PubMedCrossRef
39.
go back to reference Feigelson HS, Ross RK, Yu MC, Coetzee GA, Reichardt JK, Henderson BE: Genetic susceptibility to cancer from exogenous and endogenous exposures. J Cell Biochem Suppl. 1996, 25: 15-22. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4644(1996)25+<15::AID-JCB2>3.0.CO;2-5.PubMedCrossRef Feigelson HS, Ross RK, Yu MC, Coetzee GA, Reichardt JK, Henderson BE: Genetic susceptibility to cancer from exogenous and endogenous exposures. J Cell Biochem Suppl. 1996, 25: 15-22. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4644(1996)25+<15::AID-JCB2>3.0.CO;2-5.PubMedCrossRef
40.
go back to reference Feigelson HS, McKean-Cowdin R, Coetzee GA, Stram DO, Kolonel LN, Henderson BE: Building a multigenic model of breast cancer susceptibility: CYP17 and HSD17B1 are two important candidates. Cancer Res. 2001, 61: 785-789.PubMed Feigelson HS, McKean-Cowdin R, Coetzee GA, Stram DO, Kolonel LN, Henderson BE: Building a multigenic model of breast cancer susceptibility: CYP17 and HSD17B1 are two important candidates. Cancer Res. 2001, 61: 785-789.PubMed
41.
go back to reference Kristensen VN, Borresen-Dale AL: Molecular epidemiology of breast cancer: genetic variation in steroid hormone metabolism. Mutat Res. 2000, 462: 323-333. 10.1016/S1383-5742(00)00018-1.PubMedCrossRef Kristensen VN, Borresen-Dale AL: Molecular epidemiology of breast cancer: genetic variation in steroid hormone metabolism. Mutat Res. 2000, 462: 323-333. 10.1016/S1383-5742(00)00018-1.PubMedCrossRef
42.
go back to reference Dunning AM, Healey CS, Pharoah PD, Teare MD, Ponder BA, Easton DF: A systematic review of genetic polymorphisms and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999, 8: 843-854.PubMed Dunning AM, Healey CS, Pharoah PD, Teare MD, Ponder BA, Easton DF: A systematic review of genetic polymorphisms and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999, 8: 843-854.PubMed
43.
go back to reference Thompson PA, Ambrosone C: Molecular epidemiology of genetic polymorphisms in estrogen metabolizing enzymes in human breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 2000, 125-134. Thompson PA, Ambrosone C: Molecular epidemiology of genetic polymorphisms in estrogen metabolizing enzymes in human breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 2000, 125-134.
44.
go back to reference Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Cone LA, Muhleman D, MacMurray JP: A multigene test for the risk of sporadic breast carcinoma. Cancer. 2003, 97: 2160-2170. 10.1002/cncr.11340.PubMedCrossRef Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Cone LA, Muhleman D, MacMurray JP: A multigene test for the risk of sporadic breast carcinoma. Cancer. 2003, 97: 2160-2170. 10.1002/cncr.11340.PubMedCrossRef
45.
go back to reference Yim DS, Parkb SK, Yoo KY, Yoon KS, Chung HH, Kang HL, Ahn SH, Noh DY, Choe KJ, Jang IJ, Shin SG, Strickland PT, Hirvonen A, Kang D: Relationship between the Val158Met polymorphism of catechol O-methyl transferase and breast cancer. Pharmacogenetics. 2001, 11: 279-286. 10.1097/00008571-200106000-00001.PubMedCrossRef Yim DS, Parkb SK, Yoo KY, Yoon KS, Chung HH, Kang HL, Ahn SH, Noh DY, Choe KJ, Jang IJ, Shin SG, Strickland PT, Hirvonen A, Kang D: Relationship between the Val158Met polymorphism of catechol O-methyl transferase and breast cancer. Pharmacogenetics. 2001, 11: 279-286. 10.1097/00008571-200106000-00001.PubMedCrossRef
46.
go back to reference Huang CS, Chern HD, Chang KJ, Cheng CW, Hsu SM, Shen CY: Breast cancer risk associated with genotype polymorphism of the estrogen-metabolizing genes CYP17, CYP1A1, and COMT: a multigenic study on cancer susceptibility. Cancer Res. 1999, 59: 4870-4875.PubMed Huang CS, Chern HD, Chang KJ, Cheng CW, Hsu SM, Shen CY: Breast cancer risk associated with genotype polymorphism of the estrogen-metabolizing genes CYP17, CYP1A1, and COMT: a multigenic study on cancer susceptibility. Cancer Res. 1999, 59: 4870-4875.PubMed
47.
