Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 2/2005

Open Access 01-12-2005 | Review

Obesity: Prevalence, Theories, Medical Consequences, Management, and Research Directions

Authors: Colin Wilborn, Jacqueline Beckham, Bill Campbell, Travis Harvey, Melyn Galbreath, Paul La Bounty, Erika Nassar, Jennifer Wismann, Richard Kreider

Published in: Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition | Issue 2/2005

Login to get access

Abstract

Obesity and its associated disorders are a growing epidemic across the world. Many genetic, physiological, and behavioral factors play a role in the etiology of obesity. Diet and exercise are known to play a valuable role in the treatment and prevention of obesity and associated disorders such as hypertension, heart disease, and diabetes. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to examine the prevalence, etiology, consequences, and treatment of obesity.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Bray GaBC: Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. 2004, Marcel Dekker Inc, 1200-2 Bray GaBC: Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. 2004, Marcel Dekker Inc, 1200-2
2.
go back to reference Deurenberg P, Yap M: The assessment of obesity: methods for measuring body fat and global prevalence of obesity. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999, 13 (1): 1–11. 10.1053/beem.1999.0003.PubMed Deurenberg P, Yap M: The assessment of obesity: methods for measuring body fat and global prevalence of obesity. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999, 13 (1): 1–11. 10.1053/beem.1999.0003.PubMed
3.
go back to reference Weisell RC: Body mass index as an indicator of obesity. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2002, 11 (Suppl 8): S681–4. 10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.5.x. Weisell RC: Body mass index as an indicator of obesity. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2002, 11 (Suppl 8): S681–4. 10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.5.x.
4.
go back to reference Gregg EW, Cheng YJ, Cadwell BL: Secular trends in cardiovascular disease risk factors according to body mass index in US adults. JAMA. 2005, 293 (15): 1868–74. 10.1001/jama.293.15.1868.PubMed Gregg EW, Cheng YJ, Cadwell BL: Secular trends in cardiovascular disease risk factors according to body mass index in US adults. JAMA. 2005, 293 (15): 1868–74. 10.1001/jama.293.15.1868.PubMed
5.
go back to reference Freedman DS, Khan LK, Serdula MK: Trends and correlates of class 3 obesity in the United States from 1990 through 2000. JAMA. 2002, 288 (14): 1758–61. 10.1001/jama.288.14.1758.PubMed Freedman DS, Khan LK, Serdula MK: Trends and correlates of class 3 obesity in the United States from 1990 through 2000. JAMA. 2002, 288 (14): 1758–61. 10.1001/jama.288.14.1758.PubMed
6.
go back to reference Ogden CL, Flegal KM, Carroll MD: Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999–2000. JAMA. 288 (14): 1728–32. 10.1001/jama.288.14.1728. 2002 Oct 9; 2002. 288(14): p. 1728–32.PubMed Ogden CL, Flegal KM, Carroll MD: Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999–2000. JAMA. 288 (14): 1728–32. 10.1001/jama.288.14.1728. 2002 Oct 9; 2002. 288(14): p. 1728–32.PubMed
7.
go back to reference Seidell JC, Flegal KM: Assessing obesity: classification and epidemiology. Br Med Bull. 1997, 53 (2): 238–52.PubMed Seidell JC, Flegal KM: Assessing obesity: classification and epidemiology. Br Med Bull. 1997, 53 (2): 238–52.PubMed
8.
go back to reference Cockram CS: The epidemiology of diabetes mellitus in the Asia-Pacific region. Hong Kong Med J. 2000, 6 (1): 43–52.PubMed Cockram CS: The epidemiology of diabetes mellitus in the Asia-Pacific region. Hong Kong Med J. 2000, 6 (1): 43–52.PubMed
9.
go back to reference Gill TP: Cardiovascular risk in the Asia-Pacific region from a nutrition and metabolic point of view: abdominal obesity. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2001, 10 (2): 85–9. 10.1046/j.1440-6047.2001.00231.x.PubMed Gill TP: Cardiovascular risk in the Asia-Pacific region from a nutrition and metabolic point of view: abdominal obesity. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2001, 10 (2): 85–9. 10.1046/j.1440-6047.2001.00231.x.PubMed
10.
go back to reference Heshka SAJ, Atkinson RL, Greenway FL, Hill JO, Phinney SD, Kolotkin RL, Miller-Kovach K, Pi-Sunyer FX: Weight loss with self-help compared with a structured commercial program: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003, 289: 1792–1798. 10.1001/jama.289.14.1792.PubMed Heshka SAJ, Atkinson RL, Greenway FL, Hill JO, Phinney SD, Kolotkin RL, Miller-Kovach K, Pi-Sunyer FX: Weight loss with self-help compared with a structured commercial program: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003, 289: 1792–1798. 10.1001/jama.289.14.1792.PubMed
11.
go back to reference Colditz GA: Economic costs of obesity and inactivity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999, 31 (11 Suppl): S663–7.PubMed Colditz GA: Economic costs of obesity and inactivity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999, 31 (11 Suppl): S663–7.PubMed
12.
go back to reference Finkelstein EA, Ruhm CJ, Kosa KM: Economic causes and consequences of obesity. Annu Rev Public Health. 2005, 26: 239–57. 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144628.PubMed Finkelstein EA, Ruhm CJ, Kosa KM: Economic causes and consequences of obesity. Annu Rev Public Health. 2005, 26: 239–57. 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144628.PubMed
13.
go back to reference Quesenberry CP, Caan B, Jacobson A: Obesity, health services use, and health care costs among members of a health maintenance organization. Arch Intern Med. 1998, 158 (5): 466–72. 10.1001/archinte.158.5.466.PubMed Quesenberry CP, Caan B, Jacobson A: Obesity, health services use, and health care costs among members of a health maintenance organization. Arch Intern Med. 1998, 158 (5): 466–72. 10.1001/archinte.158.5.466.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Thompson D, Brown JB, Nichols GA: Body mass index and future healthcare costs: a retrospective cohort study. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (3): 210–8.PubMed Thompson D, Brown JB, Nichols GA: Body mass index and future healthcare costs: a retrospective cohort study. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (3): 210–8.PubMed
15.
go back to reference Finkelstein EA, Fiebelkorn IC, Wang G: National medical spending attributable to overweight and obesity: how much, and who's paying?. Health Aff (Millwood). 2003, W3-219-26-Suppl Web Exclusives Finkelstein EA, Fiebelkorn IC, Wang G: National medical spending attributable to overweight and obesity: how much, and who's paying?. Health Aff (Millwood). 2003, W3-219-26-Suppl Web Exclusives
17.
go back to reference Murphy C, Yates J: Economic comparison of weight loss programmes versus drug treatment for the management of obesity. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2005, 14 (Suppl): S97–S105. Murphy C, Yates J: Economic comparison of weight loss programmes versus drug treatment for the management of obesity. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2005, 14 (Suppl): S97–S105.
18.
go back to reference Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH: Body weight and longevity:a reassessment. JAMA. 1987, 257: 353–358. 10.1001/jama.257.3.353.PubMed Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH: Body weight and longevity:a reassessment. JAMA. 1987, 257: 353–358. 10.1001/jama.257.3.353.PubMed
19.
go back to reference Andres R, Muller DC, Sorkin JD: Long-term effects of change in body weight on all-cause mortality. A review. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1993, 110: 737–743. Andres R, Muller DC, Sorkin JD: Long-term effects of change in body weight on all-cause mortality. A review. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1993, 110: 737–743.
20.
go back to reference Stevens J: Impact of age on associations between weight and mortality. Nutr Rev. 2000, 58: 129–137.PubMed Stevens J: Impact of age on associations between weight and mortality. Nutr Rev. 2000, 58: 129–137.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Stevens J, Cai J, Pamuk ER: The effects of age on the association between body mass index and mortality. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998, 338: 1–7. 10.1056/NEJM199801013380101. Stevens J, Cai J, Pamuk ER: The effects of age on the association between body mass index and mortality. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998, 338: 1–7. 10.1056/NEJM199801013380101.
22.
go back to reference Jequier E, Tappy L: Regulation of body weight in humans. Physiol Rev. 1999, 79 (2): 451–80.PubMed Jequier E, Tappy L: Regulation of body weight in humans. Physiol Rev. 1999, 79 (2): 451–80.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Spiegelman BM, Flier JS: Obesity and the regulation of energy balance. Cell. 2001, 104 (4): 531–43. 10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00240-9.PubMed Spiegelman BM, Flier JS: Obesity and the regulation of energy balance. Cell. 2001, 104 (4): 531–43. 10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00240-9.PubMed
24.
go back to reference Flatt JP, Ravussin E, Acheson KJ: Effects of dietary fat on postprandial substrate oxidation and on carbohydrate and fat balances. J Clin Invest. 1985, 76 (3): 1019–24.PubMedPubMedCentral Flatt JP, Ravussin E, Acheson KJ: Effects of dietary fat on postprandial substrate oxidation and on carbohydrate and fat balances. J Clin Invest. 1985, 76 (3): 1019–24.PubMedPubMedCentral
25.
go back to reference Schutz Y, Flatt JP, Jequier E: Failure of dietary fat intake to promote fat oxidation: a factor favoring the development of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989, 50 (2): 307–14.PubMed Schutz Y, Flatt JP, Jequier E: Failure of dietary fat intake to promote fat oxidation: a factor favoring the development of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989, 50 (2): 307–14.PubMed
26.
go back to reference Jequier E: Nutrient effects: post-absorptive interactions. Proc Nutr Soc. 1995, 54 (1): 253–65. 10.1079/PNS19950052.PubMed Jequier E: Nutrient effects: post-absorptive interactions. Proc Nutr Soc. 1995, 54 (1): 253–65. 10.1079/PNS19950052.PubMed
27.
go back to reference Labayen I, Diez N, Gonzalez A: Effects of protein vs. carbohydrate-rich diets on fuel utilisation in obese women during weight loss. Forum Nutr. 2003, 56: 168–70.PubMed Labayen I, Diez N, Gonzalez A: Effects of protein vs. carbohydrate-rich diets on fuel utilisation in obese women during weight loss. Forum Nutr. 2003, 56: 168–70.PubMed
28.
