Skip to main content
Top
Published in: Sports Medicine 8/2020

01-08-2020 | Review Article

The Benefits of Strength Training on Musculoskeletal System Health: Practical Applications for Interdisciplinary Care

Authors: Luca Maestroni, Paul Read, Chris Bishop, Konstantinos Papadopoulos, Timothy J. Suchomel, Paul Comfort, Anthony Turner

Published in: Sports Medicine | Issue 8/2020

Login to get access

Abstract

Global health organizations have provided recommendations regarding exercise for the general population. Strength training has been included in several position statements due to its multi-systemic benefits. In this narrative review, we examine the available literature, first explaining how specific mechanical loading is converted into positive cellular responses. Secondly, benefits related to specific musculoskeletal tissues are discussed, with practical applications and training programmes clearly outlined for both common musculoskeletal disorders and primary prevention strategies.
Literature
1.
go back to reference Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Stone MH. The importance of muscular strength in athletic performance. Sports Med. 2016;46(10):1419–49.PubMed Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Stone MH. The importance of muscular strength in athletic performance. Sports Med. 2016;46(10):1419–49.PubMed
2.
go back to reference Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Bellon CR, et al. The importance of muscular strength: training considerations. Sports Med. 2018;48:765–85.PubMed Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Bellon CR, et al. The importance of muscular strength: training considerations. Sports Med. 2018;48:765–85.PubMed
3.
go back to reference Maffiuletti NA, Aagaard P, Blazevich AJ, et al. Rate of force development: physiological and methodological considerations. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(6):1091–116.PubMedPubMedCentral Maffiuletti NA, Aagaard P, Blazevich AJ, et al. Rate of force development: physiological and methodological considerations. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(6):1091–116.PubMedPubMedCentral
4.
go back to reference Rodriguez-Rosell D, Pareja-Blanco F, Aagaard P, et al. Physiological and methodological aspects of rate of force development assessment in human skeletal muscle. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2018;38(5):743–62.PubMed Rodriguez-Rosell D, Pareja-Blanco F, Aagaard P, et al. Physiological and methodological aspects of rate of force development assessment in human skeletal muscle. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2018;38(5):743–62.PubMed
5.
go back to reference Seitz LB, Reyes A, Tran TT, Saez de Villarreal E, et al. Increases in lower-body strength transfer positively to sprint performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2014;44(12):1693–702.PubMed Seitz LB, Reyes A, Tran TT, Saez de Villarreal E, et al. Increases in lower-body strength transfer positively to sprint performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2014;44(12):1693–702.PubMed
6.
go back to reference Keiner M, Sander A, Wirth K, et al. Long-term strength training effects on change-of-direction sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(1):223–31.PubMed Keiner M, Sander A, Wirth K, et al. Long-term strength training effects on change-of-direction sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(1):223–31.PubMed
7.
go back to reference Storen O, Helgerud J, Stoa EM, et al. Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(6):1087–92.PubMed Storen O, Helgerud J, Stoa EM, et al. Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(6):1087–92.PubMed
8.
go back to reference Haff GG, Nimphius S. Training principles for power. Strength Cond J. 2012;34(6):2–12. Haff GG, Nimphius S. Training principles for power. Strength Cond J. 2012;34(6):2–12.
9.
go back to reference Haff GG, Stone MH. Methods of developing power with special reference to football players. Strength Cond J. 2015;37(6):2–16. Haff GG, Stone MH. Methods of developing power with special reference to football players. Strength Cond J. 2015;37(6):2–16.
10.
go back to reference Cormie P, McGuigan MR, Newton RU. Developing maximal neuromuscular power: part 1—biological basis of maximal power production. Sports Med. 2011;41(1):17–38.PubMed Cormie P, McGuigan MR, Newton RU. Developing maximal neuromuscular power: part 1—biological basis of maximal power production. Sports Med. 2011;41(1):17–38.PubMed
11.
go back to reference Cormie P, McGuigan MR, Newton RU. Adaptations in athletic performance after ballistic power versus strength training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(8):1582–98.PubMed Cormie P, McGuigan MR, Newton RU. Adaptations in athletic performance after ballistic power versus strength training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(8):1582–98.PubMed
12.
go back to reference Comfort P, Thomas C. Changes in dynamic strength index in response to strength training. Sports. 2018;6(4):176.PubMedCentral Comfort P, Thomas C. Changes in dynamic strength index in response to strength training. Sports. 2018;6(4):176.PubMedCentral
13.
go back to reference James LP, Gregory Haff G, Kelly VG, et al. The impact of strength level on adaptations to combined weightlifting, plyometric, and ballistic training. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2018;28(5):1494–505.PubMed James LP, Gregory Haff G, Kelly VG, et al. The impact of strength level on adaptations to combined weightlifting, plyometric, and ballistic training. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2018;28(5):1494–505.PubMed
14.
go back to reference Lauersen JB, Bertelsen DM, Andersen LB. The effectiveness of exercise interventions to prevent sports injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(11):871.PubMed Lauersen JB, Bertelsen DM, Andersen LB. The effectiveness of exercise interventions to prevent sports injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(11):871.PubMed
15.
go back to reference Malone S, Hughes B, Doran DA, et al. Can the workload-injury relationship be moderated by improved strength, speed and repeated-sprint qualities? J Sci Med Sport. 2019;22(1):29–34.PubMed Malone S, Hughes B, Doran DA, et al. Can the workload-injury relationship be moderated by improved strength, speed and repeated-sprint qualities? J Sci Med Sport. 2019;22(1):29–34.PubMed
16.
go back to reference Zadro J, O’Keeffe M, Maher C. Do physical therapists follow evidence-based guidelines when managing musculoskeletal conditions? Systematic review. BMJ Open. 2019;9(10):e032329.PubMedPubMedCentral Zadro J, O’Keeffe M, Maher C. Do physical therapists follow evidence-based guidelines when managing musculoskeletal conditions? Systematic review. BMJ Open. 2019;9(10):e032329.PubMedPubMedCentral
17.
go back to reference Bahr R, Thorborg K, Ekstrand J. Evidence-based hamstring injury prevention is not adopted by the majority of Champions League or Norwegian Premier League football teams: the Nordic Hamstring survey. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(22):1466–71.PubMed Bahr R, Thorborg K, Ekstrand J. Evidence-based hamstring injury prevention is not adopted by the majority of Champions League or Norwegian Premier League football teams: the Nordic Hamstring survey. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(22):1466–71.PubMed
18.
go back to reference McCall A, Carling C, Nedelec M, et al. Risk factors, testing and preventative strategies for non-contact injuries in professional football: current perceptions and practices of 44 teams from various premier leagues. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(18):1352–7.PubMed McCall A, Carling C, Nedelec M, et al. Risk factors, testing and preventative strategies for non-contact injuries in professional football: current perceptions and practices of 44 teams from various premier leagues. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(18):1352–7.PubMed
19.
go back to reference Lowe A, Littlewood C, McLean S, et al. Physiotherapy and physical activity: a cross-sectional survey exploring physical activity promotion, knowledge of physical activity guidelines and the physical activity habits of UK physiotherapists. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2017;3(1):e000290.PubMedPubMedCentral Lowe A, Littlewood C, McLean S, et al. Physiotherapy and physical activity: a cross-sectional survey exploring physical activity promotion, knowledge of physical activity guidelines and the physical activity habits of UK physiotherapists. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2017;3(1):e000290.PubMedPubMedCentral
20.
go back to reference Yona T, Ben Ami N, Azmon M, et al. Physiotherapists lack knowledge of the WHO physical activity guidelines. A local or a global problem? Musculoskelet Sci Pract. 2019;43:70–5.PubMed Yona T, Ben Ami N, Azmon M, et al. Physiotherapists lack knowledge of the WHO physical activity guidelines. A local or a global problem? Musculoskelet Sci Pract. 2019;43:70–5.PubMed
21.
go back to reference Schulz JM, Birmingham TB, Atkinson HF, et al. Are we missing the target? Are we aiming too low? What are the aerobic exercise prescriptions and their effects on markers of cardiovascular health and systemic inflammation in patients with knee osteoarthritis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100231.CrossRefPubMed Schulz JM, Birmingham TB, Atkinson HF, et al. Are we missing the target? Are we aiming too low? What are the aerobic exercise prescriptions and their effects on markers of cardiovascular health and systemic inflammation in patients with knee osteoarthritis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2019. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1136/​bjsports-2018-100231.CrossRefPubMed
22.
go back to reference Holden S, Barton CJ. ‘What should I prescribe?’: time to improve reporting of resistance training programmes to ensure accurate translation and implementation. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53:264–5.PubMed Holden S, Barton CJ. ‘What should I prescribe?’: time to improve reporting of resistance training programmes to ensure accurate translation and implementation. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53:264–5.PubMed
23.
go back to reference Czosnek L, Rankin N, Zopf E, et al. Implementing exercise in healthcare settings: the potential of implementation science. Sports Med. 2020;50(1):1–14.PubMed Czosnek L, Rankin N, Zopf E, et al. Implementing exercise in healthcare settings: the potential of implementation science. Sports Med. 2020;50(1):1–14.PubMed
24.
go back to reference Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Ogborn D, et al. Strength and hypertrophy adaptations between low- vs. high-load resistance training: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res. 2017;31(12):3508–23.PubMed Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Ogborn D, et al. Strength and hypertrophy adaptations between low- vs. high-load resistance training: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res. 2017;31(12):3508–23.PubMed
25.
go back to reference Rey Lopez JP, Gebel K, Chia D, et al. Associations of vigorous physical activity with all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality among 64 913 adults. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2019;5(1):e000596.PubMedPubMedCentral Rey Lopez JP, Gebel K, Chia D, et al. Associations of vigorous physical activity with all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality among 64 913 adults. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2019;5(1):e000596.PubMedPubMedCentral
26.
go back to reference Fiuza-Luces C, Garatachea N, Berger NA, et al. Exercise is the real polypill. Physiology (Bethesda). 2013;28(5):330–58. Fiuza-Luces C, Garatachea N, Berger NA, et al. Exercise is the real polypill. Physiology (Bethesda). 2013;28(5):330–58.
