Skip to main content
Key Specialties
Cardiology Diabetology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics and Gerontology Gynecology and Obstetrics Hematology Infectious Disease Internal Medicine Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Respiratory Medicine Rheumatology Surgery
Congress Coverage
2024 ACC Congress 2023 ESMO Congress 2023 EASD Congress 2023 ERS Congress 2023 ESC Congress
Clinical Collections
Advances in Alzheimer’s

At a glance: The STEP trials

A round-up of the STEP phase 3 clinical trials evaluating semaglutide for weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.
ADVANCED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy
Published in: Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 1/2008

Open Access 01-12-2008 | Methodology

Capturing doping attitudes by self-report declarations and implicit assessment: A methodology study

Authors: Andrea Petróczi, Eugene V Aidman, Tamás Nepusz

Published in: Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy | Issue 1/2008

Login to get access

Abstract

Background

Understanding athletes' attitudes and behavioural intentions towards performance enhancement is critical to informing anti-doping intervention strategies. Capturing the complexity of these attitudes beyond verbal declarations requires indirect methods. This pilot study was aimed at developing and validating a method to assess implicit doping attitudes using an Implicit Associations Test (IAT) approach.

Methods

The conventional IAT evaluation task (categorising 'good' and 'bad' words) was combined with a novel 'doping' versus 'nutrition supplements' category pair to create a performance-enhancement related IAT protocol (PE-IAT). The difference between average response times to 'good-doping' and 'bad-doping' combinations represents an estimate of implicit attitude towards doping in relation to nutritional supplements. 111 sports and exercise science undergraduates completed the PE-IAT, the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale (PEAS) and answered questions regarding their beliefs about doping.

Results

Longer response times were observed in the mixed category discrimination trials where categories 'good' and 'doping' shared the same response key (compared to 'bad-doping' combination on the same key) indicating a less favourable evaluation of doping substances. The PE-IAT measure did not correlate significantly with the declared doping attitudes (r = .181, p = .142), indicating a predictable partial dissociation. Action-oriented self-report expressed stronger associations with PE-IAT: participants who declared they would consider using doping showed significantly less implicit negativity towards banned substances (U = 109.00, p = .047). Similarly, those who reported more lenient explicit attitudes towards doping or expressly supported legalizing it, showed less implicit negativity towards doping in the sample, although neither observed differences reached statistical significance (t = 1.300, p = .198, and U = 231.00, p = .319, respectively). Known-group validation strategy yielded mixed results: while competitive sport participants scored significantly lower than non-competitive ones on the PEAS (t = -2.71, p = .008), the two groups did not differ on PE-IAT (t = -.093, p = .926).