go back to reference Lavigne JA, Helzlsouer KJ, Huang HY, Strickland PT, Bell DA, Selmin O, Watson MA, Hoffman S, Comstock GW, Yager JD: An association between the allele coding for a low activity variant of catechol-O-methyltransferase and the risk for breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1997, 57: 5493-5497.PubMed Lavigne JA, Helzlsouer KJ, Huang HY, Strickland PT, Bell DA, Selmin O, Watson MA, Hoffman S, Comstock GW, Yager JD: An association between the allele coding for a low activity variant of catechol-O-methyltransferase and the risk for breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1997, 57: 5493-5497.PubMed
48.
go back to reference Kocabas NA, Sardas S, Cholerton S, Daly AK, Karakaya AE: Cytochrome P450 CYP1B1 and catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) genetic polymorphisms and breast cancer susceptibility in a Turkish population. Arch Toxicol. 2002, 76: 643-649. 10.1007/s00204-002-0387-x.PubMedCrossRef Kocabas NA, Sardas S, Cholerton S, Daly AK, Karakaya AE: Cytochrome P450 CYP1B1 and catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) genetic polymorphisms and breast cancer susceptibility in a Turkish population. Arch Toxicol. 2002, 76: 643-649. 10.1007/s00204-002-0387-x.PubMedCrossRef
49.
go back to reference Wedren S, Rudqvist TR, Granath F, Weiderpass E, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Persson I, Magnusson C: Catechol-O-methyltransferase gene polymorphism and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Carcinogenesis. 2003, 24: 681-687. 10.1093/carcin/bgg022.PubMedCrossRef Wedren S, Rudqvist TR, Granath F, Weiderpass E, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Persson I, Magnusson C: Catechol-O-methyltransferase gene polymorphism and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Carcinogenesis. 2003, 24: 681-687. 10.1093/carcin/bgg022.PubMedCrossRef
50.
go back to reference Mitrunen K, Kataja V, Eskelinen M, Kosma VM, Kang D, Benhamou S, Vainio H, Uusitupa M, Hirvonen A: Combined COMT and GST genotypes and hormone replacement therapy associated breast cancer risk. Pharmacogenetics. 2002, 12: 67-72. 10.1097/00008571-200201000-00009.PubMedCrossRef Mitrunen K, Kataja V, Eskelinen M, Kosma VM, Kang D, Benhamou S, Vainio H, Uusitupa M, Hirvonen A: Combined COMT and GST genotypes and hormone replacement therapy associated breast cancer risk. Pharmacogenetics. 2002, 12: 67-72. 10.1097/00008571-200201000-00009.PubMedCrossRef
51.
go back to reference Beral V, Hermon C, Reeves G, Key T: Breast cancer trends in women in Sweden, the UK, and the USA in relation to their past use of oral contraceptives. In: Hormonal Carcinogenesis II. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium. Edited by: Li JJ, Li SA, Gustafsson J-A, Nandi S, Sekely LI. 1996, New York: Springer-Verlag, 99-106.CrossRef Beral V, Hermon C, Reeves G, Key T: Breast cancer trends in women in Sweden, the UK, and the USA in relation to their past use of oral contraceptives. In: Hormonal Carcinogenesis II. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium. Edited by: Li JJ, Li SA, Gustafsson J-A, Nandi S, Sekely LI. 1996, New York: Springer-Verlag, 99-106.CrossRef
52.
go back to reference Million Women Study Collaborators: Patterns of use of hormone replacement therapy in one million women in Britain, 1996–2000. BJOG. 2002, 109: 1319-1330.CrossRef Million Women Study Collaborators: Patterns of use of hormone replacement therapy in one million women in Britain, 1996–2000. BJOG. 2002, 109: 1319-1330.CrossRef
53.
go back to reference Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet. 1996, 347: 1713-1727. 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90806-5.CrossRef Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer: Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet. 1996, 347: 1713-1727. 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90806-5.CrossRef
54.