27.
go back to reference Pickering C, Kiely J. Do non-responders to exercise exist—and if so, what should we do about them? Sports Med. 2019;49(1):1–7.PubMed Pickering C, Kiely J. Do non-responders to exercise exist—and if so, what should we do about them? Sports Med. 2019;49(1):1–7.PubMed
28.
go back to reference Ruiz-Casado A, Martin-Ruiz A, Perez LM, et al. Exercise and the hallmarks of cancer. Trends Cancer. 2017;3(6):423–41.PubMed Ruiz-Casado A, Martin-Ruiz A, Perez LM, et al. Exercise and the hallmarks of cancer. Trends Cancer. 2017;3(6):423–41.PubMed
29.
go back to reference Stamatakis E, Lee IM, Bennie J, et al. Does strength-promoting exercise confer unique health benefits? A pooled analysis of data on 11 population cohorts with all-cause, cancer, and cardiovascular mortality endpoints. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187(5):1102–12.PubMed Stamatakis E, Lee IM, Bennie J, et al. Does strength-promoting exercise confer unique health benefits? A pooled analysis of data on 11 population cohorts with all-cause, cancer, and cardiovascular mortality endpoints. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187(5):1102–12.PubMed
30.
go back to reference Garatachea N, Santos-Lozano A, Sanchis-Gomar F, et al. Elite athletes live longer than the general population: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2014;89(9):1195–200.PubMed Garatachea N, Santos-Lozano A, Sanchis-Gomar F, et al. Elite athletes live longer than the general population: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2014;89(9):1195–200.PubMed
31.
go back to reference Saeidifard F, Medina-Inojosa JR, West CP, et al. The association of resistance training with mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2019;26(15):1647–65.PubMed Saeidifard F, Medina-Inojosa JR, West CP, et al. The association of resistance training with mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2019;26(15):1647–65.PubMed
32.
go back to reference Cormie P, Zopf EM, Zhang X, et al. The impact of exercise on cancer mortality, recurrence, and treatment-related adverse effects. Epidemiol Rev. 2017;39(1):71–92.PubMed Cormie P, Zopf EM, Zhang X, et al. The impact of exercise on cancer mortality, recurrence, and treatment-related adverse effects. Epidemiol Rev. 2017;39(1):71–92.PubMed
33.
go back to reference Hayes SC, Newton RU, Spence RR, et al. The Exercise and Sports Science Australia position statement: exercise medicine in cancer management. J Sci Med Sport. 2019;22(11):1175–99.PubMed Hayes SC, Newton RU, Spence RR, et al. The Exercise and Sports Science Australia position statement: exercise medicine in cancer management. J Sci Med Sport. 2019;22(11):1175–99.PubMed
34.
go back to reference Lauersen JB, Andersen TE, Andersen LB. Strength training as superior, dose-dependent and safe prevention of acute and overuse sports injuries: a systematic review, qualitative analysis and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52:1557–63.PubMed Lauersen JB, Andersen TE, Andersen LB. Strength training as superior, dose-dependent and safe prevention of acute and overuse sports injuries: a systematic review, qualitative analysis and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52:1557–63.PubMed
35.
go back to reference Hornsby WG, Gentles JA, Haff GG, et al. What is the impact of muscle hypertrophy on strength and sport performance? Strength Cond J. 2018;40(6):99–111. Hornsby WG, Gentles JA, Haff GG, et al. What is the impact of muscle hypertrophy on strength and sport performance? Strength Cond J. 2018;40(6):99–111.
36.
go back to reference Taber CB, Vigotsky A, Nuckols G, et al. Exercise-induced myofibrillar hypertrophy is a contributory cause of gains in muscle strength. Sports Med. 2019;49(7):993–7.PubMed Taber CB, Vigotsky A, Nuckols G, et al. Exercise-induced myofibrillar hypertrophy is a contributory cause of gains in muscle strength. Sports Med. 2019;49(7):993–7.PubMed
37.
go back to reference Hughes DC, Ellefsen S, Baar K. Adaptations to endurance and strength training. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2017;8(6):a029769. Hughes DC, Ellefsen S, Baar K. Adaptations to endurance and strength training. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2017;8(6):a029769.
38.
go back to reference Henneman E, Somjen G, Carpenter DO. Excitability and inhibitability of motoneurons of different sizes. J Neurophysiol. 1965;28(3):599–620.PubMed Henneman E, Somjen G, Carpenter DO. Excitability and inhibitability of motoneurons of different sizes. J Neurophysiol. 1965;28(3):599–620.PubMed
39.
go back to reference Clark BC, Mahato NK, Nakazawa M, et al. The power of the mind: the cortex as a critical determinant of muscle strength/weakness. J Neurophysiol. 2014;112(12):3219–26.PubMedPubMedCentral Clark BC, Mahato NK, Nakazawa M, et al. The power of the mind: the cortex as a critical determinant of muscle strength/weakness. J Neurophysiol. 2014;112(12):3219–26.PubMedPubMedCentral
40.
go back to reference Del Vecchio A, Negro F, Holobar A, et al. You are as fast as your motor neurons: speed of recruitment and maximal discharge of motor neurons determine the maximal rate of force development in humans. J Physiol. 2019;597(9):2445–56.PubMedPubMedCentral Del Vecchio A, Negro F, Holobar A, et al. You are as fast as your motor neurons: speed of recruitment and maximal discharge of motor neurons determine the maximal rate of force development in humans. J Physiol. 2019;597(9):2445–56.PubMedPubMedCentral
41.
go back to reference Goodman CA, Hornberger TA, Robling AG. Bone and skeletal muscle: key players in mechanotransduction and potential overlapping mechanisms. Bone. 2015;80:24–36.PubMedPubMedCentral Goodman CA, Hornberger TA, Robling AG. Bone and skeletal muscle: key players in mechanotransduction and potential overlapping mechanisms. Bone. 2015;80:24–36.PubMedPubMedCentral
42.
go back to reference Thompson WR, Scott A, Loghmani MT, et al. Understanding mechanobiology: physical therapists as a force in mechanotherapy and musculoskeletal regenerative rehabilitation. Phys Ther. 2016;96(4):560–9.PubMed Thompson WR, Scott A, Loghmani MT, et al. Understanding mechanobiology: physical therapists as a force in mechanotherapy and musculoskeletal regenerative rehabilitation. Phys Ther. 2016;96(4):560–9.PubMed
43.
go back to reference Khan KM, Scott A. Mechanotherapy: how physical therapists’ prescription of exercise promotes tissue repair. Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(4):247–52.PubMed Khan KM, Scott A. Mechanotherapy: how physical therapists’ prescription of exercise promotes tissue repair. Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(4):247–52.PubMed
44.
go back to reference Warden SJ, Thompson WR. Become one with the force: optimising mechanotherapy through an understanding of mechanobiology. Br J Sports Med. 2017;51(13):989–90.PubMed Warden SJ, Thompson WR. Become one with the force: optimising mechanotherapy through an understanding of mechanobiology. Br J Sports Med. 2017;51(13):989–90.PubMed
45.
go back to reference McEwen BS. Stress, adaptation, and disease. Allostasis and allostatic load. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998;840:33–44.PubMed McEwen BS. Stress, adaptation, and disease. Allostasis and allostatic load. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998;840:33–44.PubMed
46.
go back to reference McEwen BS. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;583(2–3):174–85.PubMedPubMedCentral McEwen BS. Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;583(2–3):174–85.PubMedPubMedCentral
47.
go back to reference Hannibal KE, Bishop MD. Chronic stress, cortisol dysfunction, and pain: a psychoneuroendocrine rationale for stress management in pain rehabilitation. Phys Ther. 2014;94(12):1816–25.PubMedPubMedCentral Hannibal KE, Bishop MD. Chronic stress, cortisol dysfunction, and pain: a psychoneuroendocrine rationale for stress management in pain rehabilitation. Phys Ther. 2014;94(12):1816–25.PubMedPubMedCentral
48.
go back to reference Heim C, Ehlert U, Hellhammer DH. The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2000;25(1):1–35.PubMed Heim C, Ehlert U, Hellhammer DH. The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2000;25(1):1–35.PubMed
49.
go back to reference Alford L. Psychoneuroimmunology for physiotherapists. Physiotherapy. 2006;92(3):187–91. Alford L. Psychoneuroimmunology for physiotherapists. Physiotherapy. 2006;92(3):187–91.
50.
go back to reference Deschenes MR, Kraemer WJ, Maresh CM, et al. Exercise-induced hormonal changes and their effects upon skeletal muscle tissue. Sports Med. 1991;12(2):80–93.PubMed Deschenes MR, Kraemer WJ, Maresh CM, et al. Exercise-induced hormonal changes and their effects upon skeletal muscle tissue. Sports Med. 1991;12(2):80–93.PubMed
51.
go back to reference Crewther B, Keogh J, Cronin J, et al. Possible stimuli for strength and power adaptation: acute hormonal responses. Sports Med. 2006;36(3):215–38.PubMed Crewther B, Keogh J, Cronin J, et al. Possible stimuli for strength and power adaptation: acute hormonal responses. Sports Med. 2006;36(3):215–38.PubMed
52.
go back to reference Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training. Sports Med. 2005;35(4):339–61.PubMed Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training. Sports Med. 2005;35(4):339–61.PubMed
53.
go back to reference Kraemer WJ, Staron RS, Hagerman FC, et al. The effects of short-term resistance training on endocrine function in men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998;78(1):69–76.PubMed Kraemer WJ, Staron RS, Hagerman FC, et al. The effects of short-term resistance training on endocrine function in men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998;78(1):69–76.PubMed
54.
go back to reference Kraemer WJ, Fry AC, Warren BJ, et al. Acute hormonal responses in elite junior weightlifters. Int J Sports Med. 1992;13(2):103–9.PubMed Kraemer WJ, Fry AC, Warren BJ, et al. Acute hormonal responses in elite junior weightlifters. Int J Sports Med. 1992;13(2):103–9.PubMed
55.
go back to reference Williams AG, Ismail AN, Sharma A, et al. Effects of resistance exercise volume and nutritional supplementation on anabolic and catabolic hormones. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;86(4):315–21.PubMed Williams AG, Ismail AN, Sharma A, et al. Effects of resistance exercise volume and nutritional supplementation on anabolic and catabolic hormones. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;86(4):315–21.PubMed
56.
go back to reference Fry AC, Schilling BK. Weightlifting training and hormonal responses in adolescent males: implications for program design. Strength Cond J. 2002;24(5):7–12. Fry AC, Schilling BK. Weightlifting training and hormonal responses in adolescent males: implications for program design. Strength Cond J. 2002;24(5):7–12.