Conclusion

The results suggest a potential of the PE-IAT method to capture undeclared attitudes to doping and predict behaviour, which can support targeted anti-doping intervention and related research. The initial evidence of validity is promising but also indicates a need for improvement to the protocol and stimulus material.
Appendix
Available only for authorised users
Literature
1.
Anshel MH: Substance use: Chemical roulette in sport. The sport psychology handbook. Edited by: Murphy S. 2005, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 255-77.
2.
Brissonneau C, Depiesse F: Doping and doping control in French sport. Doping and Doping Control in Europe. Edited by: Spitzer G. 2006, Stuttgart: Meyer & Meyer, 45-67.
3.
Koch JJ: Performance-enhancing substances and their use among adolescent athletes. Pediat Rev. 2002, 23: 310-17. 10.1542/pir.23-9-310.CrossRef
4.
Laure P, Lecerf T, Friser A, Binsinger C: Drugs, recreational drug use and attitudes toward doping of high school athletes. Int J Sports Med. 2004, 25: 133-8. 10.1055/s-2004-819946.CrossRefPubMed
5.
Yesalis MPH, Bahrke MS: Doping among adolescent athletes. Ballieres Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000, 14: 25-35.
6.
Laure P, Binsinger C: Doping prevalence among preadolescents athletes: a 4-year follow-up. Br J Sports Med. 2007, 10.1136/bjsm.2007.035733.
7.
Terry P: 'I'm sorry mum': Insights into motives for taking performance-enhancing drugs and the impact of getting caught. Paper presented at the Joint APS and NZPsS Conference, Auckland, New Zealand. 2006
8.
Anshel MH, Russell KG: Examining athletes' attitudes toward using anabolic steroids and their knowledge of the possible effects. J Drug Educ. 1997, 27: 121-45.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Evans M, Weinberg R, Jackson A: Psychological factors related to drug use in college athletes. Sport Psychol. 1992, 6: 24-41.
10.
Buti A, Fridman S: Drugs, Sport and the Law. 2001, Mudgeeraba, Qld: Scribblers Publishing
11.
Tricker R, Connolly D: Drugs and college athlete: an analysis of the attitudes of student athletes at risk. J Drug Educ. 1997, 27: 105-19.CrossRefPubMed
12.
Kavassanu M, Roberts GC: Moral functioning in sport: An achievement goal perspective. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2001, 23: 37-54.
13.
Roberts GC, Ommundsen Y, Lemyre PN, Miller B: Cheating in sport. Encyclopaedia of applied psychology. Edited by: Spielberger C. 2004, London: Elsevier, 313-22.CrossRef
14.
Hoff D: Overview of ethics and social science research in anti-doping. Paper presented at the WADA Conference 'Ethics and Social Science Research in Anti-doping'. 2006
15.
Ajzen I, Fishbein M: Attitude-behaviour relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychol Bull. 1977, 84: 888-918. 10.1037/0033-2909.84.5.888.CrossRef
16.
Ajzen I, Fishbein M: Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. 1980, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
17.
Ajzen I, Madden TJ: Prediction of goal directed behaviour: Attitudes, intentions and perceived behavioural control. J Exp Soc Psychol. 1986, 22: 453-74. 10.1016/0022-1031(86)90045-4.CrossRef
18.
Alaranta A, Alaranta H, Holmila J, Palmu P, Pietila K, Helenius S: Self-reported attitudes of elite athletes towards doping: Differences between type of sport. Int J Sports Med. 2006, 27: 842-6. 10.1055/s-2005-872969.CrossRefPubMed
19.
Wanjek B, Rosendahl J, Strauss B, Gabriel HH: Doping, drugs and drug abuse among adolescents in the State of Thuringia (Germany): Prevalence, knowledge and attitudes. Int J Sports Med. 2007, 28: 346-53. 10.1055/s-2006-924353.CrossRefPubMed
20.
21.
Greenwald A, McGhee D, Schwartz J: Measuring the individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1998, 74: 1464-80. 10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Aidman EV, Schofield G: Personality and individual differences in sport. Sport Psychology: Theory, Applications and Issues. Edited by: Morris T, Summers J. 2004, Milton: Wiley, 22-47. 2
23.
Gawronski B, LeBel EP, Peters KR: What do implicit measures tell us? Scrutinising the validity of three common assumptions. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2007, 2: 181-193. 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00036.x.CrossRefPubMed
24.