go back to reference Skov AR, Toubro S, Ronn B: Randomized trial on protein vs carbohydrate in ad libitum fat reduced diet for the treatment of obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (5): 528–36. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800867.PubMed Skov AR, Toubro S, Ronn B: Randomized trial on protein vs carbohydrate in ad libitum fat reduced diet for the treatment of obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (5): 528–36. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800867.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Baba NH, Sawaya S, Torbay N: High protein vs high carbohydrate hypoenergetic diet for the treatment of obese hyperinsulinemic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (11): 1202–6. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801064.PubMed Baba NH, Sawaya S, Torbay N: High protein vs high carbohydrate hypoenergetic diet for the treatment of obese hyperinsulinemic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (11): 1202–6. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801064.PubMed
30.
go back to reference Farnsworth E, Luscombe ND, Noakes M: Effect of a high-protein, energy-restricted diet on body composition, glycemic control, and lipid concentrations in overweight and obese hyperinsulinemic men and women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003, 78 (1): 31–9.PubMed Farnsworth E, Luscombe ND, Noakes M: Effect of a high-protein, energy-restricted diet on body composition, glycemic control, and lipid concentrations in overweight and obese hyperinsulinemic men and women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003, 78 (1): 31–9.PubMed
31.
go back to reference Noakes M, Keogh JB, Foster PR: Effect of an energy-restricted, high-protein, low-fat diet relative to a conventional high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet on weight loss, body composition, nutritional status, and markers of cardiovascular health in obese women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005, 81 (6): 1298–306.PubMed Noakes M, Keogh JB, Foster PR: Effect of an energy-restricted, high-protein, low-fat diet relative to a conventional high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet on weight loss, body composition, nutritional status, and markers of cardiovascular health in obese women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005, 81 (6): 1298–306.PubMed
32.
go back to reference Brinkworth GD, Noakes M, Keogh JB: Long-term effects of a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet on weight control and cardiovascular risk markers in obese hyperinsulinemic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004, 28 (5): 661–70. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802617.PubMed Brinkworth GD, Noakes M, Keogh JB: Long-term effects of a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet on weight control and cardiovascular risk markers in obese hyperinsulinemic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004, 28 (5): 661–70. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802617.PubMed
33.
go back to reference Luscombe ND, Clifton PM, Noakes M: Effect of a high-protein, energy-restricted diet on weight loss and energy expenditure after weight stabilization in hyperinsulinemic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003, 27 (5): 582–90. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802270.PubMed Luscombe ND, Clifton PM, Noakes M: Effect of a high-protein, energy-restricted diet on weight loss and energy expenditure after weight stabilization in hyperinsulinemic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003, 27 (5): 582–90. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802270.PubMed
34.
go back to reference St-Onge MP, Ross R, Parsons WD: Medium-chain triglycerides increase energy expenditure and decrease adiposity in overweight men. Obes Res. 2003, 11 (3): 395–402.PubMed St-Onge MP, Ross R, Parsons WD: Medium-chain triglycerides increase energy expenditure and decrease adiposity in overweight men. Obes Res. 2003, 11 (3): 395–402.PubMed
35.
go back to reference Ello-Martin JA, Ledikwe JH, Rolls BJ: The influence of food portion size and energy density on energy intake: implications for weight management. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005, 82 (1 Suppl): 236S–241S.PubMed Ello-Martin JA, Ledikwe JH, Rolls BJ: The influence of food portion size and energy density on energy intake: implications for weight management. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005, 82 (1 Suppl): 236S–241S.PubMed
36.
go back to reference Rolls BJ, Ello-Martin JA, Tohill BC: What can intervention studies tell us about the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and weight management?. Nutr Rev. 2004, 62 (1): 1–17. 10.1301/nr.2004.jan.1-17.PubMed Rolls BJ, Ello-Martin JA, Tohill BC: What can intervention studies tell us about the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and weight management?. Nutr Rev. 2004, 62 (1): 1–17. 10.1301/nr.2004.jan.1-17.PubMed
37.
go back to reference Tohill BC, Seymour J, Serdula M: What epidemiologic studies tell us about the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and body weight. Nutr Rev. 2004, 62 (10): 365–74. 10.1301/nr.2004.oct.365-374.PubMed Tohill BC, Seymour J, Serdula M: What epidemiologic studies tell us about the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and body weight. Nutr Rev. 2004, 62 (10): 365–74. 10.1301/nr.2004.oct.365-374.PubMed
38.
go back to reference Epstein LH, Gordy CC, Raynor HA: Increasing fruit and vegetable intake and decreasing fat and sugar intake in families at risk for childhood obesity. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (3): 171–8.PubMed Epstein LH, Gordy CC, Raynor HA: Increasing fruit and vegetable intake and decreasing fat and sugar intake in families at risk for childhood obesity. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (3): 171–8.PubMed
39.
go back to reference Viguerie N, Vidal H, Arner P: Adipose tissue gene expression in obese subjects during low-fat and high-fat hypocaloric diets. Diabetologia. 2005, 48 (1): 123–31. 10.1007/s00125-004-1618-x.PubMed Viguerie N, Vidal H, Arner P: Adipose tissue gene expression in obese subjects during low-fat and high-fat hypocaloric diets. Diabetologia. 2005, 48 (1): 123–31. 10.1007/s00125-004-1618-x.PubMed
40.
go back to reference Bastard JP, Hainque B, Dusserre E: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma, leptin and tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA expression during very low calorie diet in subcutaneous adipose tissue in obese women. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 1999, 15 (2): 92–8. 10.1002/(SICI)1520-7560(199903/04)15:2<92::AID-DMRR21>3.0.CO;2-4.PubMed Bastard JP, Hainque B, Dusserre E: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma, leptin and tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA expression during very low calorie diet in subcutaneous adipose tissue in obese women. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 1999, 15 (2): 92–8. 10.1002/(SICI)1520-7560(199903/04)15:2<92::AID-DMRR21>3.0.CO;2-4.PubMed
41.
go back to reference Faith MS, Rha SS, Neale MC: Evidence for genetic influences on human energy intake: results from a twin study using measured observations. Behav Genet. 1999, 29 (3): 145–54. 10.1023/A:1021683716700.PubMed Faith MS, Rha SS, Neale MC: Evidence for genetic influences on human energy intake: results from a twin study using measured observations. Behav Genet. 1999, 29 (3): 145–54. 10.1023/A:1021683716700.PubMed
42.
go back to reference Levine JA, Kotz CM: NEAT – non-exercise activity thermogenesis – egocentric & geocentric environmental factors vs. biological regulation. Acta Physiol Scand. 2005, 184 (4): 309–18. 10.1111/j.1365-201X.2005.01467.x.PubMed Levine JA, Kotz CM: NEAT – non-exercise activity thermogenesis – egocentric & geocentric environmental factors vs. biological regulation. Acta Physiol Scand. 2005, 184 (4): 309–18. 10.1111/j.1365-201X.2005.01467.x.PubMed
43.
go back to reference Hill O, Saris W, Levine J: The Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. Edited by: Bouchard GABaC. 2004, New York: Marcel Dekker Inc, Second Hill O, Saris W, Levine J: The Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. Edited by: Bouchard GABaC. 2004, New York: Marcel Dekker Inc, Second
44.
go back to reference Dauncey MJ: Activity and energy expenditure. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1990, 68 (1): 17–27.PubMed Dauncey MJ: Activity and energy expenditure. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1990, 68 (1): 17–27.PubMed
45.
go back to reference Castaneda TR, Jurgens H, Wiedmer P: Obesity and the neuroendocrine control of energy homeostasis: the role of spontaneous locomotor activity. J Nutr. 2005, 135 (5): 1314–9.PubMed Castaneda TR, Jurgens H, Wiedmer P: Obesity and the neuroendocrine control of energy homeostasis: the role of spontaneous locomotor activity. J Nutr. 2005, 135 (5): 1314–9.PubMed
46.
go back to reference DiPietro L: Physical activity, body weight, and adiposity: an epidemiologic perspective. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1995, 23: 275–303. 10.1249/00003677-199500230-00011.PubMed DiPietro L: Physical activity, body weight, and adiposity: an epidemiologic perspective. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1995, 23: 275–303. 10.1249/00003677-199500230-00011.PubMed
47.
go back to reference Meredith CN, Zackin MJ, Frontera WR: Body composition and aerobic capacity in young and middle-aged endurance-trained men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987, 19 (6): 557–63.PubMed Meredith CN, Zackin MJ, Frontera WR: Body composition and aerobic capacity in young and middle-aged endurance-trained men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987, 19 (6): 557–63.PubMed
48.
go back to reference Ballor DL, Keesey RE: A meta-analysis of the factors affecting exercise-induced changes in body mass, fat mass and fat-free mass in males and females. Int J Obes. 1991, 15 (11): 717–26.PubMed Ballor DL, Keesey RE: A meta-analysis of the factors affecting exercise-induced changes in body mass, fat mass and fat-free mass in males and females. Int J Obes. 1991, 15 (11): 717–26.PubMed
49.
go back to reference Slentz CA, Aiken LB, Houmard JA: Inactivity, exercise and visceral fat. STRRIDE: a randomized, controlled study of exercise intensity and amount. J Appl Physiol. 2005 Slentz CA, Aiken LB, Houmard JA: Inactivity, exercise and visceral fat. STRRIDE: a randomized, controlled study of exercise intensity and amount. J Appl Physiol. 2005
50.
go back to reference Williams PT, Blanche PJ, Krauss RM: Behavioral versus genetic correlates of lipoproteins and adiposity in identical twins discordant for exercise. Circulation. 2005, 112 (3): 350–6. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.534578.PubMed Williams PT, Blanche PJ, Krauss RM: Behavioral versus genetic correlates of lipoproteins and adiposity in identical twins discordant for exercise. Circulation. 2005, 112 (3): 350–6. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.534578.PubMed
51.
go back to reference Giorgino F, Laviola L, Eriksson JW: Regional differences of insulin action in adipose tissue: insights from in vivo and in vitro studies. Acta Physiol Scand. 2005, 183 (1): 13–30. 10.1111/j.1365-201X.2004.01385.x.PubMed Giorgino F, Laviola L, Eriksson JW: Regional differences of insulin action in adipose tissue: insights from in vivo and in vitro studies. Acta Physiol Scand. 2005, 183 (1): 13–30. 10.1111/j.1365-201X.2004.01385.x.PubMed
52.