57.
go back to reference Fry AC, Kraemer WJ. Resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching. Neuroendocrine responses. Sports Med. 1997;23(2):106–29.PubMed Fry AC, Kraemer WJ. Resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching. Neuroendocrine responses. Sports Med. 1997;23(2):106–29.PubMed
58.
go back to reference Pedersen BK. The diseasome of physical inactivity—and the role of myokines in muscle–fat cross talk. J Physiol. 2009;587(Pt 23):5559–68.PubMedPubMedCentral Pedersen BK. The diseasome of physical inactivity—and the role of myokines in muscle–fat cross talk. J Physiol. 2009;587(Pt 23):5559–68.PubMedPubMedCentral
59.
go back to reference Pedersen BK. The physiology of optimizing health with a focus on exercise as medicine. Annu Rev Physiol. 2019;10(81):607–27. Pedersen BK. The physiology of optimizing health with a focus on exercise as medicine. Annu Rev Physiol. 2019;10(81):607–27.
60.
go back to reference McLeod JC, Stokes T, Phillips SM. Resistance exercise training as a primary countermeasure to age-related chronic disease. Front Physiol. 2019;10:645.PubMedPubMedCentral McLeod JC, Stokes T, Phillips SM. Resistance exercise training as a primary countermeasure to age-related chronic disease. Front Physiol. 2019;10:645.PubMedPubMedCentral
61.
go back to reference Strasser B, Pesta D. Resistance training for diabetes prevention and therapy: experimental findings and molecular mechanisms. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:805217.PubMedPubMedCentral Strasser B, Pesta D. Resistance training for diabetes prevention and therapy: experimental findings and molecular mechanisms. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:805217.PubMedPubMedCentral
62.
go back to reference Wedell-Neergaard AS, Eriksen L, Gronbaek M, et al. Low fitness is associated with abdominal adiposity and low-grade inflammation independent of BMI. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(1):e0190645.PubMedPubMedCentral Wedell-Neergaard AS, Eriksen L, Gronbaek M, et al. Low fitness is associated with abdominal adiposity and low-grade inflammation independent of BMI. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(1):e0190645.PubMedPubMedCentral
63.
go back to reference Pedersen BK, Febbraio MA. Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012;8(8):457–65.PubMed Pedersen BK, Febbraio MA. Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012;8(8):457–65.PubMed
64.
go back to reference Evans PL, McMillin SL. Regulation of skeletal muscle glucose transport and glucose metabolism by exercise training. Nutrients. 2019;11(10):2432.PubMedCentral Evans PL, McMillin SL. Regulation of skeletal muscle glucose transport and glucose metabolism by exercise training. Nutrients. 2019;11(10):2432.PubMedCentral
65.
go back to reference Galvao DA, Nosaka K, Taaffe DR, et al. Resistance training and reduction of treatment side effects in prostate cancer patients. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(12):2045–52.PubMed Galvao DA, Nosaka K, Taaffe DR, et al. Resistance training and reduction of treatment side effects in prostate cancer patients. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(12):2045–52.PubMed
66.
go back to reference Newton RU, Galvao DA, Spry N, et al. Exercise mode specificity for preserving spine and hip bone mineral density in prostate cancer patients. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019;51(4):607–14.PubMed Newton RU, Galvao DA, Spry N, et al. Exercise mode specificity for preserving spine and hip bone mineral density in prostate cancer patients. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019;51(4):607–14.PubMed
67.
go back to reference Hojman P. Exercise protects from cancer through regulation of immune function and inflammation. Biochem Soc Trans. 2017;45(4):905–11.PubMed Hojman P. Exercise protects from cancer through regulation of immune function and inflammation. Biochem Soc Trans. 2017;45(4):905–11.PubMed
68.
go back to reference Campbell JP, Turner JE. Debunking the myth of exercise-induced immune suppression: redefining the impact of exercise on immunological health across the lifespan. Front Immunol. 2018;9:648.PubMedPubMedCentral Campbell JP, Turner JE. Debunking the myth of exercise-induced immune suppression: redefining the impact of exercise on immunological health across the lifespan. Front Immunol. 2018;9:648.PubMedPubMedCentral
69.
go back to reference Gordon BR, McDowell CP, Lyons M, et al. The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Sports Med. 2017;47(12):2521–32.PubMed Gordon BR, McDowell CP, Lyons M, et al. The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Sports Med. 2017;47(12):2521–32.PubMed
70.
go back to reference Gordon BR, McDowell CP, Hallgren M, et al. Association of efficacy of resistance exercise training with depressive symptoms: meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(6):566–76.PubMed Gordon BR, McDowell CP, Hallgren M, et al. Association of efficacy of resistance exercise training with depressive symptoms: meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(6):566–76.PubMed
71.
go back to reference Singh NA, Stavrinos TM, Scarbek Y, et al. A randomized controlled trial of high versus low intensity weight training versus general practitioner care for clinical depression in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(6):768–76.PubMed Singh NA, Stavrinos TM, Scarbek Y, et al. A randomized controlled trial of high versus low intensity weight training versus general practitioner care for clinical depression in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(6):768–76.PubMed
72.
go back to reference O’Connor PJ, Herring MP, Caravalho A. Mental health benefits of strength training in adults. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2010;4(5):377–96. O’Connor PJ, Herring MP, Caravalho A. Mental health benefits of strength training in adults. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2010;4(5):377–96.
73.
go back to reference Chrousos GP. Stress and disorders of the stress system. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2009;5(7):374–81.PubMed Chrousos GP. Stress and disorders of the stress system. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2009;5(7):374–81.PubMed
75.
go back to reference Cassilhas RC, Antunes HKM, Tufik S, et al. Mood, anxiety, and serum IGF-1 in elderly men given 24 weeks of high resistance exercise. Percept Mot Skills. 2010;110(1):265–76.PubMed Cassilhas RC, Antunes HKM, Tufik S, et al. Mood, anxiety, and serum IGF-1 in elderly men given 24 weeks of high resistance exercise. Percept Mot Skills. 2010;110(1):265–76.PubMed
76.
go back to reference Kovacevic A, Mavros Y, Heisz JJ, et al. The effect of resistance exercise on sleep: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;39:52–68.PubMed Kovacevic A, Mavros Y, Heisz JJ, et al. The effect of resistance exercise on sleep: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;39:52–68.PubMed
77.
go back to reference Booth J, Moseley GL, Schiltenwolf M, et al. Exercise for chronic musculoskeletal pain: a biopsychosocial approach. Musculoskelet Care. 2017;15(4):413–21. Booth J, Moseley GL, Schiltenwolf M, et al. Exercise for chronic musculoskeletal pain: a biopsychosocial approach. Musculoskelet Care. 2017;15(4):413–21.
78.
go back to reference Babatunde OO, Jordan JL, Van der Windt DA, et al. Effective treatment options for musculoskeletal pain in primary care: a systematic overview of current evidence. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(6):e0178621.PubMedPubMedCentral Babatunde OO, Jordan JL, Van der Windt DA, et al. Effective treatment options for musculoskeletal pain in primary care: a systematic overview of current evidence. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(6):e0178621.PubMedPubMedCentral
79.
go back to reference Kristensen J, Franklyn-Miller A. Resistance training in musculoskeletal rehabilitation: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2012;46(10):719.PubMed Kristensen J, Franklyn-Miller A. Resistance training in musculoskeletal rehabilitation: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2012;46(10):719.PubMed
80.
go back to reference Deleo JA, Tanga FY, Tawfik VL. Neuroimmune activation and neuroinflammation in chronic pain and opioid tolerance/hyperalgesia. Neuroscientist. 2004;10(1):40–52.PubMed Deleo JA, Tanga FY, Tawfik VL. Neuroimmune activation and neuroinflammation in chronic pain and opioid tolerance/hyperalgesia. Neuroscientist. 2004;10(1):40–52.PubMed
81.
go back to reference Sluka KA, Frey-Law L, Hoeger Bement M. Exercise-induced pain and analgesia? Underlying mechanisms and clinical translation. Pain. 2018;159(Suppl 1):S91–7.PubMedPubMedCentral Sluka KA, Frey-Law L, Hoeger Bement M. Exercise-induced pain and analgesia? Underlying mechanisms and clinical translation. Pain. 2018;159(Suppl 1):S91–7.PubMedPubMedCentral
82.
go back to reference Rice D, Nijs J, Kosek E, et al. Exercise induced hypoalgesia in pain-free and chronic pain populations: state of the art and future directions. J Pain. 2019;20(11):1249–66.PubMed Rice D, Nijs J, Kosek E, et al. Exercise induced hypoalgesia in pain-free and chronic pain populations: state of the art and future directions. J Pain. 2019;20(11):1249–66.PubMed
83.
go back to reference Naugle KM, Fillingim RB, Riley Iii JL. A meta-analytic review of the hypoalgesic effects of exercise. J Pain. 2012;13(12):1139–50.PubMedPubMedCentral Naugle KM, Fillingim RB, Riley Iii JL. A meta-analytic review of the hypoalgesic effects of exercise. J Pain. 2012;13(12):1139–50.PubMedPubMedCentral
84.