O'Brien KS, Hunter JA, Banks M: Implicit anti-fat bias in physical educators: physical attributes, ideology and socialization. Int J Obes. 2007, 31 (2): 308-14. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803398.CrossRef
25.
Schwartz MB, Vartanian LR, Nosek BA, Brownell KD: The influence of one's own body weight on implicit and explicit anti-fat bias. Obesity. 2006, 14: 440-447. 10.1038/oby.2006.58.CrossRefPubMed
26.
Teachman BA, Brownell KD: Implicit anti-fat bias among health professionals: is anyone immune?. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001, 25 (10): 1525-31. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801745.CrossRefPubMed
27.
Teachman BA, Gapinski KD, Brownell KD, Jeyaram S, Rawlins M: Demonstrations of implicit anti-fat bias: the impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy. Health Psychol. 2003, 22: 68-78. 10.1037/0278-6133.22.1.68.CrossRefPubMed
28.
Puhl RM, Wharton CM: Weight bias: A primer for the fitness Industry. ACSM'S Health & Fitness J. 2007, 11: 7-11. 10.1249/01.FIT.0000269060.03465.ab.CrossRef
29.
Craeynesta M, Crombez G, De Houwer J, Deforche B, Tanghe A, De Bourdeaudhuij I: Explicit and implicit attitudes towards food and physical activity in childhood obesity. Behav Res Ther. 2005, 43: 1111-20. 10.1016/j.brat.2004.07.007.CrossRef
30.
Perugini M: Predictive models of implicit and explicit attitudes. Brit J Soc Psychol. 2005, 44 (Pt 1): 29-45. 10.1348/014466604X23491.CrossRef
31.
Thush C, Wiers RW: Explicit and implicit alcohol-related cognitions and the prediction of future drinking in adolescents. Addict Behav. 2007, 32: 1367-83. 10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.09.011.CrossRefPubMed
32.
Ostafin BD, Palfai TP: Compelled to consume: the implicit association test and automatic alcohol motivation. Psychol Addict Behav. 2006, 20: 322-7. 10.1037/0893-164X.20.3.322.CrossRefPubMed
33.
Wiers RW, Stacy AW: Implicit cognition and addiction. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2006, 15: 292-6. 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00455.x.CrossRef
34.
de Jong PJ, Wiers RW, Braak van de M, Huijding J: Using the Extrinsic Affective Simon Test as a measure of implicit attitudes towards alcohol: relationship with drinking behavior and alcohol problems. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2007, 38: 133-43. 10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.004.CrossRef
35.
De Houwer J, Crombez G, Koster EHW, De Beul N: Implicit alcohol-related cognitions in a clinical sample of heavy drinkers. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2004, 35: 275-86. 10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.05.001.CrossRefPubMed
36.
Wiers RW, Van Woerden N, Smulders FTY, de Jong PJ: Implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions in heavy and light drinkers. J Abnorm Psychol. 2002, 111: 648-58. 10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.648.CrossRefPubMed
37.
Houben K, Wiers RW: Are drinkers implicitly positive about drinking alcohol? Personalizing the alcohol-IAT to reduce negative extrapersonal contamination. Alcohol Alcohol. 2007, 42 (4): 301-7. 10.1093/alcalc/agm015.CrossRefPubMed
38.
Hofmann W, Gawronski B, Gschwendner T, Le H, Schmitt M: A meta-analysis on the correlation between the Implicit Association Test and explicit self report measures. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2005, 31: 1369-85. 10.1177/0146167205275613.CrossRefPubMed
39.
Rudman LA: Sources of Implicit Attitudes. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2004, 13: 79-82. 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00279.x.CrossRef
40.
Hofmann W, Gschwender T, Nosek BA, Schmitt M: What moderated implicit-explicit consistency?. Eur Rev Soc Psychol. 2005, 16: 335-90. 10.1080/10463280500443228.CrossRef
41.
Wilson TD, Lindsey S, Schooler TY: A model of dual attitudes. Psychol Rev. 2000, 107: 101-26. 10.1037/0033-295X.107.1.101.CrossRefPubMed
42.
Phelps EA, O'Connor KJ, Cunningham WA, Funayama ES, Gatenby JC, Gore JC, Banaji MR: Amygdala activation predicts performance on indirect measures of racial bias. J Cogn Neurosci. 2000, 12: 729-38. 10.1162/089892900562552.CrossRefPubMed
43.
Cunningham WA, Zelazo PD: Attitudes and evaluations: a social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Trends Cogn Sci. 2006, 11 (3): 97-104. 10.1016/j.tics.2006.12.005.CrossRef