go back to reference Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, Speizer FE: A prospective study of oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer (Nurses' Health Study, United States). Cancer Causes Control. 1997, 8: 65-72. 10.1023/A:1018435205695.PubMedCrossRef Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, Speizer FE: A prospective study of oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer (Nurses' Health Study, United States). Cancer Causes Control. 1997, 8: 65-72. 10.1023/A:1018435205695.PubMedCrossRef
55.
go back to reference Magnusson CM, Persson IR, Baron JA, Ekbom A, Bergstrom R, Adami HO: The role of reproductive factors and use of oral contraceptives in the aetiology of breast cancer in women aged 50 to 74 years. Int J Cancer. 1999, 80: 231-236. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19990118)80:2<231::AID-IJC11>3.3.CO;2-I.PubMedCrossRef Magnusson CM, Persson IR, Baron JA, Ekbom A, Bergstrom R, Adami HO: The role of reproductive factors and use of oral contraceptives in the aetiology of breast cancer in women aged 50 to 74 years. Int J Cancer. 1999, 80: 231-236. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19990118)80:2<231::AID-IJC11>3.3.CO;2-I.PubMedCrossRef
56.
go back to reference Kumle M, Weiderpass E, Braaten T, Persson I, Adami HO, Lund E: Use of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk: The Norwegian-Swedish Women's Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002, 11: 1375-1381.PubMed Kumle M, Weiderpass E, Braaten T, Persson I, Adami HO, Lund E: Use of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk: The Norwegian-Swedish Women's Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002, 11: 1375-1381.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, Folger SG, Mandel MG, Daling JR, Bernstein L, Malone KE, Ursin G, Strom BL, Norman SA, Wingo PA, Burkman RT, Berlin JA, Simon MS, Spirtas R, Weiss LK: Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002, 346: 2025-2032. 10.1056/NEJMoa013202.PubMedCrossRef Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, Folger SG, Mandel MG, Daling JR, Bernstein L, Malone KE, Ursin G, Strom BL, Norman SA, Wingo PA, Burkman RT, Berlin JA, Simon MS, Spirtas R, Weiss LK: Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002, 346: 2025-2032. 10.1056/NEJMoa013202.PubMedCrossRef
58.
go back to reference Althuis MD, Brogan DR, Coates RJ, Daling JR, Gammon MD, Malone KE, Schoenberg JB, Brinton LA: Hormonal content and potency of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk among young women. Br J Cancer. 2003, 88: 50-57. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600691.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef Althuis MD, Brogan DR, Coates RJ, Daling JR, Gammon MD, Malone KE, Schoenberg JB, Brinton LA: Hormonal content and potency of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk among young women. Br J Cancer. 2003, 88: 50-57. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600691.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
59.
go back to reference Dumeaux V, Alsaker E, Lund E: Breast cancer and specific types of oral contraceptives: a large Norwegian cohort study. Int J Cancer. 2003, 105: 844-850. 10.1002/ijc.11167.PubMedCrossRef Dumeaux V, Alsaker E, Lund E: Breast cancer and specific types of oral contraceptives: a large Norwegian cohort study. Int J Cancer. 2003, 105: 844-850. 10.1002/ijc.11167.PubMedCrossRef
60.
go back to reference Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, Pike MC: Effect of hormone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk: estrogen versus estrogen plus progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000, 92: 328-332. 10.1093/jnci/92.4.328.PubMedCrossRef Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, Pike MC: Effect of hormone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk: estrogen versus estrogen plus progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000, 92: 328-332. 10.1093/jnci/92.4.328.PubMedCrossRef
61.
go back to reference Olsson HL, Ingvar C, Bladstrom A: Hormone replacement therapy containing progestins and given continuously increases breast carcinoma risk in Sweden. Cancer. 2003, 97: 1387-1392. 10.1002/cncr.11205.PubMedCrossRef Olsson HL, Ingvar C, Bladstrom A: Hormone replacement therapy containing progestins and given continuously increases breast carcinoma risk in Sweden. Cancer. 2003, 97: 1387-1392. 10.1002/cncr.11205.PubMedCrossRef
62.
go back to reference Beral V, Banks E, Reeves G: Evidence from randomised trials on the long-term effects of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet. 2002, 360: 942-944. 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11032-4.PubMedCrossRef Beral V, Banks E, Reeves G: Evidence from randomised trials on the long-term effects of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet. 2002, 360: 942-944. 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11032-4.PubMedCrossRef
63.