go back to reference Rorive M, Letiexhe MR, Scheen AJ: [Obesity and type 2 diabetes]. Rev Med Liege. 2005, 60 (5–6): 374–82.PubMed Rorive M, Letiexhe MR, Scheen AJ: [Obesity and type 2 diabetes]. Rev Med Liege. 2005, 60 (5–6): 374–82.PubMed
53.
go back to reference Pinkney J, Kopelman P, eds: Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. Edited by: Bouchard GABaC. 2004, Marcel Dekker, Inc: New York, 1046-Second Pinkney J, Kopelman P, eds: Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. Edited by: Bouchard GABaC. 2004, Marcel Dekker, Inc: New York, 1046-Second
54.
go back to reference Lafontan M: Fat cells: afferent and efferent messages define new approaches to treat obesity. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2005, 45: 119–46. 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095843.PubMed Lafontan M: Fat cells: afferent and efferent messages define new approaches to treat obesity. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2005, 45: 119–46. 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095843.PubMed
55.
go back to reference Cases JA, Gabriely I, Ma XH: Physiological increase in plasma leptin markedly inhibits insulin secretion in vivo. Diabetes. 2001, 50 (2): 348–52. 10.2337/diabetes.50.2.348.PubMed Cases JA, Gabriely I, Ma XH: Physiological increase in plasma leptin markedly inhibits insulin secretion in vivo. Diabetes. 2001, 50 (2): 348–52. 10.2337/diabetes.50.2.348.PubMed
56.
go back to reference Schwartz MW, Woods SC, Porte D: Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature. 2000, 404 (6778): 661–71.PubMed Schwartz MW, Woods SC, Porte D: Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature. 2000, 404 (6778): 661–71.PubMed
57.
go back to reference Banks AS, Davis SM, Bates SH: Activation of downstream signals by the long form of the leptin receptor. J Biol Chem. 2000, 275 (19): 14563–72. 10.1074/jbc.275.19.14563.PubMed Banks AS, Davis SM, Bates SH: Activation of downstream signals by the long form of the leptin receptor. J Biol Chem. 2000, 275 (19): 14563–72. 10.1074/jbc.275.19.14563.PubMed
58.
go back to reference Considine RV, Considine EL, Williams CJ: The hypothalamic leptin receptor in humans: identification of incidental sequence polymorphisms and absence of the db/db mouse and fa/fa rat mutations. Diabetes. 1996, 45 (7): 992–4. 10.2337/diabetes.45.7.992.PubMed Considine RV, Considine EL, Williams CJ: The hypothalamic leptin receptor in humans: identification of incidental sequence polymorphisms and absence of the db/db mouse and fa/fa rat mutations. Diabetes. 1996, 45 (7): 992–4. 10.2337/diabetes.45.7.992.PubMed
59.
go back to reference Considine RV, Sinha MK, Heiman ML: Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans. N Engl J Med. 1996, 334 (5): 292–5. 10.1056/NEJM199602013340503.PubMed Considine RV, Sinha MK, Heiman ML: Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans. N Engl J Med. 1996, 334 (5): 292–5. 10.1056/NEJM199602013340503.PubMed
60.
go back to reference Sahu A, Kalra S: Neuropeptidergic regulation of feeding behavior: Neuropeptide Y. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 1993, 4: 217–224. 10.1016/1043-2760(93)90125-X.PubMed Sahu A, Kalra S: Neuropeptidergic regulation of feeding behavior: Neuropeptide Y. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 1993, 4: 217–224. 10.1016/1043-2760(93)90125-X.PubMed
61.
go back to reference Baranowska B, Wolinska-Witort E, Wasilewska-Dziubinska E: The role of neuropeptides in the disturbed control of appetite and hormone secretion in eating disorders. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2003, 24 (6): 431–4.PubMed Baranowska B, Wolinska-Witort E, Wasilewska-Dziubinska E: The role of neuropeptides in the disturbed control of appetite and hormone secretion in eating disorders. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2003, 24 (6): 431–4.PubMed
62.
go back to reference Epel E, Lapidus R, McEwen B: Stress may add bite to appetite in women: a laboratory study of stress-induced cortisol and eating behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2001, 26 (1): 37–49. 10.1016/S0306-4530(00)00035-4.PubMed Epel E, Lapidus R, McEwen B: Stress may add bite to appetite in women: a laboratory study of stress-induced cortisol and eating behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2001, 26 (1): 37–49. 10.1016/S0306-4530(00)00035-4.PubMed
63.
go back to reference Bjorntorp P, Rosmond R: Obesity and cortisol. Nutrition. 2000, 16 (10): 924–36. 10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00422-6.PubMed Bjorntorp P, Rosmond R: Obesity and cortisol. Nutrition. 2000, 16 (10): 924–36. 10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00422-6.PubMed
64.
go back to reference Drapeau V, Therrien F, Richard D: Is visceral obesity a physiological adaptation to stress?. Panminerva Med. 2003, 45 (3): 189–95.PubMed Drapeau V, Therrien F, Richard D: Is visceral obesity a physiological adaptation to stress?. Panminerva Med. 2003, 45 (3): 189–95.PubMed
65.
go back to reference Dallman MF, la Fleur SE, Pecoraro NC: Minireview: glucocorticoids – food intake, abdominal obesity, and wealthy nations in 2004. Endocrinology. 2004, 145 (6): 2633–8. 10.1210/en.2004-0037.PubMed Dallman MF, la Fleur SE, Pecoraro NC: Minireview: glucocorticoids – food intake, abdominal obesity, and wealthy nations in 2004. Endocrinology. 2004, 145 (6): 2633–8. 10.1210/en.2004-0037.PubMed
66.
go back to reference Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS: A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes. 2001, 50 (8): 1714–9. 10.2337/diabetes.50.8.1714.PubMed Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS: A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes. 2001, 50 (8): 1714–9. 10.2337/diabetes.50.8.1714.PubMed
67.
go back to reference Shintani M, Ogawa Y, Ebihara K: Ghrelin, an endogenous growth hormone secretagogue, is a novel orexigenic peptide that antagonizes leptin action through the activation of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/Y1 receptor pathway. Diabetes. 2001, 50 (2): 227–32. 10.2337/diabetes.50.2.227.PubMed Shintani M, Ogawa Y, Ebihara K: Ghrelin, an endogenous growth hormone secretagogue, is a novel orexigenic peptide that antagonizes leptin action through the activation of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/Y1 receptor pathway. Diabetes. 2001, 50 (2): 227–32. 10.2337/diabetes.50.2.227.PubMed
68.
go back to reference Bray GA: Contemporary Diagnosis and Management of Obesity and The Metabolic Syndrome. 2003, Newtown, Pennsylvania: Handbooks in Health Care, Co, 328-Third Bray GA: Contemporary Diagnosis and Management of Obesity and The Metabolic Syndrome. 2003, Newtown, Pennsylvania: Handbooks in Health Care, Co, 328-Third
69.
go back to reference Vgontzas AN, Papanicolaou DA, Bixler EO: Elevation of plasma cytokines in disorders of excessive daytime sleepiness: role of sleep disturbance and obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997, 82 (5): 1313–6. 10.1210/jc.82.5.1313.PubMed Vgontzas AN, Papanicolaou DA, Bixler EO: Elevation of plasma cytokines in disorders of excessive daytime sleepiness: role of sleep disturbance and obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997, 82 (5): 1313–6. 10.1210/jc.82.5.1313.PubMed
70.
go back to reference Trujillo ME, Sullivan S, Harten I: Interleukin-6 regulates human adipose tissue lipid metabolism and leptin production in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004, 89 (11): 5577–82. 10.1210/jc.2004-0603.PubMed Trujillo ME, Sullivan S, Harten I: Interleukin-6 regulates human adipose tissue lipid metabolism and leptin production in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004, 89 (11): 5577–82. 10.1210/jc.2004-0603.PubMed
71.
go back to reference Pasquali R, Vicennati V, Pagotto U, eds: Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. Edited by: Bouchard GABaC. 2004, Marcel Dekker: New York, 1046-second Pasquali R, Vicennati V, Pagotto U, eds: Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and Pathophysiology. Edited by: Bouchard GABaC. 2004, Marcel Dekker: New York, 1046-second
72.
go back to reference Aycan Z, Berberoglu M, Ocal G: Relationship between plasma leptin, insulin and tumor necrosis factor alpha in obese children. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2005, 18 (3): 275–84.PubMed Aycan Z, Berberoglu M, Ocal G: Relationship between plasma leptin, insulin and tumor necrosis factor alpha in obese children. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2005, 18 (3): 275–84.PubMed
73.
go back to reference Schoemaker RC, Buijs MM, Pijl H: Modeling the influence of growth hormone on lipolysis. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn. 2002, 29 (2): 157–70. 10.1023/A:1019803924485.PubMed Schoemaker RC, Buijs MM, Pijl H: Modeling the influence of growth hormone on lipolysis. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn. 2002, 29 (2): 157–70. 10.1023/A:1019803924485.PubMed
74.
go back to reference Hansen TK: Pharmacokinetics and acute lipolytic actions of growth hormone. Impact of age, body composition, binding proteins, and other hormones. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2002, 12 (5): 342–58. 10.1016/S1096-6374(02)00061-8.PubMed Hansen TK: Pharmacokinetics and acute lipolytic actions of growth hormone. Impact of age, body composition, binding proteins, and other hormones. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2002, 12 (5): 342–58. 10.1016/S1096-6374(02)00061-8.PubMed
75.
go back to reference Iacobellis G, Ribaudo MC, Zappaterreno A: Relationship of thyroid function with body mass index, leptin, insulin sensitivity and adiponectin in euthyroid obese women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005, 62 (4): 487–91. 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2005.02247.x. Iacobellis G, Ribaudo MC, Zappaterreno A: Relationship of thyroid function with body mass index, leptin, insulin sensitivity and adiponectin in euthyroid obese women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005, 62 (4): 487–91. 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2005.02247.x.