44.
Fazio RH, Olson MA: Implicit measures in social cognition research: their meaning and use. Ann Rev Psychol. 2003, 54: 297-327. 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225.CrossRef
45.
Fazio RH, Towles-Schwen T: The MODE model of attitude-behaviour process. Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology. Edited by: Chaiken S, Trope Y. 1999, New York: Wiley, 97-116.
46.
Fazio RH: Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: the MODE model as an integrative framework. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Edited by: Zanna MP. 1990, New York: Academic Press, 23: 75-109.
47.
Johnson BT, Boynton MH: Cumulating evidence about the social animal: meta-analysis in social-personality psychology. Soc Person Psychol Compass. 2008, doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00048.x.
48.
Jaccard J, Blanton H: A theory of implicit reasoned action: the role of implicit and explicit attitudes in the prediction of behaviour. Prediction and change of health behaviour. Edited by: Ajzen I, Albarracin D, Hornik R. 2007, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 69-94.
49.
Bargh JA, Ferguson MJ: Beyond behaviorism: on the automaticity of higher mental processes. Psychol Bull. 2000, 126: 925-45. 10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.925.CrossRefPubMed
50.
Spence A, Townsend E: Predicting behaviour towards genetically modified food using implicit and explicit attitudes. Br J Soc Psychol. 2007, 46: 437-57. 10.1348/014466606X152261.CrossRefPubMed
51.
Hofmann W, Rauch W, Gawronski B: And deplete us not into temptation: automatic attitudes, dietary restraint, and self-regulatory resources as determinants of eating behaviour. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2007, 43: 497-504. 10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.004.CrossRef
52.
Spruyt A, Hermans D, De Houwer J, Vandekerckhove J, Eelen P: On the predictive validity of indirect attitude measures: Prediction of consumer choice behavior on the basis of affective priming in the picture-picture naming task. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2007, 43: 599-610. 10.1016/j.jesp.2006.06.009.CrossRef
53.
Gabriel U, Banse R, Hug F: Predicting private and public helping behaviour by implicit attitudes and the motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Br J Soc Psychol. 2007, 46: 365-82. 10.1348/014466606X120400.CrossRefPubMed
54.
Ronay R, Do-Yeong K: Gender differences in explicit and implicit risk attitudes: A socially facilitated phenomenon. Br J Soc Psychol. 2006, 45: 397-419. 10.1348/014466605X66420.CrossRefPubMed
55.
von Hippel W, Brener B, von Hippel C: Implicit prejudice toward injecting drug users predicts intentions to change jobs among drug and alcohol nurses. Psychol Sci. 2008, 19: 7-11. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02037.x.CrossRefPubMed
56.
Fiedler K, Bluemke M: Faking the IAT: Aided and unaided response control on the Implicit Association Tests. Basic Appl Soc Psych. 2005, 27: 307-16. 10.1207/s15324834basp2704_3.CrossRef
57.
Kim DY: Voluntary controllability of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Soc Psychol Q. 2003, 66: 83-96. 10.2307/3090143.CrossRef
58.
59.
Olson MA, Fazio RH: Reducing the influence of extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2004, 86 (5): 653-67. 10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.653.CrossRefPubMed
60.
Greenwald AG, Nosek BA, Banaji MR: Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2003, 85: 197-216. 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197.CrossRefPubMed
61.
Petróczi A, Nepusz T: The effect of self-impression management in social science doping research. Paper presented at the WADA International Conference 'Ethics and Social Science Research in Anti-doping', Larnaca, Cyprus. 2006
62.
Gawronski B, Bodenhausen GV: Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: an integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychol Bull. 2006, 132: 692-731. 10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692.CrossRefPubMed
63.
De Houwer J, Moors A: How to define and examine the implicitness of implicit measures. Implicit measures of attitudes. Edited by: Wittenbrink B, Schwarz N. 2007, London: Guilford Press, 179-95.