go back to reference International Agency for Research on Cancer: Globocan Lyon: IARC. 2001, 5 International Agency for Research on Cancer: Globocan Lyon: IARC. 2001, 5
64.
go back to reference Setchell KD, Borriello SP, Hulme P, Kirk DN, Axelson M: Nonsteroidal estrogens of dietary origin: possible roles in hormone-dependent disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 1984, 40: 569-578.PubMed Setchell KD, Borriello SP, Hulme P, Kirk DN, Axelson M: Nonsteroidal estrogens of dietary origin: possible roles in hormone-dependent disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 1984, 40: 569-578.PubMed
66.
go back to reference Xu X, Duncan AM, Wangen KE, Kurzer MS: Soy consumption alters endogenous estrogen metabolism in postmenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000, 9: 781-786.PubMed Xu X, Duncan AM, Wangen KE, Kurzer MS: Soy consumption alters endogenous estrogen metabolism in postmenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000, 9: 781-786.PubMed
67.
go back to reference Bingham SA, Atkinson C, Liggins J, Bluck L, Coward A: Phyto-oestrogens: where are we now?. Br J Nutr. 1998, 79: 393-406.PubMedCrossRef Bingham SA, Atkinson C, Liggins J, Bluck L, Coward A: Phyto-oestrogens: where are we now?. Br J Nutr. 1998, 79: 393-406.PubMedCrossRef
68.
go back to reference Peeters PHM, Keinan-Boker L, van der Schouw YT, Grobbee DE: Phytoestrogens and breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2003, 77: 171-183. 10.1023/A:1021381101632.PubMedCrossRef Peeters PHM, Keinan-Boker L, van der Schouw YT, Grobbee DE: Phytoestrogens and breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2003, 77: 171-183. 10.1023/A:1021381101632.PubMedCrossRef
69.
go back to reference Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, Esteve J, Lee J, Day NE: Risk factors for breast cancer by age and menopausal status: a case-control study in Singapore. Cancer Causes Control. 1992, 3: 313-322.PubMedCrossRef Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, Esteve J, Lee J, Day NE: Risk factors for breast cancer by age and menopausal status: a case-control study in Singapore. Cancer Causes Control. 1992, 3: 313-322.PubMedCrossRef
70.
go back to reference Hirose K, Tajima K, Hamajima N, Inoue M, Takezaki T, Kuroishi T, Yoshida M, Tokudome S: A large-scale, hospital-based case-control study of risk factors of breast cancer according to menopausal status. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1995, 86: 146-154.PubMedCrossRef Hirose K, Tajima K, Hamajima N, Inoue M, Takezaki T, Kuroishi T, Yoshida M, Tokudome S: A large-scale, hospital-based case-control study of risk factors of breast cancer according to menopausal status. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1995, 86: 146-154.PubMedCrossRef
71.
go back to reference Shu XO, Jin F, Dai Q, Wen W, Potter JD, Kushi LH, Ruan Z, Gao YT, Zheng W: Soyfood intake during adolescence and subsequent risk of breast cancer among Chinese women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001, 10: 483-488.PubMed Shu XO, Jin F, Dai Q, Wen W, Potter JD, Kushi LH, Ruan Z, Gao YT, Zheng W: Soyfood intake during adolescence and subsequent risk of breast cancer among Chinese women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001, 10: 483-488.PubMed
72.
go back to reference Wu AH, Wan P, Hankin J, Tseng CC, Yu MC, Pike MC: Adolescent and adult soy intake and risk of breast cancer in Asian-Americans. Carcinogenesis. 2002, 23: 1491-1496. 10.1093/carcin/23.9.1491.PubMedCrossRef Wu AH, Wan P, Hankin J, Tseng CC, Yu MC, Pike MC: Adolescent and adult soy intake and risk of breast cancer in Asian-Americans. Carcinogenesis. 2002, 23: 1491-1496. 10.1093/carcin/23.9.1491.PubMedCrossRef
73.
go back to reference McManus MJ, Welsch CW: The effect of estrogen, progesterone, thyroxine, and human placental lactogen on DNA synthesis of human breast ductal epithelium maintained in athymic nude mice. Cancer. 1984, 54: 1920-1927.PubMedCrossRef McManus MJ, Welsch CW: The effect of estrogen, progesterone, thyroxine, and human placental lactogen on DNA synthesis of human breast ductal epithelium maintained in athymic nude mice. Cancer. 1984, 54: 1920-1927.PubMedCrossRef
74.