76.
go back to reference Koppeschaar HP, Meinders AE, Schwarz F: Metabolic responses in grossly obese subjects treated with a very-low-calorie diet with and without triiodothyronine treatment. Int J Obes. 1983, 7 (2): 133–41.PubMed Koppeschaar HP, Meinders AE, Schwarz F: Metabolic responses in grossly obese subjects treated with a very-low-calorie diet with and without triiodothyronine treatment. Int J Obes. 1983, 7 (2): 133–41.PubMed
77.
go back to reference Bray G: Commentary on Banting letters. Obes Res. 1993, 1: 148–152.PubMed Bray G: Commentary on Banting letters. Obes Res. 1993, 1: 148–152.PubMed
78.
go back to reference Huszar D, Lynch CA, Fairchild-Huntress V: Targeted disruption of the melanocortin-4 receptor results in obesity in mice. Cell. 1997, 88 (1): 131–41. 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81865-6.PubMed Huszar D, Lynch CA, Fairchild-Huntress V: Targeted disruption of the melanocortin-4 receptor results in obesity in mice. Cell. 1997, 88 (1): 131–41. 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81865-6.PubMed
79.
go back to reference Bray GA, Greenway FL: Current and potential drugs for treatment of obesity. Endocr Rev. 1999, 20 (6): 805–75. 10.1210/er.20.6.805.PubMed Bray GA, Greenway FL: Current and potential drugs for treatment of obesity. Endocr Rev. 1999, 20 (6): 805–75. 10.1210/er.20.6.805.PubMed
80.
go back to reference Brennan IM, Feltrin KL, Horowitz M: Evaluation of interactions between CCK and GLP-1 in their effects on appetite, energy intake, and antropyloroduodenal motility in healthy men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005, 288 (6): R1477–85.PubMed Brennan IM, Feltrin KL, Horowitz M: Evaluation of interactions between CCK and GLP-1 in their effects on appetite, energy intake, and antropyloroduodenal motility in healthy men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005, 288 (6): R1477–85.PubMed
81.
go back to reference Bjorntorp P: Body fat distribution, insulin resistance, and metabolic diseases. Nutrition. 1997, 13 (9): 795–803. 10.1016/S0899-9007(97)00191-3.PubMed Bjorntorp P: Body fat distribution, insulin resistance, and metabolic diseases. Nutrition. 1997, 13 (9): 795–803. 10.1016/S0899-9007(97)00191-3.PubMed
82.
go back to reference Oren S, Grossman E, Frohlich ED: Arterial and venous compliance in obese and nonobese subjects. Am J Cardiol. 1996, 77 (8): 665–7. 10.1016/S0002-9149(97)89331-9.PubMed Oren S, Grossman E, Frohlich ED: Arterial and venous compliance in obese and nonobese subjects. Am J Cardiol. 1996, 77 (8): 665–7. 10.1016/S0002-9149(97)89331-9.PubMed
83.
go back to reference Rauch U, Osende JI, Fuster V: Thrombus formation on atherosclerotic plaques: pathogenesis and clinical consequences. Ann Intern Med. 2001, 134 (3): 224–38.PubMed Rauch U, Osende JI, Fuster V: Thrombus formation on atherosclerotic plaques: pathogenesis and clinical consequences. Ann Intern Med. 2001, 134 (3): 224–38.PubMed
84.
go back to reference Booth FW: Pieces of the Same Human Puzzle: Evolution, Physical Activity, Chronic Disease, Public Health and Policy. 2005, American College of Sports Medicine. Nashville, TN Booth FW: Pieces of the Same Human Puzzle: Evolution, Physical Activity, Chronic Disease, Public Health and Policy. 2005, American College of Sports Medicine. Nashville, TN
85.
go back to reference Pearson TA, Derby CA: Invited commentary: should arteriographic case-control studies be used to identify causes of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease?. Am J Epidemiol. 1991, 134 (2): 123–8.PubMed Pearson TA, Derby CA: Invited commentary: should arteriographic case-control studies be used to identify causes of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease?. Am J Epidemiol. 1991, 134 (2): 123–8.PubMed
86.
go back to reference Clark LT, Karve MM, Rones KT: Obesity, distribution of body fat and coronary artery disease in black women. Am J Cardiol. 1994, 73 (12): 895–6. 10.1016/0002-9149(94)90818-4.PubMed Clark LT, Karve MM, Rones KT: Obesity, distribution of body fat and coronary artery disease in black women. Am J Cardiol. 1994, 73 (12): 895–6. 10.1016/0002-9149(94)90818-4.PubMed
87.
go back to reference Rexrode KM, Carey VJ, Hennekens CH: Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women. Jama. 1998, 280 (21): 1843–8. 10.1001/jama.280.21.1843.PubMed Rexrode KM, Carey VJ, Hennekens CH: Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women. Jama. 1998, 280 (21): 1843–8. 10.1001/jama.280.21.1843.PubMed
88.
go back to reference Hubert HB, Feinleib M, McNamara PM: Obesity as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: a 26-year follow-up of participants in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 1983, 67 (5): 968–77.PubMed Hubert HB, Feinleib M, McNamara PM: Obesity as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: a 26-year follow-up of participants in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 1983, 67 (5): 968–77.PubMed
89.
go back to reference Stamler R, Stamler J, Riedlinger WF: Weight and blood pressure. Findings in hypertension screening of 1 million Americans. Jama. 1978, 240 (15): 1607–10. 10.1001/jama.240.15.1607.PubMed Stamler R, Stamler J, Riedlinger WF: Weight and blood pressure. Findings in hypertension screening of 1 million Americans. Jama. 1978, 240 (15): 1607–10. 10.1001/jama.240.15.1607.PubMed
90.
go back to reference Landsberg L: Obesity and hypertension: experimental data. J Hypertens Suppl. 1992, 10 (7): S195–201. 10.1097/00004872-199212007-00022.PubMed Landsberg L: Obesity and hypertension: experimental data. J Hypertens Suppl. 1992, 10 (7): S195–201. 10.1097/00004872-199212007-00022.PubMed
91.
go back to reference Meehan WP, Darwin CH, Maalouf NB: Insulin and hypertension: are they related?. Steroids. 1993, 58 (12): 621–34. 10.1016/0039-128X(93)90105-V.PubMed Meehan WP, Darwin CH, Maalouf NB: Insulin and hypertension: are they related?. Steroids. 1993, 58 (12): 621–34. 10.1016/0039-128X(93)90105-V.PubMed
92.
go back to reference Rocchini AP, Moorehead C, DeRemer S: Hyperinsulinemia and the aldosterone and pressor responses to angiotensin II. Hypertension. 1990, 15 (6 Pt 2): 861–6.PubMed Rocchini AP, Moorehead C, DeRemer S: Hyperinsulinemia and the aldosterone and pressor responses to angiotensin II. Hypertension. 1990, 15 (6 Pt 2): 861–6.PubMed
93.
go back to reference Krief S, Lonnqvist F, Raimbault S: Tissue distribution of beta 3-adrenergic receptor mRNA in man. J Clin Invest. 1993, 91 (1): 344–9.PubMedPubMedCentral Krief S, Lonnqvist F, Raimbault S: Tissue distribution of beta 3-adrenergic receptor mRNA in man. J Clin Invest. 1993, 91 (1): 344–9.PubMedPubMedCentral
94.
go back to reference Anderson EA, Hoffman RP, Balon TW: Hyperinsulinemia produces both sympathetic neural activation and vasodilation in normal humans. J Clin Invest. 1991, 87 (6): 2246–52.PubMedPubMedCentral Anderson EA, Hoffman RP, Balon TW: Hyperinsulinemia produces both sympathetic neural activation and vasodilation in normal humans. J Clin Invest. 1991, 87 (6): 2246–52.PubMedPubMedCentral
95.
go back to reference Wu HY, Jeng YY, Yue CJ: Endothelial-dependent vascular effects of insulin and insulin-like growth factor I in the perfused rat mesenteric artery and aortic ring. Diabetes. 1994, 43 (8): 1027–32. 10.2337/diabetes.43.8.1027.PubMed Wu HY, Jeng YY, Yue CJ: Endothelial-dependent vascular effects of insulin and insulin-like growth factor I in the perfused rat mesenteric artery and aortic ring. Diabetes. 1994, 43 (8): 1027–32. 10.2337/diabetes.43.8.1027.PubMed
96.
go back to reference Collins S, Kuhn CM, Petro AE: Role of leptin in fat regulation. Nature. 1996, 380 (6576): 677–10.1038/380677a0.PubMed Collins S, Kuhn CM, Petro AE: Role of leptin in fat regulation. Nature. 1996, 380 (6576): 677–10.1038/380677a0.PubMed
97.
go back to reference Golden PL, Maccagnan TJ, Pardridge WM: Human blood-brain barrier leptin receptor. Binding and endocytosis in isolated human brain microvessels. J Clin Invest. 1997, 99 (1): 14–8.PubMedPubMedCentral Golden PL, Maccagnan TJ, Pardridge WM: Human blood-brain barrier leptin receptor. Binding and endocytosis in isolated human brain microvessels. J Clin Invest. 1997, 99 (1): 14–8.PubMedPubMedCentral
98.
go back to reference Letiexhe MR, Scheen AJ, Gerard PL: Insulin secretion, clearance and action before and after gastroplasty in severely obese subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1994, 18 (5): 295–300.PubMed Letiexhe MR, Scheen AJ, Gerard PL: Insulin secretion, clearance and action before and after gastroplasty in severely obese subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1994, 18 (5): 295–300.PubMed
99.
go back to reference Mavri A, Stegnar M, Sentocnik JT: Impact of weight reduction on early carotid atherosclerosis in obese premenopausal women. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (9): 511–6.PubMed Mavri A, Stegnar M, Sentocnik JT: Impact of weight reduction on early carotid atherosclerosis in obese premenopausal women. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (9): 511–6.PubMed
100.
go back to reference Giltay EJ, Lambert J, Elbers JM: Arterial compliance and distensibility are modulated by body composition in both men and women but by insulin sensitivity only in women. Diabetologia. 1999, 42 (2): 214–21. 10.1007/s001250051141.PubMed Giltay EJ, Lambert J, Elbers JM: Arterial compliance and distensibility are modulated by body composition in both men and women but by insulin sensitivity only in women. Diabetologia. 1999, 42 (2): 214–21. 10.1007/s001250051141.PubMed
101.