go back to reference Lannersten L, Kosek E. Dysfunction of endogenous pain inhibition during exercise with painful muscles in patients with shoulder myalgia and fibromyalgia. Pain. 2010;151(1):77–86.PubMed Lannersten L, Kosek E. Dysfunction of endogenous pain inhibition during exercise with painful muscles in patients with shoulder myalgia and fibromyalgia. Pain. 2010;151(1):77–86.PubMed
85.
go back to reference Smith BE, Hendrick P, Bateman M, et al. Musculoskeletal pain and exercise—challenging existing paradigms and introducing new. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(14):907.PubMed Smith BE, Hendrick P, Bateman M, et al. Musculoskeletal pain and exercise—challenging existing paradigms and introducing new. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(14):907.PubMed
86.
go back to reference Hollings M, Mavros Y, Freeston J, et al. The effect of progressive resistance training on aerobic fitness and strength in adults with coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2017;24(12):1242–59.PubMed Hollings M, Mavros Y, Freeston J, et al. The effect of progressive resistance training on aerobic fitness and strength in adults with coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2017;24(12):1242–59.PubMed
87.
go back to reference Frodermann V, Rohde D, Courties G, et al. Exercise reduces inflammatory cell production and cardiovascular inflammation via instruction of hematopoietic progenitor cells. Nat Med. 2019;25(11):1761–71.PubMedPubMedCentral Frodermann V, Rohde D, Courties G, et al. Exercise reduces inflammatory cell production and cardiovascular inflammation via instruction of hematopoietic progenitor cells. Nat Med. 2019;25(11):1761–71.PubMedPubMedCentral
88.
go back to reference Cornelissen VA, Fagard RH, Coeckelberghs E, et al. Impact of resistance training on blood pressure and other cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Hypertension. 2011;58(5):950–8.PubMed Cornelissen VA, Fagard RH, Coeckelberghs E, et al. Impact of resistance training on blood pressure and other cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Hypertension. 2011;58(5):950–8.PubMed
89.
go back to reference Guilak F, Fermor B, Keefe FJ, et al. The role of biomechanics and inflammation in cartilage injury and repair. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;423:17–26. Guilak F, Fermor B, Keefe FJ, et al. The role of biomechanics and inflammation in cartilage injury and repair. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;423:17–26.
90.
go back to reference Bohndorf K. Imaging of acute injuries of the articular surfaces (chondral, osteochondral and subchondral fractures). Skelet Radiol. 1999;28(10):545–60. Bohndorf K. Imaging of acute injuries of the articular surfaces (chondral, osteochondral and subchondral fractures). Skelet Radiol. 1999;28(10):545–60.
91.
92.
go back to reference Vanwanseele B, Eckstein F, Knecht H, et al. Longitudinal analysis of cartilage atrophy in the knees of patients with spinal cord injury. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48(12):3377–81.PubMed Vanwanseele B, Eckstein F, Knecht H, et al. Longitudinal analysis of cartilage atrophy in the knees of patients with spinal cord injury. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48(12):3377–81.PubMed
93.
go back to reference Hudelmaier M, Glaser C, Englmeier KH, et al. Correlation of knee-joint cartilage morphology with muscle cross-sectional areas vs. anthropometric variables. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol. 2003;270(2):175–84.PubMed Hudelmaier M, Glaser C, Englmeier KH, et al. Correlation of knee-joint cartilage morphology with muscle cross-sectional areas vs. anthropometric variables. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol. 2003;270(2):175–84.PubMed
94.
go back to reference Ericsson YB, Roos EM, Owman H, et al. Association between thigh muscle strength four years after partial meniscectomy and radiographic features of osteoarthritis 11 years later. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2019;20(1):512.PubMedPubMedCentral Ericsson YB, Roos EM, Owman H, et al. Association between thigh muscle strength four years after partial meniscectomy and radiographic features of osteoarthritis 11 years later. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2019;20(1):512.PubMedPubMedCentral
95.
go back to reference Cicuttini FM, Wluka AE. Is OA a mechanical or systemic disease? Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2014;10(9):515–6.PubMed Cicuttini FM, Wluka AE. Is OA a mechanical or systemic disease? Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2014;10(9):515–6.PubMed
96.
go back to reference Skou ST, Pedersen BK, Abbott JH, et al. Physical activity and exercise therapy benefit more than just symptoms and impairments in people with hip and knee osteoarthritis. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2018;48(6):439–47.PubMed Skou ST, Pedersen BK, Abbott JH, et al. Physical activity and exercise therapy benefit more than just symptoms and impairments in people with hip and knee osteoarthritis. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2018;48(6):439–47.PubMed
98.
go back to reference Hunter DJ, Bierma-Zeinstra S. Osteoarthritis. Lancet. 2019;393(10182):1745–59.PubMed Hunter DJ, Bierma-Zeinstra S. Osteoarthritis. Lancet. 2019;393(10182):1745–59.PubMed
99.
go back to reference Oiestad BE, Juhl CB, Eitzen I, et al. Knee extensor muscle weakness is a risk factor for development of knee osteoarthritis. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2015;23(2):171–7. Oiestad BE, Juhl CB, Eitzen I, et al. Knee extensor muscle weakness is a risk factor for development of knee osteoarthritis. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2015;23(2):171–7.
100.
go back to reference Segal NA, Torner JC, Felson D, et al. Effect of thigh strength on incident radiographic and symptomatic knee osteoarthritis in a longitudinal cohort. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61(9):1210–7.PubMedPubMedCentral Segal NA, Torner JC, Felson D, et al. Effect of thigh strength on incident radiographic and symptomatic knee osteoarthritis in a longitudinal cohort. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61(9):1210–7.PubMedPubMedCentral
101.
go back to reference Thorstensson CA, Petersson IF, Jacobsson LT, et al. Reduced functional performance in the lower extremity predicted radiographic knee osteoarthritis five years later. Ann Rheum Dis. 2004;63(4):402–7.PubMedPubMedCentral Thorstensson CA, Petersson IF, Jacobsson LT, et al. Reduced functional performance in the lower extremity predicted radiographic knee osteoarthritis five years later. Ann Rheum Dis. 2004;63(4):402–7.PubMedPubMedCentral
102.
go back to reference Pietrosimone B, Thomas AC, Saliba SA, et al. Association between quadriceps strength and self-reported physical activity in people with knee osteoarthritis. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2014;9(3):320–8.PubMedPubMedCentral Pietrosimone B, Thomas AC, Saliba SA, et al. Association between quadriceps strength and self-reported physical activity in people with knee osteoarthritis. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2014;9(3):320–8.PubMedPubMedCentral
103.
go back to reference Lin I, Wiles L, Waller R, et al. What does best practice care for musculoskeletal pain look like? Eleven consistent recommendations from high-quality clinical practice guidelines: systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2019;54(2):79–86.PubMed Lin I, Wiles L, Waller R, et al. What does best practice care for musculoskeletal pain look like? Eleven consistent recommendations from high-quality clinical practice guidelines: systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2019;54(2):79–86.PubMed
104.
go back to reference Juhl C, Christensen R, Roos EM, et al. Impact of exercise type and dose on pain and disability in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2014;66(3):622–36.PubMed Juhl C, Christensen R, Roos EM, et al. Impact of exercise type and dose on pain and disability in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2014;66(3):622–36.PubMed
105.
go back to reference Bricca A, Juhl CB, Steultjens M, et al. Impact of exercise on articular cartilage in people at risk of, or with established, knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(15):940–7.PubMed Bricca A, Juhl CB, Steultjens M, et al. Impact of exercise on articular cartilage in people at risk of, or with established, knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(15):940–7.PubMed
107.
go back to reference Bricca A, Juhl CB, Grodzinsky AJ, et al. Impact of a daily exercise dose on knee joint cartilage—a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in healthy animals. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2017;25(8):1223–37. Bricca A, Juhl CB, Grodzinsky AJ, et al. Impact of a daily exercise dose on knee joint cartilage—a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in healthy animals. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2017;25(8):1223–37.
108.
go back to reference Amin S, Baker K, Niu J, et al. Quadriceps strength and the risk of cartilage loss and symptom progression in knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60(1):189–98.PubMedPubMedCentral Amin S, Baker K, Niu J, et al. Quadriceps strength and the risk of cartilage loss and symptom progression in knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60(1):189–98.PubMedPubMedCentral
109.
110.
go back to reference Rubin J, Rubin C, Jacobs CR. Molecular pathways mediating mechanical signaling in bone. Gene. 2006;15(367):1–16. Rubin J, Rubin C, Jacobs CR. Molecular pathways mediating mechanical signaling in bone. Gene. 2006;15(367):1–16.
112.
go back to reference Burr DB, Milgrom C, Fyhrie D, et al. In vivo measurement of human tibial strains during vigorous activity. Bone. 1996;18(5):405–10.PubMed Burr DB, Milgrom C, Fyhrie D, et al. In vivo measurement of human tibial strains during vigorous activity. Bone. 1996;18(5):405–10.PubMed
113.
go back to reference You L, Cowin SC, Schaffler MB, et al. A model for strain amplification in the actin cytoskeleton of osteocytes due to fluid drag on pericellular matrix. J Biomech. 2001;34(11):1375–86.PubMed You L, Cowin SC, Schaffler MB, et al. A model for strain amplification in the actin cytoskeleton of osteocytes due to fluid drag on pericellular matrix. J Biomech. 2001;34(11):1375–86.PubMed
114.
go back to reference Weinbaum S, Duan Y, Thi MM, et al. An integrative review of mechanotransduction in endothelial, epithelial (renal) and dendritic cells (osteocytes). Cell Mol Bioeng. 2011;4(4):510–37.PubMed Weinbaum S, Duan Y, Thi MM, et al. An integrative review of mechanotransduction in endothelial, epithelial (renal) and dendritic cells (osteocytes). Cell Mol Bioeng. 2011;4(4):510–37.PubMed
115.
go back to reference Frost HM. Wolff’s law and bone’s structural adaptations to mechanical usage: an overview for clinicians. Angle Orthod. 1994;64(3):175–88.PubMed Frost HM. Wolff’s law and bone’s structural adaptations to mechanical usage: an overview for clinicians. Angle Orthod. 1994;64(3):175–88.PubMed
116.
go back to reference O’Connor JA, Lanyon LE, MacFie H. The influence of strain rate on adaptive bone remodelling. J Biomech. 1982;15(10):767–81.PubMed O’Connor JA, Lanyon LE, MacFie H. The influence of strain rate on adaptive bone remodelling. J Biomech. 1982;15(10):767–81.PubMed
117.
go back to reference Rubin CT, McLeod KJ. Promotion of bony ingrowth by frequency-specific, low-amplitude mechanical strain. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1994;298:165–74. Rubin CT, McLeod KJ. Promotion of bony ingrowth by frequency-specific, low-amplitude mechanical strain. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1994;298:165–74.