64.
Farnham SD, Greenwald AG, Banaji MR: Implicit self-esteem. Social cognition and social identity. Edited by: Abrams D, Hogg MA. 1999, London: Blackwell, 203-248.
65.
Dasgupta N, McGhee DE, Greenwald AG, Banaji MR: Automatic preference for white Americans: eliminating the familiarity explanation. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2000, 36: 316-28. 10.1006/jesp.1999.1418.CrossRef
66.
Greenwald A, Farnham S: Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2000, 79: 1022-38. 10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.1022.CrossRefPubMed
67.
Rudman LA, Ashmore RD, Gary M: 'Unlearning' automatic biases: the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2001, 81: 856-68. 10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.856.CrossRefPubMed
68.
Dasgupta N, Greenwald AG, Banaji MR: The first ontological challenge to the IAT: Attitude or mere familiarity?. Psychological Inquiry. 2003, 14: 238-43. 10.1207/S15327965PLI1403&4_10.CrossRef
69.
De Houwer J: A structural and process analysis of the implicit association test. J Exp Psychol. 2001, 37: 443-534. 10.1006/jesp.2000.1464.
70.
Bluemke M, Friese M: Do features of stimuli influence IAT effects?. Exp Soc Psychol. 2006, 42: 163-76. 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.004.CrossRef
71.
72.
Petróczi A: Exploring the doping dilemma: Can athletes' attitudes be responsible for doping?. Published PhD thesis. 2002, University of Northern Colorado, Sport and Exercise Science
73.
Tangen JO, Breivik G: Doping games and drug abuse. Sportwissenschaft. 2001, 31: 188-98.
74.
Lane KA, Banaji MR, Nosek BA, Greenwald AG: Understanding and using the implicit association test: IV. In: Implicit measures of attitudes. Edited by: Wittenbrink B, Schwarz N. 2007, Guilford: The Guilford Press, 59-102.
75.
Greenwald AG, Banaji MR, Rudman LA, Farnham SD, Nosek BA, Mellott DS: A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem and self-concept. Psychol Rev. 2002, 109 (1): 3-25. 10.1037/0033-295X.109.1.3.CrossRefPubMed
76.
Karpinski A, Steinman RB, Hilton JL: Attitude importance as a moderator of the relationship between implicit attitude measures. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2005, 31: 949-62. 10.1177/0146167204273007.CrossRefPubMed
77.
Han AH, Olson MA, Fazio RH: The influence of experimentally created extrapersonal associations of the Implicit Association test. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2006, 42: 259-72. 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.006.CrossRef
78.
Richetin J, Perugini M, Adjali I, Hurling R: The moderator role of intuitive versus deliberative decision making for the predictive validity of implicit and explicit measures. Eur J Pers. 2007, 21: 529-46. 10.1002/per.625.CrossRef
79.
80.
Gawronski B, Hofman W, Wilbur CJ: Are "implicit" attitudes unconscious?. Consc Cognit. 2006, 15: 485-499. 10.1016/j.concog.2005.11.007.CrossRef
81.
Cogswell A: Explicit rejection of an implicit dichotomy: integrating two approaches to assessing dependency. J Pers Assess. 2008, 90: 26-35.CrossRefPubMed
Metadata
Title
Capturing doping attitudes by self-report declarations and implicit assessment: A methodology study
Authors
Andrea Petróczi
Eugene V Aidman
Tamás Nepusz
Publication date
01-12-2008
Publisher
BioMed Central
Published in
Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy / Issue 1/2008
Electronic ISSN: 1747-597X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-3-9

Other articles of this Issue 1/2008

Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 1/2008 Go to the issue

Research

Treatment of alcohol dependence in patients with co-morbid major depressive disorder – predictors for the outcomes with memantine and escitalopram medication

Research

A retrospective evaluation of patients switched from buprenorphine (subutex) to the buprenorphine/naloxone combination (suboxone)

Research

Conflict and user involvement in drug misuse treatment decision-making: a qualitative study

Research

Women's childhood and adult adverse experiences, mental health, and binge drinking: The California Women's Health Survey

Research

Therapeutic community drug treatment success in Peru: a follow-up outcome study

Research

Character pathology and neuropsychological test performance in remitted opiate dependence