go back to reference Chi MM, Hintz CS, Henriksson J: Chronic stimulation of mammalian muscle: enzyme changes in individual fibers. Am J Physiol. 1986, 251 (4 Pt 1): C633–42.PubMed Chi MM, Hintz CS, Henriksson J: Chronic stimulation of mammalian muscle: enzyme changes in individual fibers. Am J Physiol. 1986, 251 (4 Pt 1): C633–42.PubMed
102.
go back to reference Messerli FH, Nunez BD, Ventura HO: Overweight and sudden death. Increased ventricular ectopy in cardiopathy of obesity. Arch Intern Med. 1987, 147 (10): 1725–8. 10.1001/archinte.147.10.1725.PubMed Messerli FH, Nunez BD, Ventura HO: Overweight and sudden death. Increased ventricular ectopy in cardiopathy of obesity. Arch Intern Med. 1987, 147 (10): 1725–8. 10.1001/archinte.147.10.1725.PubMed
103.
go back to reference Zemva A, Zemva Z: Ventricular ectopic activity, left ventricular mass, hyperinsulinemia, and intracellular magnesium in normotensive patients with obesity. Angiology. 2000, 51 (2): 101–6.PubMed Zemva A, Zemva Z: Ventricular ectopic activity, left ventricular mass, hyperinsulinemia, and intracellular magnesium in normotensive patients with obesity. Angiology. 2000, 51 (2): 101–6.PubMed
104.
go back to reference Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Larsson B: Distribution of adipose tissue and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: a 12 year follow up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1984, 289 (6454): 1257–61. Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Larsson B: Distribution of adipose tissue and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: a 12 year follow up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1984, 289 (6454): 1257–61.
105.
go back to reference Ness J, Aronow WS, Ahn C: Risk factors for symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in older persons in an academic hospital-based geriatrics practice. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000, 48 (3): 312–4.PubMed Ness J, Aronow WS, Ahn C: Risk factors for symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in older persons in an academic hospital-based geriatrics practice. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000, 48 (3): 312–4.PubMed
106.
go back to reference Plavnik FL, Ajzen S, Kohlmann O: Intima-media thickness evaluation by B-mode ultrasound. Correlation with blood pressure levels and cardiac structures. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2000, 33 (1): 55–64. 10.1590/S0100-879X2000000100008.PubMed Plavnik FL, Ajzen S, Kohlmann O: Intima-media thickness evaluation by B-mode ultrasound. Correlation with blood pressure levels and cardiac structures. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2000, 33 (1): 55–64. 10.1590/S0100-879X2000000100008.PubMed
107.
go back to reference Kannel WB, Plehn JF, Cupples LA: Cardiac failure and sudden death in the Framingham Study. Am Heart J. 1988, 115 (4): 869–75. 10.1016/0002-8703(88)90891-5.PubMed Kannel WB, Plehn JF, Cupples LA: Cardiac failure and sudden death in the Framingham Study. Am Heart J. 1988, 115 (4): 869–75. 10.1016/0002-8703(88)90891-5.PubMed
108.
go back to reference Association AH: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics – 2005 Update. 2005, American Heart Association: Dallas Association AH: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics – 2005 Update. 2005, American Heart Association: Dallas
109.
go back to reference Finer N, Bloom SR, Frost GS: Sibutramine is effective for weight loss and diabetic control in obesity with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2000, 2 (2): 105–12. 10.1046/j.1463-1326.2000.00071.x.PubMed Finer N, Bloom SR, Frost GS: Sibutramine is effective for weight loss and diabetic control in obesity with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2000, 2 (2): 105–12. 10.1046/j.1463-1326.2000.00071.x.PubMed
110.
go back to reference Hauner H: The impact of pharmacotherapy on weight management in type 2 diabetes. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (Suppl 7): S12–7. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800956.PubMed Hauner H: The impact of pharmacotherapy on weight management in type 2 diabetes. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (Suppl 7): S12–7. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800956.PubMed
111.
go back to reference Williams KV, Mullen ML, Kelley DE: The effect of short periods of caloric restriction on weight loss and glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1998, 21 (1): 2–8. 10.2337/diacare.21.1.2.PubMed Williams KV, Mullen ML, Kelley DE: The effect of short periods of caloric restriction on weight loss and glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1998, 21 (1): 2–8. 10.2337/diacare.21.1.2.PubMed
112.
go back to reference Duggirala R, Mitchell BD, Blangero J: Genetics determinants of variation in gallbladder disease in the Mexican-American population. Genetic Epidemiology. 1999, 16 (2): 191–204. 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2272(1999)16:2<191::AID-GEPI6>3.0.CO;2-6.PubMed Duggirala R, Mitchell BD, Blangero J: Genetics determinants of variation in gallbladder disease in the Mexican-American population. Genetic Epidemiology. 1999, 16 (2): 191–204. 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2272(1999)16:2<191::AID-GEPI6>3.0.CO;2-6.PubMed
113.
go back to reference Acalovschi M, Blendea D: Risk of asymptomatic and symptomatic gallstones in moderately obesewomen: a longitudineal follow-up study. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1997, 92 (1): 127–131. Acalovschi M, Blendea D: Risk of asymptomatic and symptomatic gallstones in moderately obesewomen: a longitudineal follow-up study. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1997, 92 (1): 127–131.
114.
go back to reference Kono S, Kochi S: Gallstones, serum lipids, and glucose tolerance among male officials of self-defense forces in Japan. Dig Dis Sci. 1988, 33 (7): 839–834. 10.1007/BF01550973.PubMed Kono S, Kochi S: Gallstones, serum lipids, and glucose tolerance among male officials of self-defense forces in Japan. Dig Dis Sci. 1988, 33 (7): 839–834. 10.1007/BF01550973.PubMed
115.
go back to reference Dittrick D, Thompson J: Gallbladder pathology in obesity. Obesity. 2005, 15 (2): 238–242. 10.1381/0960892053268273. Dittrick D, Thompson J: Gallbladder pathology in obesity. Obesity. 2005, 15 (2): 238–242. 10.1381/0960892053268273.
116.
go back to reference Sauter GH, Thiessen K, Parhofer KG: Effects of ursodeoxycholic acid on cholesterol and bile acids in healthy subjects. Digestion. 2004, 70 (2): 79–83. 10.1159/000080925.PubMed Sauter GH, Thiessen K, Parhofer KG: Effects of ursodeoxycholic acid on cholesterol and bile acids in healthy subjects. Digestion. 2004, 70 (2): 79–83. 10.1159/000080925.PubMed
117.
go back to reference Christensen R, Astrup A, Bliddal H: Weight loss: the treatment of choice for knee osteoarthritis? A randomized trial. Ostearthritis Cartilage. 2005, 13 (1): 20–7. 10.1016/j.joca.2004.10.008. Christensen R, Astrup A, Bliddal H: Weight loss: the treatment of choice for knee osteoarthritis? A randomized trial. Ostearthritis Cartilage. 2005, 13 (1): 20–7. 10.1016/j.joca.2004.10.008.
118.
go back to reference Holmberg S, Thelin N: Knee osteoarthritis and body mass index: a population based case control study. Scand J Rheumatology. 2005, 34 (1): 59–64. 10.1080/03009740510017922. Holmberg S, Thelin N: Knee osteoarthritis and body mass index: a population based case control study. Scand J Rheumatology. 2005, 34 (1): 59–64. 10.1080/03009740510017922.
119.
go back to reference Linne Y, Dye L, Barkeling B: Weight development over time in parous women-the SPAWN study-15 years follow up. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disorders. 2003, 27 (12): 1516–22. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802441. Linne Y, Dye L, Barkeling B: Weight development over time in parous women-the SPAWN study-15 years follow up. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disorders. 2003, 27 (12): 1516–22. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802441.
120.
go back to reference Phillips DIW, Bennett FI, Wilks R: Maternal body composition, offspring blood pressure and the hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 2005, 19 (4): 294–299. 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2005.00661.x.PubMed Phillips DIW, Bennett FI, Wilks R: Maternal body composition, offspring blood pressure and the hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 2005, 19 (4): 294–299. 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2005.00661.x.PubMed
121.
go back to reference Strohl KP, Redline S: Recognition of obstructive sleep apnea. Ear Nose Throat. 1996, 154 (2): 279–289. Strohl KP, Redline S: Recognition of obstructive sleep apnea. Ear Nose Throat. 1996, 154 (2): 279–289.
122.
go back to reference Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M: Longitudinal study of moderate weight change and sleep-disordered breathing. JAMA. 2000, 284 (23): 3015–3021. 10.1001/jama.284.23.3015.PubMed Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M: Longitudinal study of moderate weight change and sleep-disordered breathing. JAMA. 2000, 284 (23): 3015–3021. 10.1001/jama.284.23.3015.PubMed
123.
go back to reference Strollo PJ, Rogers RM: Ostructive sleep apnea. New England Journal of Medicine. 1996, 334 (2): 99–104. 10.1056/NEJM199601113340207. Strollo PJ, Rogers RM: Ostructive sleep apnea. New England Journal of Medicine. 1996, 334 (2): 99–104. 10.1056/NEJM199601113340207.
124.
go back to reference Speigel K, Leproult R, L'Hermite-Baleriaux M: Leptin Levels are Dependent on Sleep Duration: Relationships with Sympathovagal Balance, Carbohydrate Regulation, Cortisol, and Thyrotropin. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2004, 89 (11): 5762–5771. 10.1210/jc.2004-1003. Speigel K, Leproult R, L'Hermite-Baleriaux M: Leptin Levels are Dependent on Sleep Duration: Relationships with Sympathovagal Balance, Carbohydrate Regulation, Cortisol, and Thyrotropin. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2004, 89 (11): 5762–5771. 10.1210/jc.2004-1003.
125.
go back to reference Piechota G, Malkiewiez J, Karwar ID: Obesity as a cause and result of disability. Prezegl Epidemiology. 2005, 59 (155–161): Piechota G, Malkiewiez J, Karwar ID: Obesity as a cause and result of disability. Prezegl Epidemiology. 2005, 59 (155–161):
126.
go back to reference Poves PI, Macias GJ, Cebrara FMea: Quality of life in morbid obesity. Rev ESp Enferm Digest. 2005, 97 (3): 187–195. Poves PI, Macias GJ, Cebrara FMea: Quality of life in morbid obesity. Rev ESp Enferm Digest. 2005, 97 (3): 187–195.