118.
go back to reference Turner CH. Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. Bone. 1998;23(5):399–407.PubMed Turner CH. Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. Bone. 1998;23(5):399–407.PubMed
119.
go back to reference Martyn-St James M, Carroll S. Meta-analysis of walking for preservation of bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. Bone. 2008;43(3):521–31.PubMed Martyn-St James M, Carroll S. Meta-analysis of walking for preservation of bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. Bone. 2008;43(3):521–31.PubMed
120.
go back to reference Watson SL, Weeks BK, Weis LJ, et al. High-intensity resistance and impact training improves bone mineral density and physical function in postmenopausal women with osteopenia and osteoporosis: the LIFTMOR randomized controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res. 2018;33(2):211–20.PubMed Watson SL, Weeks BK, Weis LJ, et al. High-intensity resistance and impact training improves bone mineral density and physical function in postmenopausal women with osteopenia and osteoporosis: the LIFTMOR randomized controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res. 2018;33(2):211–20.PubMed
121.
go back to reference Watson SL, Weeks BK, Weis LJ, et al. High-intensity exercise did not cause vertebral fractures and improves thoracic kyphosis in postmenopausal women with low to very low bone mass: the LIFTMOR trial. Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(5):957–64.PubMed Watson SL, Weeks BK, Weis LJ, et al. High-intensity exercise did not cause vertebral fractures and improves thoracic kyphosis in postmenopausal women with low to very low bone mass: the LIFTMOR trial. Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(5):957–64.PubMed
122.
go back to reference Zhao R, Zhao M, Xu Z. The effects of differing resistance training modes on the preservation of bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int. 2015;26(5):1605–18.PubMed Zhao R, Zhao M, Xu Z. The effects of differing resistance training modes on the preservation of bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int. 2015;26(5):1605–18.PubMed
123.
go back to reference Gomez-Cabello A, Ara I, Gonzalez-Aguero A, et al. Effects of training on bone mass in older adults: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2012;42(4):301–25.PubMed Gomez-Cabello A, Ara I, Gonzalez-Aguero A, et al. Effects of training on bone mass in older adults: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2012;42(4):301–25.PubMed
124.
go back to reference Westcott WL. Resistance training is medicine: effects of strength training on health. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2012;11(4):209–16.PubMed Westcott WL. Resistance training is medicine: effects of strength training on health. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2012;11(4):209–16.PubMed
125.
go back to reference Cauley JA, Giangregorio L. Physical activity and skeletal health in adults. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019;8(2):150–62.PubMed Cauley JA, Giangregorio L. Physical activity and skeletal health in adults. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019;8(2):150–62.PubMed
126.
go back to reference Fragala MS, Cadore EL, Dorgo S, et al. Resistance training for older adults: position statement from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(8):2019–52.PubMed Fragala MS, Cadore EL, Dorgo S, et al. Resistance training for older adults: position statement from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(8):2019–52.PubMed
127.
go back to reference Beck BR, Daly RM, Singh MA, et al. Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) position statement on exercise prescription for the prevention and management of osteoporosis. J Sci Med Sport. 2017;20(5):438–45.PubMed Beck BR, Daly RM, Singh MA, et al. Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) position statement on exercise prescription for the prevention and management of osteoporosis. J Sci Med Sport. 2017;20(5):438–45.PubMed
128.
go back to reference Maddalozzo GF, Snow CM. High intensity resistance training: effects on bone in older men and women. Calcif Tissue Int. 2000;66(6):399–404.PubMed Maddalozzo GF, Snow CM. High intensity resistance training: effects on bone in older men and women. Calcif Tissue Int. 2000;66(6):399–404.PubMed
129.
go back to reference Ryan AS, Ivey FM, Hurlbut DE, et al. Regional bone mineral density after resistive training in young and older men and women. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2004;14(1):16–23.PubMed Ryan AS, Ivey FM, Hurlbut DE, et al. Regional bone mineral density after resistive training in young and older men and women. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2004;14(1):16–23.PubMed
130.
go back to reference Hansen M, Kjaer M. Influence of sex and estrogen on musculotendinous protein turnover at rest and after exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2014;42(4):183–92.PubMed Hansen M, Kjaer M. Influence of sex and estrogen on musculotendinous protein turnover at rest and after exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2014;42(4):183–92.PubMed
131.
go back to reference MacKelvie KJ, Khan KM, McKay HA. Is there a critical period for bone response to weight-bearing exercise in children and adolescents? a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2002;36(4):250–7 (discussion 7).PubMedPubMedCentral MacKelvie KJ, Khan KM, McKay HA. Is there a critical period for bone response to weight-bearing exercise in children and adolescents? a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2002;36(4):250–7 (discussion 7).PubMedPubMedCentral
132.
go back to reference Tenforde AS, Fredericson M. Influence of sports participation on bone health in the young athlete: a review of the literature. PM R. 2011;3(9):861–7.PubMed Tenforde AS, Fredericson M. Influence of sports participation on bone health in the young athlete: a review of the literature. PM R. 2011;3(9):861–7.PubMed
133.
go back to reference Warden SJ, Mantila Roosa SM, Kersh ME, et al. Physical activity when young provides lifelong benefits to cortical bone size and strength in men. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(14):5337–42.PubMedPubMedCentral Warden SJ, Mantila Roosa SM, Kersh ME, et al. Physical activity when young provides lifelong benefits to cortical bone size and strength in men. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(14):5337–42.PubMedPubMedCentral
134.
go back to reference Hernandez CJ, Beaupre GS, Carter DR. A theoretical analysis of the relative influences of peak BMD, age-related bone loss and menopause on the development of osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2003;14(10):843–7.PubMed Hernandez CJ, Beaupre GS, Carter DR. A theoretical analysis of the relative influences of peak BMD, age-related bone loss and menopause on the development of osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2003;14(10):843–7.PubMed
135.
go back to reference Courteix D, Lespessailles E, Peres SL, et al. Effect of physical training on bone mineral density in prepubertal girls: a comparative study between impact-loading and non-impact-loading sports. Osteoporos Int. 1998;8(2):152–8.PubMed Courteix D, Lespessailles E, Peres SL, et al. Effect of physical training on bone mineral density in prepubertal girls: a comparative study between impact-loading and non-impact-loading sports. Osteoporos Int. 1998;8(2):152–8.PubMed
136.
go back to reference Kahanov L, Eberman LE, Games KE, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of stress fractures in the lower extremity in runners. Open Access J Sports Med. 2015;6:87–95.PubMedPubMedCentral Kahanov L, Eberman LE, Games KE, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of stress fractures in the lower extremity in runners. Open Access J Sports Med. 2015;6:87–95.PubMedPubMedCentral
137.
go back to reference Schnackenburg KE, Macdonald HM, Ferber R, et al. Bone quality and muscle strength in female athletes with lower limb stress fractures. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(11):2110–9.PubMed Schnackenburg KE, Macdonald HM, Ferber R, et al. Bone quality and muscle strength in female athletes with lower limb stress fractures. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(11):2110–9.PubMed
138.
go back to reference Clark EM, Tobias JH, Murray L, et al. Children with low muscle strength are at an increased risk of fracture with exposure to exercise. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2011;11(2):196–202.PubMed Clark EM, Tobias JH, Murray L, et al. Children with low muscle strength are at an increased risk of fracture with exposure to exercise. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2011;11(2):196–202.PubMed
139.
go back to reference Popp KL, Hughes JM, Smock AJ, et al. Bone geometry, strength, and muscle size in runners with a history of stress fracture. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(12):2145–50.PubMed Popp KL, Hughes JM, Smock AJ, et al. Bone geometry, strength, and muscle size in runners with a history of stress fracture. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(12):2145–50.PubMed
140.
go back to reference Hoffman JR, Chapnik L, Shamis A, et al. The effect of leg strength on the incidence of lower extremity overuse injuries during military training. Mil Med. 1999;164(2):153–6.PubMed Hoffman JR, Chapnik L, Shamis A, et al. The effect of leg strength on the incidence of lower extremity overuse injuries during military training. Mil Med. 1999;164(2):153–6.PubMed
141.
go back to reference Bohm S, Mersmann F, Arampatzis A. Human tendon adaptation in response to mechanical loading: a systematic review and meta-analysis of exercise intervention studies on healthy adults. Sports Med Open. 2015;1(1):7.PubMedPubMedCentral Bohm S, Mersmann F, Arampatzis A. Human tendon adaptation in response to mechanical loading: a systematic review and meta-analysis of exercise intervention studies on healthy adults. Sports Med Open. 2015;1(1):7.PubMedPubMedCentral
142.
go back to reference Turner AN, Jeffreys I. The stretch-shortening cycle: proposed mechanisms and methods for enhancement. Strength Cond J. 2010;32(4):87–99. Turner AN, Jeffreys I. The stretch-shortening cycle: proposed mechanisms and methods for enhancement. Strength Cond J. 2010;32(4):87–99.