75.
go back to reference Henderson BE, Feigelson HS: Hormonal carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 2000, 21: 427-433. 10.1093/carcin/21.3.427.PubMedCrossRef Henderson BE, Feigelson HS: Hormonal carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 2000, 21: 427-433. 10.1093/carcin/21.3.427.PubMedCrossRef
76.
go back to reference Clemons M, Goss P: Estrogen and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001, 344: 276-285. 10.1056/NEJM200101253440407.PubMedCrossRef Clemons M, Goss P: Estrogen and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001, 344: 276-285. 10.1056/NEJM200101253440407.PubMedCrossRef
77.
go back to reference Jefcoate CR, Liehr JG, Santen RJ, Sutter TR, Yager JD, Yue W, Santner SJ, Tekmal R, Demers L, Pauley R, Naftolin F, Mor G, Berstein L: Tissue-specific synthesis and oxidative metabolism of estrogens. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 2000, 95-112. Jefcoate CR, Liehr JG, Santen RJ, Sutter TR, Yager JD, Yue W, Santner SJ, Tekmal R, Demers L, Pauley R, Naftolin F, Mor G, Berstein L: Tissue-specific synthesis and oxidative metabolism of estrogens. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 2000, 95-112.
78.
go back to reference Trichopoulos D: Hypothesis: does breast cancer originate in utero?. Lancet. 1990, 335: 939-940. 10.1016/0140-6736(90)91000-Z.PubMedCrossRef Trichopoulos D: Hypothesis: does breast cancer originate in utero?. Lancet. 1990, 335: 939-940. 10.1016/0140-6736(90)91000-Z.PubMedCrossRef
79.
go back to reference Hilakivi-Clarke L, Cho E, Raygada M, Kenney N: Alterations in mammary gland development following neonatal exposure to estradiol, transforming growth factor alpha, and estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780. J Cell Physiol. 1997, 170: 279-289. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4652(199703)170:3<279::AID-JCP9>3.3.CO;2-B.PubMedCrossRef Hilakivi-Clarke L, Cho E, Raygada M, Kenney N: Alterations in mammary gland development following neonatal exposure to estradiol, transforming growth factor alpha, and estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780. J Cell Physiol. 1997, 170: 279-289. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4652(199703)170:3<279::AID-JCP9>3.3.CO;2-B.PubMedCrossRef
80.
go back to reference Russo IH, Russo J: Role of hormones in mammary cancer initiation and progression. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 1998, 3: 49-61. 10.1023/A:1018770218022.PubMedCrossRef Russo IH, Russo J: Role of hormones in mammary cancer initiation and progression. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 1998, 3: 49-61. 10.1023/A:1018770218022.PubMedCrossRef
81.
go back to reference McCormack VA, dos Santos Silva I, De Stavola BL, Mohsen R, Leon DA, Lithell HO: Fetal growth and subsequent risk of breast cancer: results from long term follow up of Swedish cohort. BMJ. 2003, 326: 248-251. 10.1136/bmj.326.7383.248.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef McCormack VA, dos Santos Silva I, De Stavola BL, Mohsen R, Leon DA, Lithell HO: Fetal growth and subsequent risk of breast cancer: results from long term follow up of Swedish cohort. BMJ. 2003, 326: 248-251. 10.1136/bmj.326.7383.248.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
82.
go back to reference Potischman N, Troisi R: In-utero and early life exposures in relation to risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 1999, 10: 561-573. 10.1023/A:1008955110868.PubMedCrossRef Potischman N, Troisi R: In-utero and early life exposures in relation to risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 1999, 10: 561-573. 10.1023/A:1008955110868.PubMedCrossRef
83.
go back to reference Kaijser M, Granath F, Jacobsen G, Cnattingius S, Ekbom A: Maternal pregnancy estriol levels in relation to anamnestic and fetal anthropometric data. Epidemiology. 2000, 11: 315-319. 10.1097/00001648-200005000-00015.PubMedCrossRef Kaijser M, Granath F, Jacobsen G, Cnattingius S, Ekbom A: Maternal pregnancy estriol levels in relation to anamnestic and fetal anthropometric data. Epidemiology. 2000, 11: 315-319. 10.1097/00001648-200005000-00015.PubMedCrossRef
84.