127.
go back to reference Daniels SR: Regulation of body mass and management of childhood overweight. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2005, 44 (7): 589–94. 10.1002/pbc.20353.PubMed Daniels SR: Regulation of body mass and management of childhood overweight. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2005, 44 (7): 589–94. 10.1002/pbc.20353.PubMed
128.
go back to reference Williams AE, DB : A commercial weight-reducing organization: a critical analysis. Med J Aust. 1976, 1: 781–785.PubMed Williams AE, DB : A commercial weight-reducing organization: a critical analysis. Med J Aust. 1976, 1: 781–785.PubMed
129.
go back to reference Blackburn GL, Waltman BA: Expanding the limits of treatment – new strategic initiatives. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005, 105 (5 Suppl 1): S131–5. 10.1016/j.jada.2005.02.019.PubMed Blackburn GL, Waltman BA: Expanding the limits of treatment – new strategic initiatives. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005, 105 (5 Suppl 1): S131–5. 10.1016/j.jada.2005.02.019.PubMed
130.
go back to reference Riebe D, Greene GW, Ruggiero L: Evaluation of a healthy-lifestyle approach to weight management. Prev Med. 2003, 36 (1): 45–54. 10.1006/pmed.2002.1126.PubMed Riebe D, Greene GW, Ruggiero L: Evaluation of a healthy-lifestyle approach to weight management. Prev Med. 2003, 36 (1): 45–54. 10.1006/pmed.2002.1126.PubMed
131.
go back to reference Wisotsky W, Swencionis C: Cognitive-behavioral approaches in the management of obesity. Adolesc Med. 2003, 14 (1): 37–48.PubMed Wisotsky W, Swencionis C: Cognitive-behavioral approaches in the management of obesity. Adolesc Med. 2003, 14 (1): 37–48.PubMed
132.
go back to reference Poston WS, Haddock CK, Dill PL, Thayer B, Foreyt JP: Lifestyle treatments in randomized clinical trials of pharmacotherapies for obesity. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (9): 552–563.PubMed Poston WS, Haddock CK, Dill PL, Thayer B, Foreyt JP: Lifestyle treatments in randomized clinical trials of pharmacotherapies for obesity. Obes Res. 2001, 9 (9): 552–563.PubMed
133.
go back to reference Tsui AGaW, Thomas A: Systematic Review: An Evaluation of Major Commercial Weight Loss Programs in the United States. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2005, 142 (1): 56–66. Tsui AGaW, Thomas A: Systematic Review: An Evaluation of Major Commercial Weight Loss Programs in the United States. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2005, 142 (1): 56–66.
134.
go back to reference Lowe MR, M-KK , Phelan S: Weight-loss maintenance in overweight individuals one to five years following successful completion of a commercial weight loss program. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001, 25: 325–331. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801521.PubMed Lowe MR, M-KK , Phelan S: Weight-loss maintenance in overweight individuals one to five years following successful completion of a commercial weight loss program. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001, 25: 325–331. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801521.PubMed
135.
go back to reference Heshka SGF, Anderson JW, Atkinson RL, Hill JO, Phinney SD, Miller-Kovach K, Pi-Sunyer FX: Self-help weight loss versus a structured commercial program after 26 weeks: a randomized controlled study. Am J Med. 2000, 109: 282–287. 10.1016/S0002-9343(00)00494-0.PubMed Heshka SGF, Anderson JW, Atkinson RL, Hill JO, Phinney SD, Miller-Kovach K, Pi-Sunyer FX: Self-help weight loss versus a structured commercial program after 26 weeks: a randomized controlled study. Am J Med. 2000, 109: 282–287. 10.1016/S0002-9343(00)00494-0.PubMed
136.
go back to reference Hamilton M, Greenway F: Evaluating commercial weight loss programmes: an evolution in outcomes research. Obes Rev. 2004, 5 (4): 217–32. 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2004.00153.x.PubMed Hamilton M, Greenway F: Evaluating commercial weight loss programmes: an evolution in outcomes research. Obes Rev. 2004, 5 (4): 217–32. 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2004.00153.x.PubMed
137.
go back to reference Wolfe BL: Long-term maintenance following attainment of goal weight: a preliminary investigation. Addict Behav. 1992, 17 (5): 469–77. 10.1016/0306-4603(92)90007-I.PubMed Wolfe BL: Long-term maintenance following attainment of goal weight: a preliminary investigation. Addict Behav. 1992, 17 (5): 469–77. 10.1016/0306-4603(92)90007-I.PubMed
138.
go back to reference Atkins R: Dr Atkins' diet revolution: The high calorie way to stay thin forever. 1972, New York: David McKay, Inc Atkins R: Dr Atkins' diet revolution: The high calorie way to stay thin forever. 1972, New York: David McKay, Inc
139.
go back to reference Westman EC, Yancy WS, Edman JS: Effect of 6-month adherence to a very low carbohydrate diet program. Am J Med. 2002, 113 (1): 30–6. 10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01129-4.PubMed Westman EC, Yancy WS, Edman JS: Effect of 6-month adherence to a very low carbohydrate diet program. Am J Med. 2002, 113 (1): 30–6. 10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01129-4.PubMed
140.
go back to reference Volek J, Sharman MJ, Gómez AL, Judelson DA, Rubin MR, Watson G, Sokmen B, Silvestre R, French DN, Kraemer WJ: Comparison of energy-restricted very low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets on weight loss and body composition in overweight men and women. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2004, 1 (13): Volek J, Sharman MJ, Gómez AL, Judelson DA, Rubin MR, Watson G, Sokmen B, Silvestre R, French DN, Kraemer WJ: Comparison of energy-restricted very low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets on weight loss and body composition in overweight men and women. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2004, 1 (13):
141.
go back to reference Willi SM, Oexmann , Mary Joan, Wright , Nancy M, Collop , Nancy A, Key L, Lyndon : The Effects of a High-protein, Low-fat, Ketogenic Diet on Adolescents With Morbid Obesity: Body Composition, Blood Chemistries, and Sleep Abnormalities. Pediatrics. 1998, 101 (1): 61–67. 10.1542/peds.101.1.61.PubMed Willi SM, Oexmann , Mary Joan, Wright , Nancy M, Collop , Nancy A, Key L, Lyndon : The Effects of a High-protein, Low-fat, Ketogenic Diet on Adolescents With Morbid Obesity: Body Composition, Blood Chemistries, and Sleep Abnormalities. Pediatrics. 1998, 101 (1): 61–67. 10.1542/peds.101.1.61.PubMed
142.
go back to reference Slavin JL: Dietary fiber and body weight. Nutrition. 2004, 21 (3): 411–418. 10.1016/j.nut.2004.08.018. Slavin JL: Dietary fiber and body weight. Nutrition. 2004, 21 (3): 411–418. 10.1016/j.nut.2004.08.018.
143.
go back to reference Warren J, Henry JCea: Low glycemic index breakfasts and reduced food intake in preadolescent children. Pediatrics. 2003, 112: e414-10.1542/peds.112.5.e414.PubMed Warren J, Henry JCea: Low glycemic index breakfasts and reduced food intake in preadolescent children. Pediatrics. 2003, 112: e414-10.1542/peds.112.5.e414.PubMed
144.
go back to reference Kappagoda C, Hyson : Low-carbohydrate-high-protein diets: is there a place for them in clinical cardiology?". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2003, 43 (5): 725–730. 10.1016/j.jacc.2003.06.022. Kappagoda C, Hyson : Low-carbohydrate-high-protein diets: is there a place for them in clinical cardiology?". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2003, 43 (5): 725–730. 10.1016/j.jacc.2003.06.022.
145.
go back to reference Roberts D: Quick weight loss: sorting fad from fact. The Medical Journal of Australia. 2001, 175: 637–640.PubMed Roberts D: Quick weight loss: sorting fad from fact. The Medical Journal of Australia. 2001, 175: 637–640.PubMed
146.
go back to reference Anderson JW, KE , Jenkins DJ: Health advantages and disadvantages of weight reducing diets: a computer analysis and critical review. The Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2000, 19 (5): 578–590.PubMed Anderson JW, KE , Jenkins DJ: Health advantages and disadvantages of weight reducing diets: a computer analysis and critical review. The Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2000, 19 (5): 578–590.PubMed
147.
go back to reference McMillan-Price J, Brand-Miller J: Dietary approaches to overweight and obesity. Clin Dermatol. 2004, 22 (4): 310–4. 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.01.003.PubMed McMillan-Price J, Brand-Miller J: Dietary approaches to overweight and obesity. Clin Dermatol. 2004, 22 (4): 310–4. 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.01.003.PubMed
148.
go back to reference Bouche C, Rizkalla SW, Luo J: Five-week, low-glycemic index diet decreases total fat mass and improves plasma lipid profile in moderately overweight nondiabetic men. Diabetes Care. 2002, 25 (5): 822–8. 10.2337/diacare.25.5.822.PubMed Bouche C, Rizkalla SW, Luo J: Five-week, low-glycemic index diet decreases total fat mass and improves plasma lipid profile in moderately overweight nondiabetic men. Diabetes Care. 2002, 25 (5): 822–8. 10.2337/diacare.25.5.822.PubMed
149.
go back to reference Ebbeling CB, Leidig MM, Sinclair KB: A reduced-glycemic load diet in the treatment of adolescent obesity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003, 157 (8): 773–9. 10.1001/archpedi.157.8.773.PubMed Ebbeling CB, Leidig MM, Sinclair KB: A reduced-glycemic load diet in the treatment of adolescent obesity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003, 157 (8): 773–9. 10.1001/archpedi.157.8.773.PubMed
150.
go back to reference Spieth LE, Harnish JD, Lenders CM: A low-glycemic index diet in the treatment of pediatric obesity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000, 154 (9): 947–51.PubMed Spieth LE, Harnish JD, Lenders CM: A low-glycemic index diet in the treatment of pediatric obesity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000, 154 (9): 947–51.PubMed
151.
go back to reference Wechsler JG, Leopold K: Medical management of obesity. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2003, 388 (6): 369–74.PubMed Wechsler JG, Leopold K: Medical management of obesity. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2003, 388 (6): 369–74.PubMed
152.