143.
go back to reference Mersmann F, Bohm S, Arampatzis A. Imbalances in the development of muscle and tendon as risk factor for tendinopathies in youth athletes: a review of current evidence and concepts of prevention. Front Physiol. 2017;8:987.PubMedPubMedCentral Mersmann F, Bohm S, Arampatzis A. Imbalances in the development of muscle and tendon as risk factor for tendinopathies in youth athletes: a review of current evidence and concepts of prevention. Front Physiol. 2017;8:987.PubMedPubMedCentral
144.
go back to reference Scott A, Backman LJ, Speed C. Tendinopathy: update on pathophysiology. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2015;45(11):833–41.PubMed Scott A, Backman LJ, Speed C. Tendinopathy: update on pathophysiology. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2015;45(11):833–41.PubMed
145.
go back to reference Kjaer M, Langberg H, Heinemeier K, et al. From mechanical loading to collagen synthesis, structural changes and function in human tendon. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009;19(4):500–10.PubMed Kjaer M, Langberg H, Heinemeier K, et al. From mechanical loading to collagen synthesis, structural changes and function in human tendon. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009;19(4):500–10.PubMed
146.
go back to reference Docking SI, Cook J. How do tendons adapt? Going beyond tissue responses to understand positive adaptation and pathology development: a narrative review. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2019;19(3):300–10.PubMedPubMedCentral Docking SI, Cook J. How do tendons adapt? Going beyond tissue responses to understand positive adaptation and pathology development: a narrative review. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2019;19(3):300–10.PubMedPubMedCentral
147.
go back to reference Ryan M, Bisset L, Newsham-West R. Should we care about tendon structure? The disconnect between structure and symptoms in tendinopathy. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2015;45(11):823–5.PubMed Ryan M, Bisset L, Newsham-West R. Should we care about tendon structure? The disconnect between structure and symptoms in tendinopathy. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2015;45(11):823–5.PubMed
148.
go back to reference Drew BT, Smith TO, Littlewood C, et al. Do structural changes (eg, collagen/matrix) explain the response to therapeutic exercises in tendinopathy: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(12):966–72.PubMed Drew BT, Smith TO, Littlewood C, et al. Do structural changes (eg, collagen/matrix) explain the response to therapeutic exercises in tendinopathy: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(12):966–72.PubMed
149.
go back to reference Cook JL, Rio E, Purdam CR, et al. Revisiting the continuum model of tendon pathology: what is its merit in clinical practice and research? Br J Sports Med. 2016;50(19):1187.PubMed Cook JL, Rio E, Purdam CR, et al. Revisiting the continuum model of tendon pathology: what is its merit in clinical practice and research? Br J Sports Med. 2016;50(19):1187.PubMed
150.
go back to reference Murphy M, Travers M, Gibson W, et al. Rate of Improvement of pain and function in mid-portion achilles tendinopathy with loading protocols: a systematic review and longitudinal meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2018;48(8):1875–91.PubMed Murphy M, Travers M, Gibson W, et al. Rate of Improvement of pain and function in mid-portion achilles tendinopathy with loading protocols: a systematic review and longitudinal meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2018;48(8):1875–91.PubMed
151.
go back to reference Scott A, Docking S, Vicenzino B, et al. Sports and exercise-related tendinopathies: a review of selected topical issues by participants of the second International Scientific Tendinopathy Symposium (ISTS) Vancouver 2012. Br J Sports Med. 2013;47(9):536.PubMed Scott A, Docking S, Vicenzino B, et al. Sports and exercise-related tendinopathies: a review of selected topical issues by participants of the second International Scientific Tendinopathy Symposium (ISTS) Vancouver 2012. Br J Sports Med. 2013;47(9):536.PubMed
152.
go back to reference Geremia JM, Baroni BM, Bobbert MF, et al. Effects of high loading by eccentric triceps surae training on Achilles tendon properties in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2018;118(8):1725–36.PubMed Geremia JM, Baroni BM, Bobbert MF, et al. Effects of high loading by eccentric triceps surae training on Achilles tendon properties in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2018;118(8):1725–36.PubMed
153.
go back to reference Reeves ND, Maganaris CN, Narici MV. Effect of strength training on human patella tendon mechanical properties of older individuals. J Physiol Lond. 2003;548(Pt 3):971–81.PubMedPubMedCentral Reeves ND, Maganaris CN, Narici MV. Effect of strength training on human patella tendon mechanical properties of older individuals. J Physiol Lond. 2003;548(Pt 3):971–81.PubMedPubMedCentral
154.
go back to reference Malliaras P, Barton CJ, Reeves ND, et al. Achilles and patellar tendinopathy loading programmes: a systematic review comparing clinical outcomes and identifying potential mechanisms for effectiveness. Sports Med. 2013;43(4):267–86.PubMed Malliaras P, Barton CJ, Reeves ND, et al. Achilles and patellar tendinopathy loading programmes: a systematic review comparing clinical outcomes and identifying potential mechanisms for effectiveness. Sports Med. 2013;43(4):267–86.PubMed
155.
go back to reference Beyer R, Kongsgaard M, Hougs Kjaer B, et al. Heavy slow resistance versus eccentric training as treatment for achilles tendinopathy: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(7):1704–11.PubMed Beyer R, Kongsgaard M, Hougs Kjaer B, et al. Heavy slow resistance versus eccentric training as treatment for achilles tendinopathy: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(7):1704–11.PubMed
156.
go back to reference Couppé C, Svensson RB, Silbernagel KG, et al. Eccentric or concentric exercises for the treatment of tendinopathies? J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2015;45(11):853–63.PubMed Couppé C, Svensson RB, Silbernagel KG, et al. Eccentric or concentric exercises for the treatment of tendinopathies? J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2015;45(11):853–63.PubMed
157.
go back to reference O’Neill S, Watson PJ, Barry S. Why are eccentric exercises effective for achilles tendinopathy? Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2015;10(4):552–62.PubMedPubMedCentral O’Neill S, Watson PJ, Barry S. Why are eccentric exercises effective for achilles tendinopathy? Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2015;10(4):552–62.PubMedPubMedCentral
158.
go back to reference Suchomel TJ, Wagle JP, Douglas J, et al. Implementing eccentric resistance training—part 1: a brief review of existing methods. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2019;4(2):38.PubMedCentral Suchomel TJ, Wagle JP, Douglas J, et al. Implementing eccentric resistance training—part 1: a brief review of existing methods. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2019;4(2):38.PubMedCentral
159.
go back to reference Suchomel TJ, Wagle JP, Douglas J, et al. Implementing eccentric resistance training—part 2: practical recommendations. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2019;4(3):55.PubMedCentral Suchomel TJ, Wagle JP, Douglas J, et al. Implementing eccentric resistance training—part 2: practical recommendations. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2019;4(3):55.PubMedCentral
160.
go back to reference O’Neill S, Radia J, Bird K, et al. Acute sensory and motor response to 45-s heavy isometric holds for the plantar flexors in patients with Achilles tendinopathy. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2019;27(9):2765–73.PubMed O’Neill S, Radia J, Bird K, et al. Acute sensory and motor response to 45-s heavy isometric holds for the plantar flexors in patients with Achilles tendinopathy. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2019;27(9):2765–73.PubMed
161.
go back to reference Holden S, Lyng K, Graven-Nielsen T, et al. Isometric exercise and pain in patellar tendinopathy: a randomized crossover trial. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019;23(3):208–14. Holden S, Lyng K, Graven-Nielsen T, et al. Isometric exercise and pain in patellar tendinopathy: a randomized crossover trial. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019;23(3):208–14.
162.
go back to reference Gravare Silbernagel K, Vicenzino BT. Isometric exercise for acute pain relief: is it relevant in tendinopathy management? Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(21):1330–1.PubMed Gravare Silbernagel K, Vicenzino BT. Isometric exercise for acute pain relief: is it relevant in tendinopathy management? Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(21):1330–1.PubMed
163.
go back to reference Malliaras P. Understanding mechanisms to improve exercise interventions in tendinopathy. Phys Ther Sport. 2017;27:50–1.PubMed Malliaras P. Understanding mechanisms to improve exercise interventions in tendinopathy. Phys Ther Sport. 2017;27:50–1.PubMed
164.
go back to reference Head J, Mallows A, Debenham J, et al. The efficacy of loading programmes for improving patient-reported outcomes in chronic midportion Achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review. Musculoskelet Care. 2019;17(4):283–99. Head J, Mallows A, Debenham J, et al. The efficacy of loading programmes for improving patient-reported outcomes in chronic midportion Achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review. Musculoskelet Care. 2019;17(4):283–99.
165.
go back to reference Mahieu NN, Witvrouw E, Stevens V, et al. Intrinsic risk factors for the development of achilles tendon overuse injury: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2006;34(2):226–35.PubMed Mahieu NN, Witvrouw E, Stevens V, et al. Intrinsic risk factors for the development of achilles tendon overuse injury: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2006;34(2):226–35.PubMed
166.
go back to reference O’Neill S, Watson PJ, Barry S. A Delphi study of risk factors for achilles tendinopathy—opinions of world tendon experts. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2016;11(5):684–97.PubMedPubMedCentral O’Neill S, Watson PJ, Barry S. A Delphi study of risk factors for achilles tendinopathy—opinions of world tendon experts. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2016;11(5):684–97.PubMedPubMedCentral
167.
go back to reference O’Neill S, Barry S, Watson P. Plantarflexor strength and endurance deficits associated with mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy: the role of soleus. Phys Ther Sport. 2019;37:69–76.PubMed O’Neill S, Barry S, Watson P. Plantarflexor strength and endurance deficits associated with mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy: the role of soleus. Phys Ther Sport. 2019;37:69–76.PubMed
168.
go back to reference McAuliffe S, Tabuena A, McCreesh K, et al. Altered strength profile in achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Athl Train. 2019;54(8):889–900.PubMedPubMedCentral McAuliffe S, Tabuena A, McCreesh K, et al. Altered strength profile in achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Athl Train. 2019;54(8):889–900.PubMedPubMedCentral
169.
go back to reference Peters JA, Zwerver J, Diercks RL, et al. Preventive interventions for tendinopathy: a systematic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;19(3):205–11. Peters JA, Zwerver J, Diercks RL, et al. Preventive interventions for tendinopathy: a systematic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;19(3):205–11.