go back to reference Mellemkjaer L, Olsen ML, Sorensen HT, Thulstrup AM, Olsen J, Olsen JH: Birth weight and risk of early-onset breast cancer (Denmark). Cancer Causes Control. 2003, 14: 61-64. 10.1023/A:1022570305704.PubMedCrossRef Mellemkjaer L, Olsen ML, Sorensen HT, Thulstrup AM, Olsen J, Olsen JH: Birth weight and risk of early-onset breast cancer (Denmark). Cancer Causes Control. 2003, 14: 61-64. 10.1023/A:1022570305704.PubMedCrossRef
85.
go back to reference Sedin G, Bergquist C, Lindgren PG: Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 1985, 19: 548-552.PubMedCrossRef Sedin G, Bergquist C, Lindgren PG: Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 1985, 19: 548-552.PubMedCrossRef
86.
go back to reference Peck JD, Hulka BS, Savitz DA, Baird D, Poole C, Richardson BE: Accuracy of fetal growth indicators as surrogate measures of steroid hormone levels during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol. 2003, 157: 258-266. 10.1093/aje/kwf183.PubMedCrossRef Peck JD, Hulka BS, Savitz DA, Baird D, Poole C, Richardson BE: Accuracy of fetal growth indicators as surrogate measures of steroid hormone levels during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol. 2003, 157: 258-266. 10.1093/aje/kwf183.PubMedCrossRef
87.
go back to reference Khan SA, Rogers MA, Obando JA, Tamsen A: Estrogen receptor expression of benign breast epithelium and its association with breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1994, 54: 993-997.PubMed Khan SA, Rogers MA, Obando JA, Tamsen A: Estrogen receptor expression of benign breast epithelium and its association with breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1994, 54: 993-997.PubMed
88.
go back to reference Lawson JS, Field AS, Champion S, Tran D, Ishikura H, Trichopoulos D: Low oestrogen receptor alpha expression in normal breast tissue underlies low breast cancer incidence in Japan. Lancet. 1999, 354: 1787-1788. 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)04936-3.PubMedCrossRef Lawson JS, Field AS, Champion S, Tran D, Ishikura H, Trichopoulos D: Low oestrogen receptor alpha expression in normal breast tissue underlies low breast cancer incidence in Japan. Lancet. 1999, 354: 1787-1788. 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)04936-3.PubMedCrossRef
89.
go back to reference Shoker BS, Jarvis C, Sibson DR, Walker C, Sloane JP: Oestrogen receptor expression in the normal and precancerous breast. J Pathol. 1999, 188: 237-244. 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(199907)188:3<237::AID-PATH343>3.3.CO;2-#.PubMedCrossRef Shoker BS, Jarvis C, Sibson DR, Walker C, Sloane JP: Oestrogen receptor expression in the normal and precancerous breast. J Pathol. 1999, 188: 237-244. 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(199907)188:3<237::AID-PATH343>3.3.CO;2-#.PubMedCrossRef
90.
go back to reference Hall JM, McDonnell DP: The estrogen receptor beta-isoform (ERbeta) of the human estrogen receptor modulates ERalpha transcriptional activity and is a key regulator of the cellular response to estrogens and antiestrogens. Endocrinology. 1999, 140: 5566-5578. 10.1210/en.140.12.5566.PubMed Hall JM, McDonnell DP: The estrogen receptor beta-isoform (ERbeta) of the human estrogen receptor modulates ERalpha transcriptional activity and is a key regulator of the cellular response to estrogens and antiestrogens. Endocrinology. 1999, 140: 5566-5578. 10.1210/en.140.12.5566.PubMed
91.
go back to reference Korenman SG: Oestrogen window hypothesis of the aetiology of breast cancer. Lancet. 1980, 1: 700-701.PubMedCrossRef Korenman SG: Oestrogen window hypothesis of the aetiology of breast cancer. Lancet. 1980, 1: 700-701.PubMedCrossRef
92.
go back to reference Hofseth LJ, Raafat AM, Osuch JR, Pathak DR, Slomski CA, Haslam SZ: Hormone replacement therapy with estrogen or estrogen plus medroxyprogesterone acetate is associated with increased epithelial proliferation in the normal postmenopausal breast. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999, 84: 4559-4565. 10.1210/jc.84.12.4559.PubMed Hofseth LJ, Raafat AM, Osuch JR, Pathak DR, Slomski CA, Haslam SZ: Hormone replacement therapy with estrogen or estrogen plus medroxyprogesterone acetate is associated with increased epithelial proliferation in the normal postmenopausal breast. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999, 84: 4559-4565. 10.1210/jc.84.12.4559.PubMed
93.