go back to reference Fujioka K: Management of obesity as a chronic disease: nonpharmacologic, pharmacologic, and surgical options. Obes Res. 2002, 10 (Suppl 2): 116S–123S.PubMed Fujioka K: Management of obesity as a chronic disease: nonpharmacologic, pharmacologic, and surgical options. Obes Res. 2002, 10 (Suppl 2): 116S–123S.PubMed
153.
go back to reference Wing RR, Marcus MD, Salata R: Effects of a very-low-calorie diet on long-term glycemic control in obese type 2 diabetic subjects. Arch Intern Med. 1991, 151 (7): 1334–40. 10.1001/archinte.151.7.1334.PubMed Wing RR, Marcus MD, Salata R: Effects of a very-low-calorie diet on long-term glycemic control in obese type 2 diabetic subjects. Arch Intern Med. 1991, 151 (7): 1334–40. 10.1001/archinte.151.7.1334.PubMed
154.
go back to reference Willi SM, Martin K, Datko FM: Treatment of type 2 diabetes in childhood using a very-low-calorie diet. Diabetes Care. 2004, 27 (2): 348–53. 10.2337/diacare.27.2.348.PubMed Willi SM, Martin K, Datko FM: Treatment of type 2 diabetes in childhood using a very-low-calorie diet. Diabetes Care. 2004, 27 (2): 348–53. 10.2337/diacare.27.2.348.PubMed
155.
go back to reference Armitage CJ: Can the Theory of Planned Behavior Predict the Maintenance of Physical Activity?. Health Psychology. 2005, 24 (3): 235–245. 10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.235.PubMed Armitage CJ: Can the Theory of Planned Behavior Predict the Maintenance of Physical Activity?. Health Psychology. 2005, 24 (3): 235–245. 10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.235.PubMed
156.
go back to reference Epstein LHV, Alice Wing, Rena R, McCurley James: Ten-year outcomes of behavioral family-based treatment for childhood obesity. Health Psychology. 1994, 13 (5): 373–383. 10.1037/0278-6133.13.5.373.PubMed Epstein LHV, Alice Wing, Rena R, McCurley James: Ten-year outcomes of behavioral family-based treatment for childhood obesity. Health Psychology. 1994, 13 (5): 373–383. 10.1037/0278-6133.13.5.373.PubMed
157.
go back to reference Wilson GT: Behavioral treatment of childhood obesity: Theoretical and practical implications. Health Psychology. 1994, 13 (1): 371–372. 10.1037/0278-6133.13.5.371.PubMed Wilson GT: Behavioral treatment of childhood obesity: Theoretical and practical implications. Health Psychology. 1994, 13 (1): 371–372. 10.1037/0278-6133.13.5.371.PubMed
158.
go back to reference Schmidt M, Affenito SG, Striegel-Moore R: Fast-food intake and diet quality in black and white girls: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005, 159 (7): 626–31. 10.1001/archpedi.159.7.626.PubMed Schmidt M, Affenito SG, Striegel-Moore R: Fast-food intake and diet quality in black and white girls: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005, 159 (7): 626–31. 10.1001/archpedi.159.7.626.PubMed
159.
go back to reference Affenito SG, Thompson DR, Barton BA: Breakfast consumption by African-American and white adolescent girls correlates positively with calcium and fiber intake and negatively with body mass index. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005, 105 (6): 938–45. 10.1016/j.jada.2005.03.003.PubMed Affenito SG, Thompson DR, Barton BA: Breakfast consumption by African-American and white adolescent girls correlates positively with calcium and fiber intake and negatively with body mass index. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005, 105 (6): 938–45. 10.1016/j.jada.2005.03.003.PubMed
160.
go back to reference Yanovski SZ, Bain RP, Williamson DF: Report of a National Institutes of Health-Centers for Disease Control and Prevention workshop on the feasibility of conducting a randomized clinical trial to estimate the long-term health effects of intentional weight loss in obese persons. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999, 69: 366–72.PubMed Yanovski SZ, Bain RP, Williamson DF: Report of a National Institutes of Health-Centers for Disease Control and Prevention workshop on the feasibility of conducting a randomized clinical trial to estimate the long-term health effects of intentional weight loss in obese persons. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999, 69: 366–72.PubMed
161.
go back to reference Reeves RS, McPherson RS, Nichaman MZ: Nutrient intake of obese female binge eaters. J Am Diet Assoc. 2001, 101 (2): 209–15. 10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00055-4.PubMed Reeves RS, McPherson RS, Nichaman MZ: Nutrient intake of obese female binge eaters. J Am Diet Assoc. 2001, 101 (2): 209–15. 10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00055-4.PubMed
162.
go back to reference Yanovski SZ, Devlin MJ: Role of behavioral therapy in the management of obesity. Endocr Pract. 1995, 1 (5): 340–5.PubMed Yanovski SZ, Devlin MJ: Role of behavioral therapy in the management of obesity. Endocr Pract. 1995, 1 (5): 340–5.PubMed
163.
go back to reference Dubnov G, Brzezinski A, Berry EM: Weight control and the management of obesity after menopause: the role of physical activity. Maturitas. 2003, 44 (2): 89–101. 10.1016/S0378-5122(02)00328-6.PubMed Dubnov G, Brzezinski A, Berry EM: Weight control and the management of obesity after menopause: the role of physical activity. Maturitas. 2003, 44 (2): 89–101. 10.1016/S0378-5122(02)00328-6.PubMed
164.
go back to reference Deedwania PC, Volkova N: Current Treatment Options for the Metabolic Syndrome. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2005, 7 (1): 61–74. 10.1007/s11936-005-0007-1.PubMed Deedwania PC, Volkova N: Current Treatment Options for the Metabolic Syndrome. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2005, 7 (1): 61–74. 10.1007/s11936-005-0007-1.PubMed
165.
go back to reference Chanoine JP, Hampl S, Jensen C: Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2005, 293 (23): 2873–83. 10.1001/jama.293.23.2873.PubMed Chanoine JP, Hampl S, Jensen C: Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2005, 293 (23): 2873–83. 10.1001/jama.293.23.2873.PubMed
166.
go back to reference Boozer CN, Daly PA, Homel P: Herbal ephedra/caffeine for weight loss: a 6-month randomized safety and efficacy trial. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2002, 26 (5): 593–604. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802023.PubMed Boozer CN, Daly PA, Homel P: Herbal ephedra/caffeine for weight loss: a 6-month randomized safety and efficacy trial. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2002, 26 (5): 593–604. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802023.PubMed
167.
go back to reference Boozer CN, Nasser JA, Heymsfield SB: An herbal supplement containing Ma Huang-Guarana for weight loss: a randomized, double-blind trial. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001, 25 (3): 316–24. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801539.PubMed Boozer CN, Nasser JA, Heymsfield SB: An herbal supplement containing Ma Huang-Guarana for weight loss: a randomized, double-blind trial. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001, 25 (3): 316–24. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801539.PubMed
168.
go back to reference Greenway FL, Ryan DH, Bray GA: Pharmaceutical cost savings of treating obesity with weight loss medications. Obes Res. 1999, 7 (6): 523–31.PubMed Greenway FL, Ryan DH, Bray GA: Pharmaceutical cost savings of treating obesity with weight loss medications. Obes Res. 1999, 7 (6): 523–31.PubMed
169.
go back to reference Molnar D, Torok K, Erhardt E: Safety and efficacy of treatment with an ephedrine/caffeine mixture. The first double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study in adolescents. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000, 24 (12): 1573–8. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801433.PubMed Molnar D, Torok K, Erhardt E: Safety and efficacy of treatment with an ephedrine/caffeine mixture. The first double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study in adolescents. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000, 24 (12): 1573–8. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801433.PubMed
170.
go back to reference Kreider R, Almada AL, Antonio J, Broeder C, Conrad E, Greenwood M, Incledon T, Kalman DS, Kleiner SM, Leutholtz B, Lowery LM, Mendel R, Stout JR, Willoughby DS, Ziegenfus TN: ISSN Exercise & Sport Nutrition Review: Research & Recommendations. Sports Nutrition Review Journal. 2004, 1 (1): 1–44.PubMedCentral Kreider R, Almada AL, Antonio J, Broeder C, Conrad E, Greenwood M, Incledon T, Kalman DS, Kleiner SM, Leutholtz B, Lowery LM, Mendel R, Stout JR, Willoughby DS, Ziegenfus TN: ISSN Exercise & Sport Nutrition Review: Research & Recommendations. Sports Nutrition Review Journal. 2004, 1 (1): 1–44.PubMedCentral
171.
go back to reference Zemel MB: Regulation of adiposity and obesity risk by dietary calcium: mechanisms and implications. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002, 21 (2): 146S–151S.PubMed Zemel MB: Regulation of adiposity and obesity risk by dietary calcium: mechanisms and implications. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002, 21 (2): 146S–151S.PubMed
172.
go back to reference Dulloo AG, Seydoux J, Girardier L: Green tea and thermogenesis: interactions between catechin-polyphenols, caffeine and sympathetic activity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000, 24 (2): 252–8. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801101.PubMed Dulloo AG, Seydoux J, Girardier L: Green tea and thermogenesis: interactions between catechin-polyphenols, caffeine and sympathetic activity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000, 24 (2): 252–8. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801101.PubMed
173.
go back to reference Shigematsu N, Asano R, Shimosaka M: Effect of administration with the extract of Gymnema sylvestre R. Br leaves on lipid metabolism in rats. Biol Pharm Bull. 2001, 24 (6): 713–7. 10.1248/bpb.24.713.PubMed Shigematsu N, Asano R, Shimosaka M: Effect of administration with the extract of Gymnema sylvestre R. Br leaves on lipid metabolism in rats. Biol Pharm Bull. 2001, 24 (6): 713–7. 10.1248/bpb.24.713.PubMed
174.
go back to reference Ishihara K, Oyaizu S, Onuki K: Chronic (-)-hydroxycitrate administration spares carbohydrate utilization and promotes lipid oxidation during exercise in mice. J Nutr. 2000, 130 (12): 2990–5.PubMed Ishihara K, Oyaizu S, Onuki K: Chronic (-)-hydroxycitrate administration spares carbohydrate utilization and promotes lipid oxidation during exercise in mice. J Nutr. 2000, 130 (12): 2990–5.PubMed
175.