170.
go back to reference Fredberg U, Bolvig L, Andersen NT. Prophylactic training in asymptomatic soccer players with ultrasonographic abnormalities in Achilles and patellar tendons: the Danish Super League Study. Am J Sports Med. 2008;36(3):451–60.PubMed Fredberg U, Bolvig L, Andersen NT. Prophylactic training in asymptomatic soccer players with ultrasonographic abnormalities in Achilles and patellar tendons: the Danish Super League Study. Am J Sports Med. 2008;36(3):451–60.PubMed
171.
go back to reference Heinemeier KM, Schjerling P, Heinemeier J, et al. Lack of tissue renewal in human adult Achilles tendon is revealed by nuclear bomb (14)C. FASEB J. 2013;27(5):2074–9.PubMedPubMedCentral Heinemeier KM, Schjerling P, Heinemeier J, et al. Lack of tissue renewal in human adult Achilles tendon is revealed by nuclear bomb (14)C. FASEB J. 2013;27(5):2074–9.PubMedPubMedCentral
172.
go back to reference Kubo K, Teshima T, Hirose N, et al. Growth changes in morphological and mechanical properties of human patellar tendon in vivo. J Appl Biomech. 2014;30(3):415–22.PubMed Kubo K, Teshima T, Hirose N, et al. Growth changes in morphological and mechanical properties of human patellar tendon in vivo. J Appl Biomech. 2014;30(3):415–22.PubMed
173.
go back to reference Waugh CM, Blazevich AJ, Fath F, et al. Age-related changes in mechanical properties of the Achilles tendon. J Anat. 2012;220(2):144–55.PubMed Waugh CM, Blazevich AJ, Fath F, et al. Age-related changes in mechanical properties of the Achilles tendon. J Anat. 2012;220(2):144–55.PubMed
174.
go back to reference Behringer M, Vom Heede A, Yue Z, et al. Effects of resistance training in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2010;126(5):e1199–210.PubMed Behringer M, Vom Heede A, Yue Z, et al. Effects of resistance training in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2010;126(5):e1199–210.PubMed
175.
go back to reference Faigenbaum AD, Myer GD. Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44(1):56–63.PubMed Faigenbaum AD, Myer GD. Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44(1):56–63.PubMed
176.
go back to reference Faigenbaum AD, Kraemer WJ, Blimkie CJ, et al. Youth resistance training: updated position statement paper from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(5 Suppl):S60–79.PubMed Faigenbaum AD, Kraemer WJ, Blimkie CJ, et al. Youth resistance training: updated position statement paper from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(5 Suppl):S60–79.PubMed
177.
go back to reference Lloyd RS, Oliver JL. The youth physical development model: a new approach to long-term athletic development. Strength Cond J. 2012;34(3):61–72. Lloyd RS, Oliver JL. The youth physical development model: a new approach to long-term athletic development. Strength Cond J. 2012;34(3):61–72.
178.
go back to reference Jarvinen TA, Jarvinen TL, Kaariainen M, et al. Muscle injuries: biology and treatment. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33(5):745–64.PubMed Jarvinen TA, Jarvinen TL, Kaariainen M, et al. Muscle injuries: biology and treatment. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33(5):745–64.PubMed
179.
go back to reference Santilli V, Bernetti A, Mangone M, et al. Clinical definition of sarcopenia. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2014;11(3):177–80.PubMedPubMedCentral Santilli V, Bernetti A, Mangone M, et al. Clinical definition of sarcopenia. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2014;11(3):177–80.PubMedPubMedCentral
181.
go back to reference Aagaard P, Suetta C, Caserotti P, et al. Role of the nervous system in sarcopenia and muscle atrophy with aging: strength training as a countermeasure. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(1):49–64.PubMed Aagaard P, Suetta C, Caserotti P, et al. Role of the nervous system in sarcopenia and muscle atrophy with aging: strength training as a countermeasure. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(1):49–64.PubMed
182.
go back to reference Tinetti ME. Preventing falls in elderly persons. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(1):42–9.PubMed Tinetti ME. Preventing falls in elderly persons. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(1):42–9.PubMed
183.
go back to reference Pijnappels M, van der Burg PJ, Reeves ND, et al. Identification of elderly fallers by muscle strength measures. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;102(5):585–92.PubMed Pijnappels M, van der Burg PJ, Reeves ND, et al. Identification of elderly fallers by muscle strength measures. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;102(5):585–92.PubMed
184.
go back to reference Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Wilson RS, et al. Association of muscle strength with the risk of Alzheimer disease and the rate of cognitive decline in community-dwelling older persons. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(11):1339–44.PubMedPubMedCentral Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Wilson RS, et al. Association of muscle strength with the risk of Alzheimer disease and the rate of cognitive decline in community-dwelling older persons. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(11):1339–44.PubMedPubMedCentral
185.
go back to reference Ruiz JR, Sui X, Lobelo F, et al. Association between muscular strength and mortality in men: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2008;337:a439.PubMed Ruiz JR, Sui X, Lobelo F, et al. Association between muscular strength and mortality in men: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2008;337:a439.PubMed
186.
go back to reference Goodpaster BH, Park SW, Harris TB, et al. The loss of skeletal muscle strength, mass, and quality in older adults: the health, aging and body composition study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61(10):1059–64.PubMed Goodpaster BH, Park SW, Harris TB, et al. The loss of skeletal muscle strength, mass, and quality in older adults: the health, aging and body composition study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61(10):1059–64.PubMed
187.
go back to reference Garcia-Hermoso A, Cavero-Redondo I, Ramirez-Velez R, et al. Muscular strength as a predictor of all-cause mortality in an apparently healthy population: a systematic review and meta-analysis of data from approximately 2 million men and women. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018;99(10):2100–2113.e5.PubMed Garcia-Hermoso A, Cavero-Redondo I, Ramirez-Velez R, et al. Muscular strength as a predictor of all-cause mortality in an apparently healthy population: a systematic review and meta-analysis of data from approximately 2 million men and women. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018;99(10):2100–2113.e5.PubMed
188.
go back to reference Li R, Xia J, Zhang XI, et al. Associations of muscle mass and strength with all-cause mortality among US older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2018;50(3):458–67.PubMedPubMedCentral Li R, Xia J, Zhang XI, et al. Associations of muscle mass and strength with all-cause mortality among US older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2018;50(3):458–67.PubMedPubMedCentral
189.
go back to reference Avers D, Brown M. White paper: strength training for the older adult. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2009;32(4):148–52, 58. Avers D, Brown M. White paper: strength training for the older adult. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2009;32(4):148–52, 58.
190.
go back to reference Guizelini PC, de Aguiar RA, Denadai BS, et al. Effect of resistance training on muscle strength and rate of force development in healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Exp Gerontol. 2018;102:51–8.PubMed Guizelini PC, de Aguiar RA, Denadai BS, et al. Effect of resistance training on muscle strength and rate of force development in healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Exp Gerontol. 2018;102:51–8.PubMed
191.
go back to reference Moore SA, Hrisos N, Errington L, et al. Exercise as a treatment for sarcopenia: an umbrella review of systematic review evidence. Physiotherapy. 2020;107:189–201.PubMed Moore SA, Hrisos N, Errington L, et al. Exercise as a treatment for sarcopenia: an umbrella review of systematic review evidence. Physiotherapy. 2020;107:189–201.PubMed
192.
go back to reference van der Horst N, Smits DW, Petersen J, et al. The preventive effect of the nordic hamstring exercise on hamstring injuries in amateur soccer players: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(6):1316–23.PubMed van der Horst N, Smits DW, Petersen J, et al. The preventive effect of the nordic hamstring exercise on hamstring injuries in amateur soccer players: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(6):1316–23.PubMed
193.
go back to reference Mueller-Wohlfahrt HW, Haensel L, Mithoefer K, et al. Terminology and classification of muscle injuries in sport: the Munich consensus statement. Br J Sports Med. 2013;47(6):342.PubMed Mueller-Wohlfahrt HW, Haensel L, Mithoefer K, et al. Terminology and classification of muscle injuries in sport: the Munich consensus statement. Br J Sports Med. 2013;47(6):342.PubMed
194.
go back to reference Arnason A, Andersen TE, Holme I, et al. Prevention of hamstring strains in elite soccer: an intervention study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2008;18(1):40–8.PubMed Arnason A, Andersen TE, Holme I, et al. Prevention of hamstring strains in elite soccer: an intervention study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2008;18(1):40–8.PubMed
195.
go back to reference Petersen J, Thorborg K, Nielsen MB, et al. Preventive effect of eccentric training on acute hamstring injuries in Men’s soccer: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39(11):2296–303.PubMed Petersen J, Thorborg K, Nielsen MB, et al. Preventive effect of eccentric training on acute hamstring injuries in Men’s soccer: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39(11):2296–303.PubMed
196.
go back to reference Cuthbert M, Ripley N, McMahon JJ, et al. The effect of nordic hamstring exercise intervention volume on eccentric strength and muscle architecture adaptations: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Sports Med. 2019;50(1):83–99.PubMedCentral Cuthbert M, Ripley N, McMahon JJ, et al. The effect of nordic hamstring exercise intervention volume on eccentric strength and muscle architecture adaptations: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Sports Med. 2019;50(1):83–99.PubMedCentral
197.
go back to reference Bourne MN, Timmins RG, Opar DA, et al. An evidence-based framework for strengthening exercises to prevent hamstring injury. Sports Med. 2018;48(2)251–67.PubMed Bourne MN, Timmins RG, Opar DA, et al. An evidence-based framework for strengthening exercises to prevent hamstring injury. Sports Med. 2018;48(2)251–67.PubMed
198.
go back to reference van Dyk N, Behan FP, Whiteley R. Including the Nordic hamstring exercise in injury prevention programmes halves the rate of hamstring injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 8459 athletes. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(21):1362.PubMed van Dyk N, Behan FP, Whiteley R. Including the Nordic hamstring exercise in injury prevention programmes halves the rate of hamstring injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 8459 athletes. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(21):1362.PubMed
199.
go back to reference Zouita S, Zouita AB, Kebsi W, et al. Strength training reduces injury rate in elite young soccer players during one season. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(5):1295–307.PubMed Zouita S, Zouita AB, Kebsi W, et al. Strength training reduces injury rate in elite young soccer players during one season. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(5):1295–307.PubMed
200.
go back to reference Haroy J, Clarsen B, Wiger EG, et al. The Adductor Strengthening Programme prevents groin problems among male football players: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(3):150–7.PubMed Haroy J, Clarsen B, Wiger EG, et al. The Adductor Strengthening Programme prevents groin problems among male football players: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(3):150–7.PubMed
201.
go back to reference Halson SL. Sleep monitoring in athletes: motivation, methods, miscalculations and why it matters. Sports Med. 2019;49(10):1487–97.PubMed Halson SL. Sleep monitoring in athletes: motivation, methods, miscalculations and why it matters. Sports Med. 2019;49(10):1487–97.PubMed
202.
go back to reference Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behav Res Ther. 1995;33(3):335–43.PubMed Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behav Res Ther. 1995;33(3):335–43.PubMed
203.
go back to reference Smarr KL, Keefer AL. Measures of depression and depressive symptoms: Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2011;63(Suppl 11):S454–66. Smarr KL, Keefer AL. Measures of depression and depressive symptoms: Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2011;63(Suppl 11):S454–66.