go back to reference Kwa HG, Cleton F, Bulbrook RD, Wang DY, Hayward JL: Plasma prolactin levels and breast cancer: relation to parity, weight and height, and age at first birth. Int J Cancer. 1981, 28: 31-34.PubMedCrossRef Kwa HG, Cleton F, Bulbrook RD, Wang DY, Hayward JL: Plasma prolactin levels and breast cancer: relation to parity, weight and height, and age at first birth. Int J Cancer. 1981, 28: 31-34.PubMedCrossRef
94.
go back to reference Ismail MS, Serour GI, Torsten U, Weitzel H, Berlien HP: Elevated serum prolactin level with high-dose estrogen contraceptive pills. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 1998, 3: 45-50.PubMedCrossRef Ismail MS, Serour GI, Torsten U, Weitzel H, Berlien HP: Elevated serum prolactin level with high-dose estrogen contraceptive pills. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 1998, 3: 45-50.PubMedCrossRef
95.
go back to reference Wiegratz I, Kutschera E, Lee JH, Moore C, Mellinger U, Winkler UH, Kuhl H: Effect of four different oral contraceptives on various sex hormones and serum-binding globulins. Contraception. 2003, 67: 25-32. 10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00436-5.PubMedCrossRef Wiegratz I, Kutschera E, Lee JH, Moore C, Mellinger U, Winkler UH, Kuhl H: Effect of four different oral contraceptives on various sex hormones and serum-binding globulins. Contraception. 2003, 67: 25-32. 10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00436-5.PubMedCrossRef
96.
go back to reference Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Michaud DS, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Longcope C, Rosner B, Speizer FE: Plasma prolactin levels and subsequent risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999, 91: 629-634. 10.1093/jnci/91.7.629.PubMedCrossRef Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Michaud DS, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Longcope C, Rosner B, Speizer FE: Plasma prolactin levels and subsequent risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999, 91: 629-634. 10.1093/jnci/91.7.629.PubMedCrossRef
97.
go back to reference Rebbeck TR, Lynch HT, Neuhausen SL, Narod SA, Van't Veer L, Garber JE, Evans G, Isaacs C, Daly MB, Matloff E, Olopade OI, Weber BL: Prophylactic oophorectomy in carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. N Engl J Med. 2002, 346: 1616-1622. 10.1056/NEJMoa012158.PubMedCrossRef Rebbeck TR, Lynch HT, Neuhausen SL, Narod SA, Van't Veer L, Garber JE, Evans G, Isaacs C, Daly MB, Matloff E, Olopade OI, Weber BL: Prophylactic oophorectomy in carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. N Engl J Med. 2002, 346: 1616-1622. 10.1056/NEJMoa012158.PubMedCrossRef
98.
go back to reference Cummings SR, Eckert S, Krueger KA, Grady D, Powles TJ, Cauley JA, Norton L, Nickelsen T, Bjarnason NH, Morrow M, Lippman ME, Black D, Glusman JE, Costa A, Jordan VC: The effect of raloxifene on risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: results from the MORE randomized trial. Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation. JAMA. 1999, 281: 2189-2197. 10.1001/jama.281.23.2189.PubMedCrossRef Cummings SR, Eckert S, Krueger KA, Grady D, Powles TJ, Cauley JA, Norton L, Nickelsen T, Bjarnason NH, Morrow M, Lippman ME, Black D, Glusman JE, Costa A, Jordan VC: The effect of raloxifene on risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: results from the MORE randomized trial. Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation. JAMA. 1999, 281: 2189-2197. 10.1001/jama.281.23.2189.PubMedCrossRef
99.