go back to reference Kriketos AD, Thompson HR, Greene H: (-)-Hydroxycitric acid does not affect energy expenditure and substrate oxidation in adult males in a post-absorptive state. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (8): 867–73. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800965.PubMed Kriketos AD, Thompson HR, Greene H: (-)-Hydroxycitric acid does not affect energy expenditure and substrate oxidation in adult males in a post-absorptive state. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999, 23 (8): 867–73. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800965.PubMed
176.
go back to reference Pariza MW, Park Y, Cook ME: Mechanisms of action of conjugated linoleic acid: evidence and speculation. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 2000, 223 (1): 8–13. 10.1046/j.1525-1373.2000.22302.x.PubMed Pariza MW, Park Y, Cook ME: Mechanisms of action of conjugated linoleic acid: evidence and speculation. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 2000, 223 (1): 8–13. 10.1046/j.1525-1373.2000.22302.x.PubMed
177.
go back to reference Pariza MW, Park Y, Cook ME: The biologically active isomers of conjugated linoleic acid. Prog Lipid Res. 2001, 40 (4): 283–98. 10.1016/S0163-7827(01)00008-X.PubMed Pariza MW, Park Y, Cook ME: The biologically active isomers of conjugated linoleic acid. Prog Lipid Res. 2001, 40 (4): 283–98. 10.1016/S0163-7827(01)00008-X.PubMed
178.
go back to reference Zambell KL, Keim NL, Van Loan MD: Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in humans: effects on body composition and energy expenditure. Lipids. 2000, 35 (7): 777–82. 10.1007/s11745-000-0585-z.PubMed Zambell KL, Keim NL, Van Loan MD: Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in humans: effects on body composition and energy expenditure. Lipids. 2000, 35 (7): 777–82. 10.1007/s11745-000-0585-z.PubMed
179.
go back to reference Kreider RB, Ferreira MP, Greenwood M: Effects of conjugated linoleic acid supplementation during resistance training on body composition, bone density, strength, and selected hematological markers. J Strength Cond Res. 2002, 16 (3): 325–34. 10.1519/1533-4287(2002)016<0325:EOCLAS>2.0.CO;2.PubMed Kreider RB, Ferreira MP, Greenwood M: Effects of conjugated linoleic acid supplementation during resistance training on body composition, bone density, strength, and selected hematological markers. J Strength Cond Res. 2002, 16 (3): 325–34. 10.1519/1533-4287(2002)016<0325:EOCLAS>2.0.CO;2.PubMed
180.
go back to reference Hasten DL, Rome EP, Franks BD: Effects of chromium picolinate on beginning weight training students. Int J Sport Nutr. 1992, 2 (4): 343–50.PubMed Hasten DL, Rome EP, Franks BD: Effects of chromium picolinate on beginning weight training students. Int J Sport Nutr. 1992, 2 (4): 343–50.PubMed
181.
go back to reference Grant KE, Chandler RM, Castle AL: Chromium and exercise training: effect on obese women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997, 29 (8): 992–8.PubMed Grant KE, Chandler RM, Castle AL: Chromium and exercise training: effect on obese women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997, 29 (8): 992–8.PubMed
182.
go back to reference Walker LS, Bemben MG, Bemben DA: Chromium picolinate effects on body composition and muscular performance in wrestlers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998, 30 (12): 1730–7. 10.1097/00005768-199812000-00012.PubMed Walker LS, Bemben MG, Bemben DA: Chromium picolinate effects on body composition and muscular performance in wrestlers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998, 30 (12): 1730–7. 10.1097/00005768-199812000-00012.PubMed
183.
go back to reference Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW, Siders WA: Chromium supplementation and resistance training: effects on body composition, strength, and trace element status of men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996, 63 (6): 954–65.PubMed Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW, Siders WA: Chromium supplementation and resistance training: effects on body composition, strength, and trace element status of men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996, 63 (6): 954–65.PubMed
184.
go back to reference Phelan S, Wadden TA: Combining Behavioral and Pharmacological Treatments for Obesity. Obesity Research. 2002, 10 (6): 560–574.PubMed Phelan S, Wadden TA: Combining Behavioral and Pharmacological Treatments for Obesity. Obesity Research. 2002, 10 (6): 560–574.PubMed
185.
go back to reference Aronne LJ: Modern medical management of obesity: the role of pharmaceutical intervention. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1998, 98 (10): s23(4)-10.1016/S0002-8223(98)00706-8. Aronne LJ: Modern medical management of obesity: the role of pharmaceutical intervention. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1998, 98 (10): s23(4)-10.1016/S0002-8223(98)00706-8.
186.
go back to reference Berke EM, Morden NE: Medical management of obesity. Am Fam Physician. 2000, 62 (2): 419–26.PubMed Berke EM, Morden NE: Medical management of obesity. Am Fam Physician. 2000, 62 (2): 419–26.PubMed
187.
go back to reference Moyers SB: Medications as adjunct therapy for weight loss: approved and off-label agents in use. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005, 105 (6): 948–59. 10.1016/j.jada.2005.03.010.PubMed Moyers SB: Medications as adjunct therapy for weight loss: approved and off-label agents in use. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005, 105 (6): 948–59. 10.1016/j.jada.2005.03.010.PubMed
188.
go back to reference O'Brien PE, Dixon JB, Brown W: Obesity is a surgical disease: overview of obesity and bariatric surgery. ANZ J Surg. 2004, 74 (4): 200–4. 10.1111/j.1445-2197.2004.03014.x.PubMed O'Brien PE, Dixon JB, Brown W: Obesity is a surgical disease: overview of obesity and bariatric surgery. ANZ J Surg. 2004, 74 (4): 200–4. 10.1111/j.1445-2197.2004.03014.x.PubMed
189.
go back to reference Steinbrook R: Surgery for severe obesity. N Engl J Med. 2004, 350 (11): 1075–9. 10.1056/NEJMp048029.PubMed Steinbrook R: Surgery for severe obesity. N Engl J Med. 2004, 350 (11): 1075–9. 10.1056/NEJMp048029.PubMed
190.
go back to reference Sugerman HJ: Bariatric surgery for severe obesity. J Assoc Acad Minor Phys. 2001, 12 (3): 129–36.PubMed Sugerman HJ: Bariatric surgery for severe obesity. J Assoc Acad Minor Phys. 2001, 12 (3): 129–36.PubMed
191.
go back to reference Miller WC, Koceja DM, Hamilton EJ: A meta-analysis of the past 25 years of weight loss research using diet, exercise or diet plus exercise intervention. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997, 21 (10): 941–7. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800499.PubMed Miller WC, Koceja DM, Hamilton EJ: A meta-analysis of the past 25 years of weight loss research using diet, exercise or diet plus exercise intervention. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997, 21 (10): 941–7. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800499.PubMed
192.
go back to reference Pikholz C, Swinburn B, Metcalf P: Under-reporting of energy intake in the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. N Z Med J. 2004, 117 (1202): U1079.PubMed Pikholz C, Swinburn B, Metcalf P: Under-reporting of energy intake in the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. N Z Med J. 2004, 117 (1202): U1079.PubMed
193.
go back to reference Winkler J: The fundamental flaw in obesity research. Obesity Reviews. 2005, 6 (3):PubMed Winkler J: The fundamental flaw in obesity research. Obesity Reviews. 2005, 6 (3):PubMed
194.
go back to reference Klesges RC, Ward KD, Shelton ML: Changes in bone mineral content in male athletes. Mechanisms of action and intervention effects. Jama. 1996, 276 (3): 226–30. 10.1001/jama.276.3.226.PubMed Klesges RC, Ward KD, Shelton ML: Changes in bone mineral content in male athletes. Mechanisms of action and intervention effects. Jama. 1996, 276 (3): 226–30. 10.1001/jama.276.3.226.PubMed
195.
go back to reference Van Loan MD: Bioelectrical impedance analysis to determine fat-free mass, total body water and body fat. Sports Med. 1990, 10 (4): 205–17.PubMed Van Loan MD: Bioelectrical impedance analysis to determine fat-free mass, total body water and body fat. Sports Med. 1990, 10 (4): 205–17.PubMed
197.
go back to reference Antonio J, Stout J, eds: Sports Supplements. 2001, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, Pa, 1 Antonio J, Stout J, eds: Sports Supplements. 2001, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, Pa, 1
198.
go back to reference Smith NJ: Weight control in the athlete. Clin Sports Med. 1984, 3 (3): 693–704.PubMed Smith NJ: Weight control in the athlete. Clin Sports Med. 1984, 3 (3): 693–704.PubMed
199.
go back to reference Jonnalagadda SS, Skinner R, Moore L: Overweight athlete: fact or fiction?. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2004, 3 (4): 198–205. 10.1007/s11932-004-0016-y.PubMed Jonnalagadda SS, Skinner R, Moore L: Overweight athlete: fact or fiction?. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2004, 3 (4): 198–205. 10.1007/s11932-004-0016-y.PubMed
200.
go back to reference Rankin JW: Weight loss and gain in athletes. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2002, 1 (4): 208–13. 10.1007/s11932-002-0023-9.PubMed Rankin JW: Weight loss and gain in athletes. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2002, 1 (4): 208–13. 10.1007/s11932-002-0023-9.PubMed
201.
go back to reference Fogelholm M: Effects of bodyweight reduction on sports performance. Sports Med. 1994, 18 (4): 249–67.PubMed Fogelholm M: Effects of bodyweight reduction on sports performance. Sports Med. 1994, 18 (4): 249–67.PubMed
202.
go back to reference Kleiner S: Power Eating. 2001, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 282–2 Kleiner S: Power Eating. 2001, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 282–2
Metadata
Title
Obesity: Prevalence, Theories, Medical Consequences, Management, and Research Directions
Authors
Colin Wilborn
Jacqueline Beckham
Bill Campbell
Travis Harvey
Melyn Galbreath
Paul La Bounty
Erika Nassar
Jennifer Wismann
Richard Kreider
Publication date
01-12-2005
Publisher
BioMed Central
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-2-2-4

Other articles of this Issue 2/2005

Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 2/2005 Go to the issue