205.
go back to reference Foster NE, Hill JC, O’Sullivan P, et al. Stratified models of care. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2013;27(5):649–61.PubMed Foster NE, Hill JC, O’Sullivan P, et al. Stratified models of care. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2013;27(5):649–61.PubMed
206.
go back to reference Appleby BB, Cormack SJ, Newton RU. Specificity and transfer of lower-body strength: influence of bilateral or unilateral lower-body resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(2):318–26.PubMed Appleby BB, Cormack SJ, Newton RU. Specificity and transfer of lower-body strength: influence of bilateral or unilateral lower-body resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(2):318–26.PubMed
208.
go back to reference Morton RW, Colenso-Semple L, Phillips SM. Training for strength and hypertrophy: an evidence-based approach. Curr Opin Physiol. 2019;10:90–5. Morton RW, Colenso-Semple L, Phillips SM. Training for strength and hypertrophy: an evidence-based approach. Curr Opin Physiol. 2019;10:90–5.
209.
go back to reference Martorelli S, Cadore EL, Izquierdo M, et al. Strength training with repetitions to failure does not provide additional strength and muscle hypertrophy gains in young women. Eur J Transl Myol. 2017;27(2):6339.PubMedPubMedCentral Martorelli S, Cadore EL, Izquierdo M, et al. Strength training with repetitions to failure does not provide additional strength and muscle hypertrophy gains in young women. Eur J Transl Myol. 2017;27(2):6339.PubMedPubMedCentral
211.
go back to reference Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J. Does training to failure maximize muscle hypertrophy? Strength Cond J. 2019;41(5):108–13. Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J. Does training to failure maximize muscle hypertrophy? Strength Cond J. 2019;41(5):108–13.
212.
go back to reference Davies T, Orr R, Halaki M, et al. Effect of training leading to repetition failure on muscular strength: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2016;46(4):487–502.PubMed Davies T, Orr R, Halaki M, et al. Effect of training leading to repetition failure on muscular strength: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2016;46(4):487–502.PubMed
213.
go back to reference Stone MH, Sands WA, Carlock J, et al. The importance of isometric maximum strength and peak rate-of-force development in sprint cycling. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(4):878–84.PubMed Stone MH, Sands WA, Carlock J, et al. The importance of isometric maximum strength and peak rate-of-force development in sprint cycling. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(4):878–84.PubMed
214.
go back to reference Androulakis-Korakakis P, Fisher JP, Steele J. The minimum effective training dose required to increase 1RM strength in resistance-trained men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2020;50(4):751–65.PubMed Androulakis-Korakakis P, Fisher JP, Steele J. The minimum effective training dose required to increase 1RM strength in resistance-trained men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2020;50(4):751–65.PubMed
215.
go back to reference Rhea MR, Alvar BA, Burkett LN, et al. A meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength development. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(3):456–64.PubMed Rhea MR, Alvar BA, Burkett LN, et al. A meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength development. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(3):456–64.PubMed
216.
go back to reference Zourdos MC, Klemp A, Dolan C, et al. Novel resistance training-specific rating of perceived exertion scale measuring repetitions in reserve. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(1):267–75.PubMed Zourdos MC, Klemp A, Dolan C, et al. Novel resistance training-specific rating of perceived exertion scale measuring repetitions in reserve. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(1):267–75.PubMed
217.
go back to reference Thompson SW, Rogerson D. The effectiveness of two methods of prescribing load on maximal strength development: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2020;50(5):919–38.PubMed Thompson SW, Rogerson D. The effectiveness of two methods of prescribing load on maximal strength development: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2020;50(5):919–38.PubMed
219.
go back to reference Mann JB, Thyfault JP, Ivey PA, et al. The effect of autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise vs. linear periodization on strength improvement in college athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(7):1718–23.PubMed Mann JB, Thyfault JP, Ivey PA, et al. The effect of autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise vs. linear periodization on strength improvement in college athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(7):1718–23.PubMed
220.
go back to reference Gonzalez-Badillo JJ, Sanchez-Medina L. Movement velocity as a measure of loading intensity in resistance training. Int J Sports Med. 2010;31(5):347–52.PubMed Gonzalez-Badillo JJ, Sanchez-Medina L. Movement velocity as a measure of loading intensity in resistance training. Int J Sports Med. 2010;31(5):347–52.PubMed
221.
go back to reference Picerno P, Iannetta D, Comotto S, et al. 1RM prediction: a novel methodology based on the force-velocity and load-velocity relationships. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(10):2035–43.PubMed Picerno P, Iannetta D, Comotto S, et al. 1RM prediction: a novel methodology based on the force-velocity and load-velocity relationships. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(10):2035–43.PubMed
222.
go back to reference Dorrell HF, Smith MF, Gee TI. Comparison of velocity-based and traditional percentage-based loading methods on maximal strength and power adaptations. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(1):46–53.PubMed Dorrell HF, Smith MF, Gee TI. Comparison of velocity-based and traditional percentage-based loading methods on maximal strength and power adaptations. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(1):46–53.PubMed
224.
go back to reference Weakley J, McLaren S, Ramirez-Lopez C. Application of velocity loss thresholds during free-weight resistance training: responses and reproducibility of perceptual, metabolic, and neuromuscular outcomes. J Sports Sci. 2019;22:1–9. Weakley J, McLaren S, Ramirez-Lopez C. Application of velocity loss thresholds during free-weight resistance training: responses and reproducibility of perceptual, metabolic, and neuromuscular outcomes. J Sports Sci. 2019;22:1–9.
225.
go back to reference Grgic J, Schoenfeld BJ, Latella C. Resistance training frequency and skeletal muscle hypertrophy: a review of available evidence. J Sci Med Sport. 2019;22(3):361–70.PubMed Grgic J, Schoenfeld BJ, Latella C. Resistance training frequency and skeletal muscle hypertrophy: a review of available evidence. J Sci Med Sport. 2019;22(3):361–70.PubMed
226.
go back to reference Androulakis-Korakakis P, Fisher JP, Steele J. The minimum effective training dose required to increase 1RM strength in resistance-trained men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2020;50(4):751–65.PubMed Androulakis-Korakakis P, Fisher JP, Steele J. The minimum effective training dose required to increase 1RM strength in resistance-trained men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2020;50(4):751–65.PubMed
227.
go back to reference Sale DG. Neural adaptation to resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1988;20(5 Suppl):S135–45.PubMed Sale DG. Neural adaptation to resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1988;20(5 Suppl):S135–45.PubMed
228.
go back to reference Damas F, Phillips SM, Lixandrao ME, et al. Early resistance training-induced increases in muscle cross-sectional area are concomitant with edema-induced muscle swelling. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(1):49–56.PubMed Damas F, Phillips SM, Lixandrao ME, et al. Early resistance training-induced increases in muscle cross-sectional area are concomitant with edema-induced muscle swelling. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116(1):49–56.PubMed
229.
go back to reference Maestroni L, Read P, Bishop C, et al. Strength and power training in rehabilitation: underpinning principles and practical strategies to return athletes to high performance. Sports Med. 2020;50(2):239–52.PubMed Maestroni L, Read P, Bishop C, et al. Strength and power training in rehabilitation: underpinning principles and practical strategies to return athletes to high performance. Sports Med. 2020;50(2):239–52.PubMed
230.
go back to reference Physical activity guidelines Advisory Committee. 2018 Physical activity guidelines Advisory Committee scientific report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2018. Physical activity guidelines Advisory Committee. 2018 Physical activity guidelines Advisory Committee scientific report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2018.
231.
go back to reference Bull FC, Groups EW. Physical activity guidelines in the U.K.: review and recommendations. Loughborough: School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University; 2010. Bull FC, Groups EW. Physical activity guidelines in the U.K.: review and recommendations. Loughborough: School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University; 2010.
232.
go back to reference Department of Health. Australia’s physical activity and sedentary behaviour guidelines. Canberra: Department of Health; 2014. Department of Health. Australia’s physical activity and sedentary behaviour guidelines. Canberra: Department of Health; 2014.
233.
go back to reference World Health Organization. Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010. World Health Organization. Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
234.
go back to reference American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2018. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2018.
Metadata
Title
The Benefits of Strength Training on Musculoskeletal System Health: Practical Applications for Interdisciplinary Care
Authors
Luca Maestroni
Paul Read
Chris Bishop
Konstantinos Papadopoulos
Timothy J. Suchomel
Paul Comfort
Anthony Turner
Publication date
01-08-2020
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published in
Sports Medicine / Issue 8/2020
Print ISSN: 0112-1642
Electronic ISSN: 1179-2035
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01309-5

Other articles of this Issue 8/2020

Sports Medicine 8/2020 Go to the issue