go back to reference Gelber RD, Cole BF, Goldhirsch A, Rose C, Fisher B, Osborne CK, Boccardo F, Gray R, Gordon NH, Bengtsson NO, Sevelda P: Adjuvant chemotherapy plus tamoxifen compared with tamoxifen alone for postmenopausal breast cancer: meta-analysis of quality-adjusted survival. Lancet. 1996, 347: 1066-1071. 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90277-9.PubMedCrossRef Gelber RD, Cole BF, Goldhirsch A, Rose C, Fisher B, Osborne CK, Boccardo F, Gray R, Gordon NH, Bengtsson NO, Sevelda P: Adjuvant chemotherapy plus tamoxifen compared with tamoxifen alone for postmenopausal breast cancer: meta-analysis of quality-adjusted survival. Lancet. 1996, 347: 1066-1071. 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90277-9.PubMedCrossRef
100.
go back to reference Goss PE, Strasser K: Aromatase inhibitors in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2001, 19: 881-894.PubMed Goss PE, Strasser K: Aromatase inhibitors in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2001, 19: 881-894.PubMed
101.
go back to reference Jonat W, Kaufmann M, Sauerbrei W, Blamey R, Cuzick J, Namer M, Fogelman I, de Haes JC, de Matteis A, Stewart A, Eiermann W, Szakolczai I, Palmer M, Schumacher M, Geberth M, Lisboa B: Goserelin versus cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and fluorouracil as adjuvant therapy in premenopausal patients with node-positive breast cancer: The Zoladex Early Breast Cancer Research Association Study. J Clin Oncol. 2002, 20: 4628-4635. 10.1200/JCO.2002.05.042.PubMedCrossRef Jonat W, Kaufmann M, Sauerbrei W, Blamey R, Cuzick J, Namer M, Fogelman I, de Haes JC, de Matteis A, Stewart A, Eiermann W, Szakolczai I, Palmer M, Schumacher M, Geberth M, Lisboa B: Goserelin versus cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and fluorouracil as adjuvant therapy in premenopausal patients with node-positive breast cancer: The Zoladex Early Breast Cancer Research Association Study. J Clin Oncol. 2002, 20: 4628-4635. 10.1200/JCO.2002.05.042.PubMedCrossRef
102.
go back to reference Clamp A, Danson S, Clemons M: Hormonal risk factors for breast cancer: identification, chemoprevention, and other intervention strategies. Lancet Oncol. 2002, 3: 611-619. 10.1016/S1470-2045(02)00875-6.PubMedCrossRef Clamp A, Danson S, Clemons M: Hormonal risk factors for breast cancer: identification, chemoprevention, and other intervention strategies. Lancet Oncol. 2002, 3: 611-619. 10.1016/S1470-2045(02)00875-6.PubMedCrossRef
103.
go back to reference Domchek SM, Eisen A, Calzone K, Stopfer J, Blackwood A, Weber BL: Application of breast cancer risk prediction models in clinical practice. J Clin Oncol. 2003, 21: 593-601. 10.1200/JCO.2003.07.007.PubMedCrossRef Domchek SM, Eisen A, Calzone K, Stopfer J, Blackwood A, Weber BL: Application of breast cancer risk prediction models in clinical practice. J Clin Oncol. 2003, 21: 593-601. 10.1200/JCO.2003.07.007.PubMedCrossRef
104.
go back to reference Gail MH, Brinton LA, Byar DP, Corle DK, Green SB, Schairer C, Mulvihill JJ: Projecting individualized probabilities of developing breast cancer for white females who are being examined annually. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989, 81: 1879-1886. 10.1093/jnci/81.24.1879.PubMedCrossRef Gail MH, Brinton LA, Byar DP, Corle DK, Green SB, Schairer C, Mulvihill JJ: Projecting individualized probabilities of developing breast cancer for white females who are being examined annually. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989, 81: 1879-1886. 10.1093/jnci/81.24.1879.PubMedCrossRef
Metadata
Title
Oestrogen exposure and breast cancer risk
Authors
Ruth C Travis
Timothy J Key
Publication date
01-10-2003
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Breast Cancer Research / Issue 5/2003
Electronic ISSN: 1465-542X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/bcr628

Other articles of this Issue 5/2003

Breast Cancer Research 5/2003 Go to the issue
Webinar | 19-02-2024 | 17:30 (CET)

Keynote webinar | Spotlight on antibody–drug conjugates in cancer

Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) are novel agents that have shown promise across multiple tumor types. Explore the current landscape of ADCs in breast and lung cancer with our experts, and gain insights into the mechanism of action, key clinical trials data, existing challenges, and future directions.

Dr. Véronique Diéras
Prof. Fabrice Barlesi
Developed by: Springer Medicine